AN ASSESSMENT OF ENERGY CONSUMPTION AND CARBON EMISSIONS

RELATED TO URBAN RESIDENTIAL DENSITY IN A DEVELOPING CITY

URBAN ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENTSCHOOL OF ENVIRONMENT, RESOURCES AND DEVELOPMENT

ASIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY17 MAY2010

Nurrohman Wijaya(107753)

INTRODUCTIONBackground

2

Intensive material accompanied by

population growth & physical expansion

Life style and behavior pattern

(indirectly)

Significant Impact to CLIMATE CHANGE

Econom

ic sector

Ecological

systems

Social

sector

Growth of energy use and carbon emissions in urban area

URBAN SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

Understanding the relationship among urban form, energy use &

environmental impacts

INTRODUCTIONStatement of the research

problem

3

Lack of understanding, awareness and

knowledge by local government and citizens

Making the adverse impacts

Limited on quantifying of energy use and carbon

emissions

Difficulty in obtaining city-scale data,

difference between political & functional

city boundaries, major policy

decisions at the national level.

There are many published papers

Fewer studies on effective measures

which incorporate the factors contributing in

local level in urban area

4

Research Questions and ObjectivesThe main objective is to assess energy use and carbon emissions of urban residential density in a developing city context.

INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTIONScope and Limitations

◦ The scope area of the study is urban residential area in Bandung City, Indonesia. The study is conducted on sampling of household survey.

◦ Limitation is only to energy use contributing of carbon emissions in residential sectors from anthropogenic activities.

◦ The assumption is that energy and carbon emissions resulted on transport purpose is getting from gasoline fuel, cooking purpose is from LPG fuel, and electricity purpose is from home appliance and equipments use.

◦ Residential density is calculated on the basis of gross land area referring to the total land area of a residential area.

5

Energy Consumption by Sector Including Biomass in Indonesia

0

100000000

200000000

300000000

400000000

500000000

600000000

700000000

800000000

900000000

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007

Bar

el O

il E

qu

ival

ent Others

Transportatio

Commercial

Household

Industry

Sector

Source: Handbook of Energy and Economic Statistics of Indonesia, 2008

6

Percentage of CO2 Emission from Energy Consumption by Sector in Indonesia, 2007

Source: State of Environment in Indonesia, 2008

Urban Residential Development in Bandung City

Source: Real Estate of Indonesia (REI) of West Java Province, 2008

PeriodNumber of

houses built (unit)

Up to end of 1980 3,240

1981 – 1990 8,829

1991 – 2000 16,743

2001 – 2008 9,344

7

Housing Development by Developers

Expansion of Bandung City in 1906-1987

3035

52.457.7 59.73

3

3.6

3.6 3.6

7

8.8

5.9

6.2 6.2

3.2

3.4

2.1

2.1 2.1

4

4

3.3

3.7 3.7

4.8

5.7

5.6

7.7 7.7

35

30.3

22.714.7 12.6

12.9 9.84.4 4.4 4.4

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

1980 1990 2000 2003 2006

Greenery

Conservation Area

Roads and Rivers

Institutional Area

Military Area

Mixed Use

Industry

Residential Area

Growing up from the inner city to periphery area by following concentric pattern and leads to the development of unplanned urban sprawl.

Map of Bandung City

8

The Features of Three Urban residential Density Areas in Developing City

Contextual attributes

Low Density Area

Medium Density Area

High density area

Gross residential density area

<500 dwelling unit/km2

500-1,000 dwelling unit/km2

>1,000 dwelling unit/km2

Location Periphery/suburban area

Between the center and periphery

Geographical center the city

Shape of land plot

Regular/orderly arranged

Regular/orderly arranged

Irregular/ Unorderly arranged

Land use Mostly residential uses

Mixed use Single use

Planning intervention

Cluster planned Planned Unplanned

Type of residential area

Real Estate/Housing Estate

Grid row pattern housing

“Kampung” or Slums

Resident income

Middle-high income earners

Middle income earners

Low-middle income earners

Note: A traditional kampung is an unplanned residential area, which is organically grown without sufficient development control (Permana et. al., 2008)

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Residential Plots in Low Density Residential Area

Residential Plots in High Density Residential Area

Residential Plots in Medium Density Residential Area 10

Research Concept

Energy Use and Carbon Emissions in Urban Residential Sector

Factors Contributing to Energy Use and Carbon

Emissions

Current Local Government Measures

Socio-Economic Characteristics, Perception and

Response of Citizens

Better and integrated strategies in urban residential sector

- Population Growth- Land Use Change

- Growth of Energy Use

Urban Residential Density(Low, Medium, and High)

CLIMATE CHANGE

Urban Sustainable DevelopmentEnergy Efficiency City in

Urban ResidentialLow Carbon City in Urban Residential

11

Data Analysis Method and Sample SizePrimary data collected through various

approaches. It was mainly obtained from the interview and discussion with public officials. The approaches that used for collecting primary data are: field observation, interview and questionnaire survey.

Secondary data was collected from available reports and publications from the relevant institutions and agencies in Bandung City.

No Target Area District

No of sample

s1 Low Residential

Area Bandung Kidul, Buahbatu 40 HH

2 Medium Residential Area

Antapani, Arcamanik, Bandung Wetan, Cicadas, Lengkong, Margacinta, Rancasari, Sukajadi, Sumur Bandung

100 HH

3 High Residential Area Coblong, Kiara Condong

60 HH

12Total population in Bandung is about 2,100,000 persons, with 420,000 HH

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Multiple Regression Analysis and Conversion Factors

The household survey was evaluating the influencing factors to carbon emission and energy use and find out significant variables.

Standard regression analysis was applied to determine whether which variables should be included as key influencing factors. The dependent variables are amount of carbon emissions and energy use.

To aggregate amount of gasoline, fuel cooking and electric usage into a single carbon dioxide emissions and energy use index, it applies carbon and energy conversion factors.

Energy use described in this study corresponds to the total fuel and electrical energy required for cooking, transport and home appliances used purposes, measured in gigajoules (GJ) or mega joules (MJ). Meanwhile, carbon emissions are measured as total metric ton (tones) of CO2 equivalents (eq.), which is calculated in accordance with IPCC (2007).

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House Building Condition

Building condition

Target area

TotalLow density

area

Medium density

area

High density

areaPermanent 40 100.0

% 97 98.0% 45 75.0% 182

91.5%

Semi-permanent 0 0.0% 1 1.0% 13 21.7% 14 7.0%Not permanent 0 0.0% 1 1.0% 2 3.3% 3 1.5%

Total 40 100.0% 99 100.0

% 60 100.0%

199

100.0%Note: the number of respondents is contained within parentheses;

significance at the 0.000 level.

House building condition in study area has high percentage in permanent condition. The statistical analysis is mentioned that there is significant association between house building condition and urban residential density area.

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House Building Condition

Building condition

Target area

TotalLow density

area

Medium density

area

High density

areaPermanent 40 100.0

% 97 98.0% 45 75.0% 182

91.5%

Semi-permanent 0 0.0% 1 1.0% 13 21.7% 14 7.0%Not permanent 0 0.0% 1 1.0% 2 3.3% 3 1.5%

Total 40 100.0% 99 100.0

% 60 100.0%

199

100.0%Note: the number of respondents is contained within parentheses;

significance at the 0.000 level.

House building condition in study area has high percentage in permanent condition. The statistical analysis is mentioned that there is significant association between house building condition and urban residential density area.

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Profile of Respondents

Status of Respondent in Study AreaMarital Status of Respondent in Study Area

Age Distribution Education of Level

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Household Characteristic in Urban Residential Sector Related to Energy Consumption and Carbon Emission

Type of appliancesHouseholds in percent using appliances (%)Low density

areaMedium density

areaHigh density

areaElectric coffee maker 17.9 6.0 0.0Toaster 71.8 21.0 1.7Refrigerator 100.0 94.0 63.3Microwave 64.1 37.0 0.0Rice cooker 100.0 90.0 78.3Washing machine 94.9 79.0 35.0Water heater and cooler

61.5 33.0 15.0

Pan 35.9 59.0 45.0Air conditioner 43.6 22.0 1.7Television 100.0 100.0 93.3Radio 64.1 74.0 55.0DVD Player 94.9 72.0 45.0Computer 71.8 56.0 11.7Notebook 64.1 53.0 1.7Printer 61.5 49.0 3.3Well pump 35.9 49.0 21.7Telephone 100.0 80.0 25.0Hand phone 100.0 90.0 73.3Electric iron 100.0 91.0 91.7

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Perception of Households in Using Electronic Appliances

ItemsTarget Area

TotalLow Medium

High

Frequency of using cooking appliances*** - More than one time in one day 26 86 34 146- One time in one day 13 13 18 44- Between one/day and one/week 1 1 1 3- One time in one week 0 0 5 5- Less than one time in one week 0 0 1 1

Total 40 100 59 199Attitude for using electronic appliance*- Still connected to power supply every

time3 17 4 24

- Connected if we need 29 58 34 121- Sometime connect and sometime not

connect7 25 22 54

Total 39 100 60 199

*Significant at the level 0.1 or better (p<0.1); **Significant at the level 0.05 or better (p<0.05); ***Significant at the level 0.01 or better (p<0.01)

Mostly the respondents are using electronic appliances more than one time in one day. In addition, there is significant correlation between frequency of suing electronic appliances and different urban residential density area. Majority respondents answer that they will use the appliances when they need. The attitude and behavior of respondents using electronic appliances will contribute to energy consumption and carbon emission in urban residential sector.

Relationship between Carbon Emissions and Energy Use◦There is association between residential density with new urban development, particularly emerging as a primary issue for rigorous energy and environmental analyses (Newman and Kenworthy, 1999 & Gurin, 2003)

◦Norman (2006) showed that low-density suburban development is more energy and GHG intensive than high-density urban core development on a per capita basis.

◦The finding of ANOVA analysis of carbon emission and energy use in urban residential density is significantly associated.

◦It can be explained that there is significant contribution carbon emission and energy use related to urban residential development.

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Single-factor ANOVA Analysis of Carbon Emission and Energy Use in Urban Residential Density Areas

AspectSource of Variation

Sum of Square (SS)

Degree of

Freedom

Mean Square (MS)

F statistic

Significant

level

Carbon emission

Between GroupWithin GroupTotal

51,291,452.018

379,288,394.468

430,579,846.486

2197199

25,645,726.009

1,925,321.799

13.320

0.000

Energy use

Between GroupWithin GroupTotal

441,552,710.839

951,501,695.554

1.393E9

2197199

220,776,355.420

4,829,957.845

45.710

0.000

• Residents who live in different of urban residential density area behave differently with respect to carbon emission and energy consumption.

• Carbon emission and energy use have significance difference with three types of urban residential density area.

• Urban residential density form has an influence on energy consumption and carbon emissions.

Energy Use at Household Level in Urban Residential Density

The average total of energy consumption in study area is dominated by transport energy (2,338.48 MJ/HH/month). Energy consumption in low density area is higher than medium and high density area.

Source: Household survey, 2009

Low density area

Medium den-sity area

High density area

Trans-port

3905.44 1909.36 1372.84

Cooking 1056.81 907.63 622.07

Electricity 1303.2 942.71 609.01

250.00

1,250.00

2,250.00

3,250.00

4,250.00

Ave

rag

e E

ne

rgy C

on

su

mp

tio

n

(MJ/

HH

/Mo

nth

)

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Carbon Emission at Household Level in Urban Residential Density

The total average of carbon emission in study area is dominated from electricity used by residents (1,646.69 tonCO2eq/HH/month). Low density area has high number of carbon emission in every activities.

Low density area

Medium den-sity area

High density area

Trans-portation

218.12 106.64 76.67

Cooking 34.09 29.28 20.07

Electricity 2346.12 1697.15 1096.39

250.00

750.00

1,250.00

1,750.00

2,250.00

Ave

rag

e C

arb

on

Co

nsu

mp

tio

n

(to

nC

O2

eq

/HH

/Mon

th)

Source: Household survey, 2009

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Result of Significant Factors Influencing Carbon Emissions

*Significant at the 0.05 level or better (p<0.05); **Significant at the 0.01 level or better (p<0.01)

No. Independent variables Coefficients

t-value

Significant level

1 Electricity using (kWH) 3.894 6.132 0.000**2 Electricity cost 0.005 4.064 0.000**3 Condition of public transport 466.299 3.577 0.000**4 Total household members in low

education level -92.550 -2.625 0.009**

5 Total household members in compulsory educational level 33.139 2.209 0.028*

6 Expenditure level more than IDR 2,000,000 -254.242 -3.443 0.001**

7 Number of car 106.744 2.422 0.016*8 Awareness to energy efficiency 232.656 2.068 0.040*

Adjusted R2 0.937F-test 331.505 0.000

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Measures DescriptionUrban greening program

Regulated by the National Act No 26/2007 on Spatial Planning that every city should provide a minimum of 30% open spaces of the total area.

The One Million Trees ProgramEnergy saving program

In the national level policies, under the Ministry of Resources and Energy by providing lamp that can increase energy safety in the house and also campaign to turn off the electricity if it is not used anymore.

Mass transportation and reduce private vehicles

The Government of Bandung City is planning to establish a bus lane called the Trans Metro Bandung (TMB).

Gasification of cooking fuel

Changing kerosene use to LPG. This program is targeted especially for the low-income people who mostly use kerosene for their cooking stove.

Urban planning The city’s plan is formulated under the Spatial Plan of Bandung City 2003-2013.

Urban design policies (building codes/ regulations)

Government of Bandung City has also formulated several building regulations.

Current Policies in Residential Sector

Potential Measures in Different Urban Residential Density Areas

Response to Potential Measures

High Density

Area

Medium Density

Area

Low Density

Area

- Type of housing- Status of housing- Condition of public

transport- Number of

vehicles- Electricity cost- Transportation

cost- Awareness of

respondents- Gender

perspective

Regulatory measure

- Land use planning *** ** *- Building design

and standard*** ** *

Economic measure

- Financial incentives *** ** **- Tax incentives *** ** **- Subsidies *** ** *Suasive measure

- Awareness campaign

*** ** **

- Public education *** ** ***Low; **Average; ***Strong

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Three main kinds of Environmental Management Measures (EMM) are considered as a response to key influencing factors, current policies and respondents respond.

ConclusionsIt can be found that high density area has generated

much lower energy use and carbon emission rather than low and medium density area. Thus, the behavior and attitude of consumers of residents in different type of residential density areas have influenced the energy use and carbon emission.

In general, factors contributing to carbon emission are energy use, public transport, and individual factor. In addition, factors contributing to energy use are energy use, housing factor, and individual factor.

There are several potential measures which address on key influencing factors and respondent responds for each type of environmental management measures, such as urban land use planning and building standards, financial incentives, subsidies and awareness campaign. 26

Recommendations It needs integrated public transport by

considering quantity and quality, especially in low density suburban area, and improvement the condition of high density area to build high rise building such as apartment, multi-stories low cost building, etc. by considering the availability of facilities and better environment.

An Approach to Energy Efficient City and Low Carbon City Related to Urban Residential Sector◦ Integrating energy efficiency and carbon

emission in spatial planning measure.◦ Encouraging financial incentives in term of

green energy and building.◦ Promoting public education to citizen about

energy efficiency and carbon emission reduction to local authorities and citizens with purpose to enhance awareness and knowledge.

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Towards Energy Efficient City and Low Carbon City Related to Urban Residential Density in A Developing City

Energy Efficiency City

and Low

Carbon City

THANK YOU FOR YOUR ATTENTION

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