an analysis of paraphrasing strategies employed by...
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AN ANALYSIS OF PARAPHRASING STRATEGIES
EMPLOYED BY THAI EFL STUDENTS: CASE STUDY OF
BURAPHA UNIVERSITY
RUNGAROON INJAI
A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE
REQUIREMENTS FOR THE MASTER DEGREE OF ARTS
IN ENGLISH FOR COMMUNICATION
THE FACULTY OF HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES
BURAPHA UNIVERSITY
NOVEMBER 2015
COPYRIGHT OF BURAPHA UNIVERSITY
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Firstly, I would like to express my sincerest gratitude and highest
appreciation to my advisor, Dr. Suchada Rattanawanitpun for the continuous support
of my M.A. study, for her patience, motivation, and immense knowledge. I have been
provided a great opportunity and guidance all the time of research and writing of this
thesis. Sincere gratitude is also conveyed to Asst. Prof. Dr. Jiraporn Intrasai, and Asst.
Prof. Dr. Somboon Chetchumlong for all of their comments and suggestions. Deep
appreciation is offered to all experts involved in the process of validating the data
analysis, Dr. Denchai Prabjandee, Asst. Prof. Dr. Sukanya Kaowiwattanakul,
Mr. Peter Maurice O’Neill, and Mr. Nigel Roy Starkey.
I would like to express my highest appreciation to the University of Phayao
for the opportunity of taking further study on master degree. My gratitude also goes to
all lecturers in the Department of Western Languages at Burapha University and
University of Phayao for their motivation and advice to complete my study. Great
respect always goes to my beloved parents for a huge inspiration and intimacy
throughout my thesis. Special thanks are also given to my close friends
Mr. Rutthaphak Huttayavilaiphan, Mr. Anakpong Taewpo, and Miss Srisuda Patjan
who help and stand beside me all the time.
Lastly, I have to offer special thanks to all my classmates at Burapha
University for their friendship especially for my lovely senior Miss Kawita
Sitthanakul. Thank you for all encouraging moments.
Rungaroon Injai
54910112: สาขาวชา: ภาษาองกฤษเพอการสอสาร; ศศ.ม. (ภาษาองกฤษเพอการสอสาร) ค าส าคญ: การถอดความ/ กลวธการถอดความ/ ภาษาองกฤษ/ มหาวทยาลยบรพา
รงอรณ อนใจ: การศกษากลวธการถอดความภาษาองกฤษทใชโดยนกศกษาไทยผใชภาษาองกฤษเปนภาษาตางประเทศ: กรณศกษามหาวทยาลยบรพา (AN ANALYSIS OF PARAPHRASING STRATEGIES EMPLOYED BY THAI EFL STUDENTS: CASE STUDY OF BURAPHA UNIVERSITY) คณะกรรมการควบคมวทยานพนธ: สชาดา รตนวาณชยพนธ, Ph.D. 76 หนา. ป พ.ศ. 2558.
การวจยครงนมวตถประสงคเพอศกษาประเภทของกลวธการถอดความภาษาองกฤษของกลมนสตผใชภาษาองกฤษในฐานะภาษาตางประเทศ ทงยงศกษาวเคราะหในสวนของประเภทของการถอดความทพบในงานเขยน กลมตวอยางในการวจยครงน คอ นสตสาขาภาษาองกฤษ ชนปท 3 ซงลงทะเบยนในรายวชา เทคนคการจดบนทกและการยอความ ในปการศกษาท 1/2557 จ านวน 60 คน เครองมอทในการวจยครงนไดแก บททดสอบการใชกลวธการถอดความ ซงแบงออกเปน 2 ระดบ คอ ระดบประโยค และระดบอนเฉท การเกบขอมลไดจากการท าแบบทดสอบในการถอดความภาษาองกฤษ ระดบประโยค ทงหมด 15 ประโยค และระดบอนเฉท ทงหมด 5 ยอหนา จากกลมตวอยาง ขอมลทไดถกน ามาวเคราะหในสวนของกลวธในการถอดความทใชมากทสดในแตละระดบของขอสอบ
ผลการวจยปรากฏวา นสตมการใช ค าศพทเหมอน (Synonyms) มากทสดคดเปนรอยละ 51.23% รองลงมาไดแก กลวธการเปลยนโครงสรางประโยค คดเปนรอยละ 20.57% และ กลวธการสลบต าแหนงค า 6.26% ตามล าดบ ขณะเดยวกนพบวา กลวธทใชนอยทสดไดแก กลวธการเปลยนตวเลขและคาเปอรเซนต รวมทง กลวธการแยกสวนประโยคยาวใหเปนประโยคสน คดเปนรอยละ0.87% และ 1.10% ตามล าดบ การเปรยบเทยบผลการวจยทไดในสวนของกลวธทใชในระดบประโยคและระดบอนเฉทพบวามการใชกลวธคลายกน โดยพบ นสตใช กลวธการใชค าศพทเหมอน (Synonyms) มากทสด ตามดวย กลวธการเปลยนโครงสรางประโยค ในสวนของประเภทของการถอดความทพบ ผลการวจยชใหเหนชดเจนวา การจดหมวดหมของการถอดความของนกศกษาอยในประเภท “ใกลเคยงตนฉบบ” หรอ “Near copy” (54.32%) “การเปลยนค าบางสวน” (34.09%) และ ประเภท “การถอดความโดยใชภาษาตนเอง” คดเปนรอยละ 6.93% ตามล าดบ
V
54910112: MAJOR: ENGLISH FOR COMMUNICATION; M.A.
(ENGLISH FOR COMMUNICATION)
KEYWORDS: PARAPHRASE/ PARAPHRASING STRATEGIES/ ENGLISH/
BURAPHA UNIVERSITY
RUNGAROON INJAI: AN ANALYSIS OF PARAPHRASING
STRATEGIES EMPLOYED BY THAI EFL STUDENTS: CASE STUDY OF
BURAPHA UNIVERSITY. ADVISORY COMMITTEE: SUCHADA
RUTTANAWANITPUN, Ph.D. 76 P. 2015.
The present study aimed to investigate the use of paraphrasing strategies
among university students and to analyze the taxonomy of paraphrase types that was
found in students’ paraphrased versions. The data for this study were collected from
60 English major students who enrolled in the course of Note Taking and
Summarizing. The research instrument was a test of paraphrasing strategies which
was divided into sentence and paragraph levels. The participants were assigned to
paraphrase 15 sentences and 5 paragraphs. The frequency of occurrences of
paraphrasing strategies used was presented in the form of percentages.
The findings of the study indicated that students used synonyms with the
highest frequency (51.23%), followed by using varied sentence structures (20.57%)
and changing word order (6.26%), respectively. Also, it was shown that the strategies
of changing numbers and percentages, and separating long sentence to short sentences
were rarely used, with proportion of 0.87 and 1.10 percent, respectively. The results
revealed that the use of paraphrasing strategies at sentence and paragraph levels were
similar. At both levels, students used synonyms at the highest frequency, followed by
varied sentence structures. In terms of paraphrasing types, it has been clearly seen that
students’ paraphrased versions were “Near copy” with the highest percentage
(54.32%), followed by “Minimal revision” (34.09%), and “Substantial revision”
(6.93%).
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CONTENTS
Page
ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................. iv
CONTENTS .................................................................................................................. vi
LIST OF TABLES ...................................................................................................... viii
LIST OF FIGURE......................................................................................................... ix
CHAPTER
1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................. 1
Statement and significance of the problems ............................................... 1
Purposes of the study ................................................................................. 4
Objectives ................................................................................................... 4
Research questions ...................................................................................... 4
Contribution to knowledge ......................................................................... 4
Limitation ................................................................................................... 5
Delimitation ................................................................................................ 5
Definition of terms ..................................................................................... 5
2 LITERATURE REVIEWS................................................................................. 9
Definitions of paraphrase ........................................................................... 9
The importance of paraphrase .................................................................. 11
Paraphrasing strategies ............................................................................. 12
Paraphrase identification (Types of paraphrase) ..................................... 18
ESL and EFL University students with problems of paraphrasing .......... 21
Related studies .......................................................................................... 24
3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY.................................................................... 29
Participants ............................................................................................... 29
Instruments ............................................................................................... 29
Procedure for data collection and strategies classification ....................... 31
Statistics used for data analysis ................................................................ 34
CONTENTS (CONTINUED)
CHAPTER Page
4 RESULTS ....................................................................................................... 36
Frequency of occurrences of paraphrasing strategies
used by students ........................................................................................ 37
Paraphrasing strategies used at sentence and paragraph levels ................ 39
Paraphrasing strategies used among students with different levels of
paraphrasing ability ................................................................................. 42
Taxonomy of paraphrase types found in students’ paraphrased
versions ..................................................................................................... 45
5 CONCLUSION AND DISCUSSION............................................................. 47
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................ 58
APPENDICES ............................................................................................................. 61
Appendix A ........................................................................................................... 62
Appendix B ........................................................................................................... 67
Appendix C ........................................................................................................... 69
Appendix D ........................................................................................................... 71
BIOGRAPHY .............................................................................................................. 76
vii
LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
1 Framework of paraphrasing strategies .................................................................... 17
2 Taxonomy of paraphrase types ............................................................................... 20
3 Criteria for appropriate paraphrase ......................................................................... 21
4 Framework of paraphrasing strategies .................................................................... 30
5 Taxonomy of paraphrase types ............................................................................... 33
6 Frequency of occurrences of paraphrasing strategies used by students............... 37
7 Number of students grouped by level of paraphrasing ability .......................... 42
8 The use of paraphrasing strategies among low, moderate, and high ability
students ...................................................................................................................... 44
9 Taxonomy of paraphrase types found in students’ paraphrased versions .......... 45
LIST OF FIGURE
Figure Page
1 A comparison between paraphrasing strategies used at sentence
and paragraph levels .................................................................................................. 39
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Statement and significance of the problems
In the educational world, students who learn both English as a foreign
language (EFL) and English as a second language (ESL) are normally required to
complete several types of assignments including research, report, essay and even
examination. In order to demonstrate good competence and understanding of
particular assignments, writing skill is considered as a necessary factor (Bailey, 2011;
Veit, Gould, & Clifford, 1994). It has been clearly seen that writing is the most
important skill which is highly required to reinforce students’ achievement. As
Campbell (1990) mentioned, one’s academic writing ability can lead to academic
success. Moreover, good writing skills are needed for academic success and also
perceived as a prerequisite for many careers (Madhavi, 2013).
Specifically, the performance of integrating source material appropriately is
a crucial part of successful academic writing (Campbell, 1990; Khrismawan &
Widiati, 2013). Apparently, many researchers have paid much attention to the skills of
paraphrasing. It is not surprising that numerous researchers have focused their efforts
on the study of paraphrasing among ESL and EFL students. All researchers realized
that the findings from such investigation resulted in the improvement of both
students’ writing and paraphrasing ability. As Bark and Watts (2001), Campbell
(1990) and Shi (2012) mentioned, many academic English instructors recognize that
quoting, paraphrasing and summarizing skills are the most essential strategies for
students in a real academic context. Precisely, paraphrasing is one of the most
important writing techniques of English learners (Dung, 2010).
Based on Webster’s New World Dictionary (1994), paraphrase is defined as
“a rewording of the meaning expressed in something spoken or written” (p. 980). In
general, paraphrasing has been found to be a natural language application; however,
the present study focused on paraphrasing in the writing basis. A number of studies
have defined the term paraphrase. Paraphrasing is the rewriting of sentences in the
writer’s own words while preserving the original meaning (McCarthy, Guess, &
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McNamara, 2009). All in all, paraphrase is a method of expressing the same
information from the original text in a different way.
Considering at the usefulness of paraphrasing, the role of paraphrase has
been considered as the most valuable skill for students learning both EFL and ESL
contexts. It has provided many advantages for students particularly on an academic
basis. The Higher Score (2007) at EC English language center suggests that
paraphrasing skills are useful when students take standardized examinations such as
TOEFL, IELTS and TOEIC tests. In addition, paraphrasing plays an essential role for
students when taking note during lectures as well as when reading and the skill of
paraphrase can enhance learners’ overall comprehension. Besides, integrating
evidence from different kinds of source materials will not be successful without
paraphrasing. (Booth College’s, 2012 Guidelines for Summarizing and Paraphrasing)
To avoid plagiarism, most importantly, paraphrasing is also considered as an
alternative.
According to the significance of paraphrase, an abundance of studies
regarding learners’ paraphrasing has been carried out for decades. Keck (2006)
investigated the use of paraphrase in summary writing based on the comparison of
first language (L1) and second language (L2) writers. In addition to the study of Shi
(2012), rewriting and paraphrasing source texts in second language writing were
conducted. Furthermore, Dung (2010) attempted to determine how Vietnamese
students of English paraphrased in academic writing. Some other researchers
concerned on the effect of teaching paraphrasing strategies (Choy & Lee, 2012; Choy,
Lee, & Sedhu, 2014; Madhavi, 2013).
As found in research findings, many researchers realized that the inability to
paraphrase is one of the major problems faced by EFL and ESL students. Students
had limited ability to paraphrase (Choy & Lee, 2012; Ismail & Maasum, 2009). From
the study of Keck (2006), it has been found that L2 writers frequently used “Near
copy” more than L1 writers. Near copy is defined as a paraphrase version which
contains 50% of words or more from the original text. Moreover, the result from
interviewing 48 students by Shi (2012) revealed that the way to paraphrase in order to
avoid plagiarism is difficult for L2 students to understand.
3
Noticeably, EFL and ESL students can learn English proficiently and can
achieve their academic success if the abilities of them in paraphrasing are
continuously improved (McCarthy, Guess, & McNamara, 2009). Thus, the
performance of paraphrasing efficiently can manifest students’ competence on
English as their target language.
However, the problem of students’ paraphrasing causes serious effect on
several parts. From the problems mentioned above, these phenomena cause failure in
students’ writing paper; most of their work could not perceive as an appropriate one
(Khrismawan & Widiati, 2013; Liao & Tseng, 2010). When students have insufficient
skills to paraphrase, the effectiveness of work is totally decreased. Obviously, this has
been one of students’ obstacles in academic writing and ability to express themselves.
Eventually, the act of plagiarism can become a harmful factor for some students
regarding higher education (Dung, 2010; McInnis, 2009). The main reason is because
students tend to copy the original passage when they are not able to paraphrase.
In Thailand, similar with other EFL and ESL students’ situation, Thai
students are familiarized with the instruction involving memorizing (Tananuraksakul,
2000). Obviously, the ability to paraphrase effectively has been a serious problem
among Thai students and university students for decades. Based on the significance of
problems, the best way to determine Thai university students’ problem of
paraphrasing is to investigate the actual paraphrased texts written by students. The
solution can be successful if the instructors perceive individual’s weak points and the
way they generate their own paraphrase. Since there are few studies investigating
students’ use of paraphrasing strategies in Thai context, the current study attempts to
examine what types of paraphrasing strategies Thai university students employed.
Also, in-depth study of the strategies used among students who have low, moderate,
and high paraphrasing ability will be analyzed.
The findings will clearly reveal students’ performance of paraphrasing and
will also shed light on how to paraphrase effectively by high ability students. Besides,
this research finding can be helpful in terms of instruction improvement for students
who have insufficient ability in term of language awareness and linguistic knowledge.
Apart from that, this study also provides a framework of paraphrasing strategies that
is suitable for university students.
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Purposes of the study
This study aimed to investigate paraphrasing strategies employed by English
major students when dealing with paraphrasing tasks at both sentence and paragraph
levels. The difference of strategies used was also analyzed, followed by the
classification of students’ paraphrased versions.
Objectives
1. To investigate the use of paraphrasing strategies among Thai EFL
university students.
2. To compare the students’ paraphrasing strategies used between sentence
and paragraph levels.
3. To determine a difference of using paraphrasing strategies among
students with low, moderate, and high paraphrasing ability.
4. To classify types of students’ paraphrased versions.
Research questions
1. What types of paraphrasing strategies do Thai university students employ
in paraphrasing tasks?
2. Are there any differences between strategies used at the level of sentence
and paragraph of paraphrased versions?
3. What are the differences between paraphrasing strategies used among
students with different level of paraphrasing ability?
4. Which type of paraphrase was found in students’ paraphrased versions?
Contribution to knowledge
The current study aimed at examining the use of paraphrasing strategies
among Thai EFL university students. The findings from this research would
contribute to second language pedagogy, especially on the scope of paraphrasing
skills. On the basis of pedagogical implications, this study would provide practical
framework of paraphrasing strategies that is suitable for the level of university.
Obviously, students can utilize this framework as their guidelines when they
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paraphrase. For the part of instructors, teachers could have a better understanding of
students who have restricted ability in paraphrasing and could find ways to enhance
students’ performance of paraphrasing effectively. The findings were also useful in
the basis of curriculum adjusting and developing since the result will reveal the
difference ways of paraphrasing among students who have low, moderate, and high
paraphrasing ability. Thus, the instructors could resolve mistakes for restricted
students with appropriate solutions in order to enhance their paraphrasing skills.
Limitation
This study attempted to explore paraphrasing strategies used by EFL
university students when handling with paraphrasing tasks at both sentence and
paragraph levels. Grammatical errors and other personal factors including the
participants’ age and gender would not be included in this study.
Delimitation
Thai EFL university students were third-year English major students at
Burapha University who enrolled in the course of Note Taking and Summarizing.
They all learned about how to paraphrase in this course, so they were considered as
the purposive sample. Moreover, all students have studied similar courses and have
experienced in English with the same period of time. The participants were also
accessed by the same raters or examiners.
Definition of terms
1. Paraphrase is the way of rewriting sentence in a different form without
changing the original meaning. Also, based on the Webster’s New World Dictionary
(1994) defined paraphrase as “a rewording of the meaning expressed in something
spoken or written”
2. Paraphrasing strategies are the strategies students employ to generate their
own paraphrase at both sentence and paragraph levels. Words other than strategy are
found in various definitions of the term paraphrasing strategies. Some of which are
paraphrasing techniques or even paraphrasing methods. In this paper, however, the
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term “paraphrasing strategy” will be used. They are categorized into three main types
(adapted from Pieterick’s framework, as cited in Dung, 2010).
2.1 Syntactic paraphrase is the paraphrase that involves with changing
structure and grammar of the original texts which comprise the followings:
2.1.1 Changing active to passive is the way of changing an active
voice sentence into its passive form.
2.1.2 Changing positive to negative is the way of altering a positive
expression into a negative form, or a negative expression into a positive form.
2.1.3 Separating long sentence to short sentence is the strategy
students use when break up long sentence into smaller ones or separate sentences.
2.1.4 Expanding phrase for clarity is how to clarify some phrases in
the original sentence to be more obvious.
2.1.5 Condensing the original is the way of restating some phrases into
a short form.
2.1.6 Combining sentences is the strategy that used when combining
short sentences with other short sentences.
2.1.7 Using varied sentence structure is how to use varied sentence
patterns or express in a new structure when dealing with paraphrasing task.
2.2 Semantic Paraphrase is the paraphrase that involves with changing
words in the original sentence as follows:
2.2.1 Changing word order is the way students alter the order of clause
when the original sentence has two or more clauses.
2.2.2 Changing parts of speech is how to change some of the words in
the original sentence into different parts of speech.
2.2.3 Using synonyms is how to replace the exist vocabulary with
another word that has the same meaning.
2.2.4 Changing number and percentage are how to replace a value in
the original sentence with a number or a percentage form by preserving the equivalent
value.
2.3 Organization paraphrase is the paraphrase that involves changing
structure of idea inside paragraph.
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3. A test of paraphrasing strategies is the task given to all participants in
order to investigate the use of paraphrasing strategies. The participants were asked to
generate their paraphrased versions from the original at both sentence and paragraph
levels. There were 15 sentences and 5 paragraphs. The length of paragraph was from
5 to 8 sentences. The content of each item at paragraph level was neutral discussing
with the topic of sport, technology and living things.
4. Thai EFL university students were the 3rd
year students of Burapha
University majoring in English who enrolled in the course of Note Taking and
Summarizing. They have studied English with the same amount of time and number
of courses in the university.
5. Students’ paraphrasing ability refers to the evaluation of scores graded
from the professional rater by using the criteria of good paraphrase. There were five
points provided for each item. Finally, students’ total scores were analyzed and
divided into the level of low, moderate, and high paraphrasing ability.
6. Types of paraphrased versions were the classification of students’
paraphrased versions regarding a number of copying words or unique link that was
found in the paraphrased versions. The taxonomy of paraphrase types was adopted
form Keck (2014) which are “Near Copy, Minimal Revision, Moderate Revision and
Substantial Revision”.
6.1 Near Copy is type of paraphrased version that contains 50% or more
of words from the original text.
6.2 Minimal Revision is type of paraphrased version that contains 20-
49% of words from the original text.
6.3 Moderate Revision is type of paraphrased version that contains 1-
19% of words from the original text.
6.4 Substantial Revision is type of paraphrased version that contains no
words from the original text.
7. Unique link, according to Keck (2014), is defined as:
Individual lexical words (e.g., nouns, verbs, adjectives, or adverbs)
Strings of words that are copied exactly from original excerpts
Strings of words that are unique and are not occurred in other place in the
original text
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8. Criteria for good paraphrase (adapted from McInnis, 2009; Sorenson,
1995) was employed to examine the appropriateness and quality of students’
paraphrased versions. Each criterion scores one point, so it can be seen that good
paraphrase will be graded five points for each item. There were five qualifications
mainly included in the criteria which were the followings:
8.1 Preserving original meaning
Include all important ideas
Meaning is the same as in the original
All key points are retained
8.2 Avoiding participants’ opinion stressing
Do not add participant’s own view
Do not stress any single point
8.3 Using appropriate synonyms
Replace words with appropriate meaning
8.4 Changing word form
Word form is altered properly
8.5 Changing sentence structure
Do not copy the exact sentence from the original
Sufficient syntactical shift
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CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEWS
This chapter discussed the related literature that involve in the current study.
The first part was the general information of paraphrase. The role of paraphrase would
be followed within a scope of why paraphrase is important. After that, the chapter
focused on strategies for effective paraphrase. The problems of university students
with paraphrasing were also considered. In the last part, related studies would be
presented.
Definitions of paraphrase
The definitions of paraphrase have been defined by numerous scholars,
educators, linguists and also researchers. The following definitions would be mainly
involved with paraphrasing in academic writing basis.
As an overall, a reproducing of sentences or statements by preserving the
same meaning as in the original is the meaning of paraphrase. Based on the Webster’s
New World Dictionary (1994), paraphrase was defined as “a rewording of the
meaning expressed in something spoken or written”. Moreover, Bhagat and Hovy
(2013) proposed that paraphrases were sentences or phrases that convey the same
meaning using different wording.
In linguistics field, a detailed definition of paraphrase has been found.
McCarthy et al, (2009) stated the definition of paraphrase as the rephrasing of
sentences while essentially keeping their meaning the same they were in the original.
They also suggested that two sentences were paraphrases if their meanings were
equivalent but their words and syntax were different. Likewise, De Beaugrande and
Dressler (1981) also defined paraphrase as approximate conceptual equivalence
among externally different material. According to many writers, paraphrasing is
taking someone else’s ideas and put them into one’s own words. This can be done for
a sentence, a paragraph, or a longer passage (Leki, 1995; Murray, 2012; Sorenson,
1995).
10
In writers’ overview, it can be seen that they mainly concern paraphrasing
on how to integrate source material. Veit, Gould and Clifford (1994) stated that to
paraphrase means to rewrite a piece of source of material in one’s own way but still
retain all the ideas found in the piece of source materials. In paraphrasing the exact
meaning of the source is kept, but the expressions are changed. The skill of
paraphrasing needs understanding the source and being able to express it in different
ways.
A number of writing centers, similarly, also explained the meaning of
paraphrase which was used in writing research paper. One definition from
Leibensperger (2003), Academic center at University of Houston-Victoria, a
paraphrase is a detailed restatement in one’s own words of a written or sometimes
spoken source material. Apart from the changes in organization, wording, and
sentence structure, the paraphrase should be nearly identical in meaning to the
original passage. It should also be near the same length as the original passage and
present the details of the original.
In the same way, Shi (2012) stated that paraphrasing presents a spoken,
written or visual text, keeping the same meaning, but using different words.
Paraphrasing is used with short sections of text such as phrases and sentences and
may longer, rather than shorter, version of the originals. Besides, Driscoll and Brizee
(2012) from the Purdue Online Writing Lab mention the meanings of paraphrasing as
a new form of the interpretation of main idea and important information expressed by
the original.
In conclusion, paraphrase, from a number of definitions, is a process of
rewriting, restating, rewording or even rephrasing of sentences that convey the
meaning as equal as in the original. The paraphrased sentences are semantically
equivalent but syntactically different. Since semantic equivalence is hard to define, in
term of linguistics, “quasi-paraphrase” is broadly accepted in this sense (Bhagat &
Hovy, 2013). Obviously, the ability to paraphrase could stand for one’s performance
and competence because it highly requires good understanding of the original source
before doing paraphrase.
11
The importance of paraphrase
Regarding the significance of paraphrase, it has been perceived as an
indispensable skill for students in higher education. Since the ability to paraphrase
effectively can lead EFL and also ESL students to their academic success. By
asserting from many college writing centers (Booth College, 2012; Higher Score,
2007), journals and articles, paraphrasing obviously provides massive advantages in
academic basis. The importance of paraphrase will be concisely presented as follows.
Regarding comprehension, paraphrasing helps students improve their own
understanding and interpretation of a text they have read. For academic classes, if
students can paraphrase something, it can imply that those students understand such a
difficult text. Learners, thus, can prove the mastery to the professor by submitting an
acceptable paraphrase. Moreover, it also helps students to accumulate more new
vocabulary; the rank of their vocabulary will be expanded as well. It is because
students often have an opportunity to use new words as a synonymous
(Leibensperger, 2003; Booth College Writing Center, 2012).
Regarding how to integrate sources, paraphrase is considered as the most
essential tool in doing so. According to McInnis (2009), integrating evidence from
any kinds of source materials cannot succeed without paraphrasing. Apart from being
an important tool, it prevents all written paper from the issue of plagiarism-- using
someone else’s idea without giving credit to the owner. In the same way, students can
avoid taking plagiarism that normally causes seriousness for higher education and
also can produce an acceptable academic paper at one time.
Concerning second language acquisition, paraphrasing is useful for several
reasons. Firstly, it plays an essential role for note making from reading and note
taking in lectures that can enhance learners’ comprehension. Secondly, students can
be supportive by using paraphrase when they need to explain information in charts,
tables and diagrams (Loh, 2013). Finally, for exam preparation, it is necessary for
most English tests including TOEFL, IELTS and even TOELC tests according to EC
English language center (Higher Score, 2007).
To summarize, paraphrase serves not only as a tool for interpreting
something but also as the approval of the ability on second language learning. It
provides considerably benefit in academic setting. Apart from the advantages
12
mentioned above, for researchers, paraphrase is considered as a powerful tool in
reviewing literature when composing chapter II. If researchers have sufficient skills of
paraphrasing, it can lead to the academic success effectively.
Paraphrasing strategies
After taking insight for all proper paraphrasing strategies, it has been found
that there are various types of paraphrasing strategies proposed by many researchers
and institutes. At the same time, they mention different words that refer to
“paraphrasing strategies”. For example, Schuemann, Bryd and Reid (2006) rise
“paraphrasing techniques” while the Higher Score (2007) presents “paraphrasing
methods”. However, all terms apparently imply to the same idea—paraphrasing
strategies which is being mentioned in the current study.
By numerous sources, some of them proposed only few types of strategies
but some others present a full range of appropriate ones. The following strategies
were mentioned by some institutions and researchers who have been interested in a
study of the use of paraphrasing strategies among university students.
Kalchayanant (2009) suggested three major methods for effective
paraphrasing.
1. Use synonym words or phrases as substitutes for some words of the
source passage. Students have to make sure that the replacing words represent the
same meaning.
2. Change word forms by altering verbs to nouns, adjectives to verbs,
adjectives to nouns and vice versa.
3. Change structures. For example, a simple sentence might be converted to
a complex sentence, an active voice to a passive voice, a phrase to a clause.
The illustration of using these methods at sentence level:
Example
Original sentence: Many immigrants who came to the United States today
use the educational system as a means of upward
mobility.
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Paraphrase: Education can help many immigrants in America today to
improve their economic and social status.
Synonymous phrase: upward mobility to improve their economic and social
status
Changing word form: educational system education
Structural change: complex sentence to a simple sentence
Furthermore, there were five useful techniques proposed by Tananuraksakul
(2000).
1. Use synonyms
Original sentence: The economic situation remains to change.
Paraphrase: The economic condition continues to change.
2. Change parts of speech (e.g., change nouns to verbs)
Original sentence: It is possible to support the economy.
Paraphrase: The economy is possibly supported.
3. Change conjunctions
Original sentence: Because of advertisement, consumers prefer to
buy that product.
Paraphrase: Due to advertisement, consumers prefer to buy
that product.
4. Change an active voice to a passive voice
Original sentence: The Thai economic crisis was identified by the
Finance Minister.
Paraphrase: The Finance Minister identified the Thai
economic crisis.
5. Change negative sentences to positive sentences
Original sentence: It is not irresponsible to create public
confidence.
Paraphrase: It is responsible to create public confidence.
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In order to obtain a suitable framework for this study, strategies mentioned
above and all collected strategies have been synthesized. The guideline version was
primarily adopted from Jackie Pieterick, The University of Wolverhampton (as cited
in Dung, 2010). In this model, originally, the kinds of paraphrase were classified into
three main groups: changing structure and grammar paraphrase (syntactic paraphrase),
changing word paraphrase (semantic paraphrase) and changing structure
(organization) of idea. Thus, to make it more effective, all related strategies from
many sources were categorized into particular group.
1. Syntactic paraphrase is the paraphrase that involves with changing
structure and grammar of the original texts. They can be done by the followings:
1.1 Changing Active to Passive is the way of changing an active voice
sentence into its passive form.
Example
Original sentence: The trip was cancelled by the researcher because of the rain.
Paraphrase: The researcher cancelled the trip because of the rain.
1.2 Changing Positive to Negative is the way of altering a positive
expression into a negative form, or a negative expression into a positive form.
Example
Original sentence: Shuan was disappointed, because the movie wasn’t very good.
Paraphrase: Shuan wasn’t satisfied, because the movie wasn’t very good.
1.3 Separating long sentence to short sentence is the strategy students
use when break up long sentence into smaller ones or separate sentences.
Example
Original sentence: Ireland is a wonderful country, which has beautiful scenery and
friendly people.
Paraphrase: Ireland is a wonderful country. It has a beautiful scenery and
friendly people.
1.4 Expanding phrase for clarity is how to clarify some phrases in the
original sentence to be more obvious.
15
Example
Original sentence: A college student usually has homework to do.
Paraphrase: A person going to college typically has to study at home.
1.5 Condensing the original is the way of restating some phrases into a
short form.
Example
Original sentence: 65 is the traditional age for workers to retire in Canada.
Paraphrase: 65 is the traditional retirement age in Canada.
1.6 Combining sentences is the strategy that used when students try to
combine short sentences with other short sentences.
Example
Original sentence: Elizabeth I was the daughter of Henry VIII. She is one of
England’s most famous queens.
Paraphrase: Elizabeth I, who was the daughter of Henry VIII, was one of
England’s most famous queens.
1.7 Using varied sentence structure is how to use varied sentence
patterns or express in a new structure when dealing with paraphrasing task.
Example
Original sentence: Technology can cause a disaster.
Paraphrase: A technological disaster is possible.
2. Semantic Paraphrase is the paraphrase that involves with changing words
in the original sentence.
2.1 Changing word order is the way students alter the order of clause
when the original sentence has two or more clauses.
Example
Original sentence: The field researchers cancelled their trip because it was raining.
Paraphrase: Because it was raining, the field researchers cancelled their trip.
2.2 Changing parts of speech is how to change some of the words in the
original sentence into different parts of speech.
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Example
Original sentence: Fifty-four men signed the Declaration of Independence.
Paraphrase: Fifty-four men put their signatures on the Declaration of
Independence.
2.3 Using synonyms is how to replace the exist vocabulary with another
word that has the same meaning.
Example
Original sentence: It can be difficult to choose a suitable place to study English.
Paraphrase: It can be hard to select an appropriate place to learn English.
2.4 Changing number and percentage is how to replace a value in the
original sentence with a number or a percentage form by preserving the equivalent
value.
Example
Original sentence: More than half of women who attended the one-day meeting
were in business with their spouses.
Paraphrase: Over 50% of female who attended the one-day meeting own a
business with their partners.
3. Organization paraphrase is the paraphrase that involves changing structure
of idea inside paragraph.
A theoretical framework used in this study resulted from the synthesizing of
all sources mentioned above. After conducting a preliminary study, it has been found
that the third group of paraphrasing—changing structure of idea (organization) was
not used. However, there were three main categories used for data analysis.
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Table 1 Framework of paraphrasing strategies
Changing structure and
grammar paraphrase
(syntactic paraphrase)
Changing word
paraphrase
(semantic paraphrase)
Changing structure of
idea
(organization
paraphrase)
a. Changing active to
passive
b. Changing positive to
negative
c. Separating long
sentence to short
sentences
d. Expanding phrase for
clarity
e. Condensing the
original
f. Combining sentences
g. Using varied sentence
structures
a. Changing word order
b. Changing parts of
speech
c. Using synonyms
d. Changing numbers
and percentages
a. Changing
structure of idea
The use of paraphrasing strategies
According to Khrismawan and Widiti (2013), type of paraphrasing strategies
that students tried to use most was using synonyms. Conversely, the study of Dung
(2010) showed that changing sentence structure was the most frequency used by
Vietnamese university students. A contradict found in the second strategy used based
on Khrismawan and Widiti (2013), and the finding of Dung’s study. Changing the
word order was the second strategy students tried to employ by asserting from
Khrismawan and Widiti (2013), whereas Vietnamese tended to use changing word as
their second one. For the third strategy, both of them were also in conflict.
It has been clearly seen that there are a number of differences depicted from
research results. The characteristic of using paraphrasing strategies is unpredictable
18
and obviously seems that there are various factors that influence this issue. Thus, it is
necessary to take an extraordinary concentration on such topic to obtain a better
understanding along with providing the fulfillment on it.
Paraphrase identification (Types of paraphrase)
Paraphrase identification is the way of classifying students’ generated
paraphrased texts into certain type of paraphrase. There were four types of paraphrase
proposed by Keck (2014): Near copy, Minimal Revision, Moderate Revision, and
Substantial Revision. Identifying types of paraphrase is highly important since it
cannot only define what types of students’ paraphrase are but also assess qualification
of certain students’ paraphrased texts. It is because “Near Copy” could imply for
unacceptable paraphrase which can lead to the crisis of plagiarism. On the contrary, a
large number of “Substantial Revision” among students’ papers stand for sufficient
skill and good competence on target language.
Paraphrase coding is considered as an essential tool for operating paraphrase
identification. According to Keck (2014), the following linguistic characteristics were
coded: length (in words), reporting phrase, unique links and general links. For this
study, reporting phrase (e.g., According to…) is removed since it has not been found
in students’ paraphrased version as shown in the finding. Unique links, in terms of
definition by Keck (2014) were defined as follows:
a. Individual lexical words (e.g., nouns, verbs, adjectives, or adverbs)
b. Strings of words that are copied exactly from original excerpts
c. Strings of words that are unique and are not occurred in other place in the
original text
The example of unique links (unique links are in bold)
Original:
Women have less work experience, less seniority, a lower rate of
unionization and so on.
Generated paraphrase:
Women have less job experience, less seniority, and a low rate of
unionization.
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There are three unique links in the example above: “Women have less”
(three words) “experience, less seniority” (three words) “rate of unionization”
(three words). It is clearly seen that the total number of words in unique links is nine.
Unique links are mainly concerned for conducting paraphrase identification.
The illustration of copying unique links
Women have less work experience, less seniority, a lower rate of unionization and
so on.
Women have less job experience, less seniority, and a low rate of unionization.
For the part of general links, it refers to
a. Individual lexical words (e.g., nouns, verbs adjectives, or adverbs)
b. Lexical words occurred in the original and can be found in other place of
original text
The example of general links (general links are underlined)
Original:
More than men, women balance home and work demands.
Generated paraphrase:
Women also have to take care of the house. However, men do not do that
so often.
There are women and men contain in generated paraphrase. “Women” and
“men” also occurred in the original text. However, these words are not similar to
unique links since they occurred in other place quite often. In one hand, it can be
perceived as the words that imply for topic or main idea of certain text.
The illustration of copying general links
More than men, women balance home and work demands
Women also have to take care of the house. However, men do not do that so often.
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After taking a total number of unique links, a certain number was calculated.
Based on example 1, there are three unique links (“Women have less”, “experience,
less seniority” and “rate of unionization”). Each link contains three words, so the total
number of words contained in unique links is nine. Since the paraphrase version
contains thirteen words, the percentage of unique links inside paraphrase version is
69.23% (9/13). The value of percentage can determine what type of paraphrase
version.
Table 2 Taxonomy of paraphrase types
Paraphrase Types Linguistic criteria
Near Copy 50% or more words contained within unique links
Minimal Revision 20-49% words contained within unique links
Moderate Revision 1-19%words contained within unique links
Substantial Revision No unique links
Adopted from Keck’s (2014) “Taxonomy of Paraphrase Types”
Criteria for appropriate paraphrase
There are some major characteristics for good paraphrase. An effective
paraphrase is not only the way to change words or structures but it is also the way to
express authentic meaning as in the original in ones’ own way. In order to obtain a
suitable criterion, the finalized model is synthesized from the following sources:
McInnis (2009) suggested seven items of checklist for paraphrase
appropriateness.
1. Attributed source to original author
2. Appropriate/sufficient use of synonyms for terminology
3. All key points of the original excerpt are retained
4. Sufficient syntactical shift (word order, active to passive, etc.)
5. It is not a summary
6. Word form changed
7. Participant’s opinion is not reflected
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In the same way, Sorenson (1995) also proposed five elements of good
paraphrase.
A good paraphrase usually
1. reflects your own words, your own style of writing
2. reduces the original only slightly, usually by less than one-fourth
3. displays careful reading of the original
4. represents the original idea accurately and completely, without reflecting
personal bias
5. uses clear, effective sentences as well as good mechanics, usage, and
grammar.
Consequently, a criterion used in the present study consists of five items as
follows:
Table 3 Criteria for appropriate paraphrase
Criteria Explanations
1.Preserve original meaning - Include all important ideas
- Meaning is the same as in the original
- All key points are retained
2.Participant’s opinion is not
reflected
- Do not add participant’s own view
- Do not stress any single point
3.Appropriate use of synonym - Replace words with appropriate meaning
4.Word form changed - Word form is altered properly
5.Sentence structure changed - Do not copy the exact sentence from the
original
- Sufficient syntactical shift
ESL and EFL University students with problems of paraphrasing
This section is the gathering of paraphrasing phenomena among ESL and
EFL students. The purpose of presenting this section is to capture worldwide
situations on the basis of paraphrasing. It firstly reveals the issue of paraphrasing in
22
the contexts of EFL and ESL. Problems and factors influencing paraphrase are also
discussed.
Students’ problem in paraphrasing
Arisen from the crisis of submitting plagiarism, producing failure in
academic writing; an abundance of researchers has been focused directly on the topic
of students’ paraphrasing (Keck, 2006; Keck, 2014; Khrismawan & Widiati, 2013;
Liao & Tseng, 2010; McInnis, 2009; Oda & Yamamoto, 2007; Shi, 2012) in order to
explain such a complicated situation. Without a doubt, most research results are solid
and identical. As seen in the study of Keck (2014), the researcher took a comparison
of L1 and L2 writers in the extent of what types of paraphrase that university students
conduct. Types of paraphrase in her study were classified into four major types: Near
Copy, Minimal Revision, Moderate Revision and Substantial Revision. In this sense,
Near Copy was defined as paraphrased version which is contained of 50% or more of
original sentences, 20-49% for Minimal Revision, less than 20% for Moderate
Revision and none of original words used for Substantial Revision respectively. Keck
found that L2 students tended to use “Near copy” more than L1 writers.
This result was not in line with what McInnis (2009) explored, after
comparing L1 and L2 written papers, the result showed that all participants’
paraphrases were perceived as an inappropriate one. Moreover, L1 students tended to
copy from the original text more than L2 students did. These findings imply that
paraphrase has been challenged for both L1 and L2 learners who learn English in
higher level. Also, it becomes more serious in higher educational world.
Likewise, from the study of Shi (2012), university students have difficulties
in understanding how to paraphrase. When turning to the reasons, the principal factor
results from one’s knowledge of the original content. This means that the ability to
comprehend source texts is extremely essential and provides a great impact on
performing paraphrase.
Students’ perceptions about paraphrasing are also considered as one of the
most interesting topics. According to the study of Khrismawan and Widiati (2013),
the interview was conducted to discover the actual reason why students consider
paraphrasing as a difficult task. In consistent with the earlier, apart from interpreting
original texts accurately, the participants further indicated that preserving meaning to
23
be as equal as in the original was also exhausting. Besides, the sufficiency of
paraphrasing ability was one of those potential factors. Most of students specified that
skill, competence, and knowledge are highly required for effective paraphrase.
Paying attention to the issue of Asian students with paraphrase, among
Japanese university students, 71% of those who participated in the study of Oda and
Yamamoto (2007) reported that they had not learned how to paraphrase before. There
was only small portion of participants who familiarize with the experience of
paraphrasing. Some students could not describe what exactly paraphrasing means.
Most students strongly agree that it was considerably difficult when they were asked
“What did you think about paraphrasing?” The finding from this study can be clearly
defined the problem occurred with EFL university students. In addition, it will be
useful for curriculum developers and educators in terms of encouraging the ability to
paraphrase.
In Taiwan, Liao and Tseng (2010) carried out the study on students’
behaviors and views of paraphrasing in an EFL academic context. The researchers
collected the data from paraphrasing tasks and questionnaires completed by 95
postgraduate and undergraduate students. The result, apparently, revealed the
inconsistence between students’ perceptions of paraphrase and the actual act on
paraphrasing. The response on the questionnaires indicated that students inclined to
reject the act of plagiarism. In contrast, they failed to produce an acceptable version of
paraphrase. This can be perceived as one of factors that affect toward paraphrasing
issue. However, there is a gap that is supposed to fulfill with the proper solutions.
In conclusion, both EFL and ESL students have encountered the problem of
paraphrase. Most of them have low ability to paraphrase; some of them could not
paraphrase correctly. However, the students concern about the significance of
paraphrase which can help them complete a task in terms of academic writing. They
strongly agree that paraphrase is the most important skill as well as the most difficult
skill.
Second language proficiency and paraphrasing ability
Language proficiency is one of significant factors influencing students’
competence in academic context. Many researchers are interested in the relationship
24
between students’ competence in academic writing and level of second language
proficiency. They attempted to explore the difference of ability to paraphrase among
students who acquired low and high language proficiency.
Loh (2013), for instance, concerned about the errors in paraphrasing and
strategies in overcoming them. The researcher also asserted that paraphrasing was a
complex skill requiring both reading comprehension and writing ability to interpret
students’ own idea. Thus, it has been found that ESL and EFL learners, especially
those with low proficiency in English, produced paraphrasing with numerous errors.
The finding revealed the errors at three levels which were linguistics (grammar,
syntax and lexis), conventions (writing and paraphrasing), and semantics (content of
message) made by low English proficiency students.
Furthermore, the ability to paraphrase can be a predictor of students’
language proficiency and also their academic achievements. According to the study of
Russo and Pippa (2004), students who gained high scores on the paraphrasing test
were more successful in interpreting than students who had lower ability in
paraphrase. Students in high level of proficiency also applied complex paraphrasing
strategies when composing particular tasks.
In summary, second language proficiency has an influence directly on
students’ paraphrasing ability. It has been clearly seen that high proficiency students
mostly apply various types of paraphrasing strategies and include complex strategies
in their own paraphrase versions.
Related studies
Foreign studies
This section collects the related studies to demonstrate the overview and
perspective of numerous researchers on paraphrase basis. To make the data simply to
understand, foreign studies are classified into three main categories: paraphrasing of
L1 and L2 writers, students’ perceptions of paraphrase and paraphrasing strategies
used.
Paraphrasing of L1 and L2 writers
Keck (2006) examined a use of paraphrase in summary writing. This study
mainly focused on a comparison of L1 and L2 writers in order to explore university
25
students’ types of paraphrase. The taxonomy of paraphrase in this study was
presented in four major types: Near Copy, Minimal Revision, Moderate Revision and
Substantial Revision. In this sense, Near Copy was defined as paraphrased version
which was contained of 50% or more of original sentences, 20-49% for Minimal
Revision, less than 20% for Moderate Revision and none of original words used for
Substantial Revision respectively. The researcher analyzed the use of paraphrase in
summary task from 79 L1 students and 74 L2 students. The finding depicted that L2
students tended to use “Near copy” more than L1 writers. In contrast, L1 writers
produced Moderate and Substantial Revisions more than those submitted from L2
writers.
McInnis (2009) carried out the study in the title “Analyzing English L1 and
L2 Paraphrasing Strategies Through Concurrent Verbal Report and Stimulated Recall
Protocols”. In this study, 35 paraphrases written by 4 English-Canadian students and 5
Japanese students were used to analyze. Moreover, the concurrent and post-task
interview from 3 L1 and 3 L2 students were also conducted. The result was not in line
with the study of Keck (2006), all participants failed to produce the appropriate
paraphrases. In addition, L1 students tended to copy from the original text more than
L2 students did.
Shi (2012) investigated rewriting and paraphrasing source texts in second
language writing. The data collection based on the interviews with 48 students and 27
instructors in the USA in order to explore participants’ opinion toward 4 of L2 written
papers. The finding clearly defined that students had difficulties in understanding how
to paraphrase. The influential factor, according to the finding, resulted from the
complication of paraphrasing and one’s knowledge of particular content.
Related studies on students’ perceptions of paraphrase
Oda and Yamamoto (2007) proposed “Paraphrasing: an Essential Tool for
EAP”. They attempted to figure out the issue of paraphrase among Japanese
university students. The participants were 32 students who enrolled in Reading and
Content Analysis course. The data triangulation was employed in this study; interview
section, questionnaire and paraphrasing task were provided to students. The result
showed that 71% of participants had not learned how to paraphrase before. They were
unfamiliar with the idea of paraphrasing; some students had no idea on the meaning of
26
paraphrase. Most students strongly agreed that paraphrasing was difficult and some of
them did not have an experience before.
In 2010, Liao and Tseng conducted the study of students’ behaviors and
views of paraphrasing in an EFL academic context. The purpose of this study was to
examine the relationship of students’ performance and perception of paraphrasing.
The participants were 95 postgraduates and undergraduates Taiwanese students. They
were provided both paraphrasing task and questionnaire to complete. The researchers
found the contradictory between students’ actual behaviors and students’ opinions.
From the questionnaire, the responses indicated that students heavily rejected the act
of plagiarism. In contrast, they failed to produce an acceptable paraphrase.
Khrismawan and Widiati (2013) examined students’ perceptions about
paraphrasing and their cognitive processes in paraphrasing. The participants were 4
Indonesian students of a graduate program of English teaching. They were required to
do concurrent verbal report while paraphrasing 3 sentences and 1 paragraph. In the
scope of definition, students were able to define what paraphrasing means. In the
scope of purpose, there were varieties of responses; some students mentioned that
paraphrasing was very important to avoid plagiarism while some other students said
that it was employed in order to simplify the original text to be simple. For the reason
why paraphrasing was so difficult, students stated that it was the result of preserving
original meaning and the sufficient ability to paraphrase as well. All participants
realized that skill, competence, and knowledge are highly required for effective
paraphrasing.
Related studies on paraphrasing strategies used
Dung (2010) investigated students’ preferences and difficulties in
paraphrasing. Moreover, common mistakes found among Vietnamese students were
also analyzed. The participants were 100 Vietnamese students. They were asked to
complete a questionnaire and a diagnostic test. Besides, 15 students’ term papers were
also analyzed to clarify paraphrasing strategies they used along with their common
mistakes in both sentence and paragraph levels. The result revealed that students’
preference of paraphrasing strategies was changing sentence structure followed by
changing word. In term of difficulty in paraphrasing, students showed that changing
structure of ideas was the most difficult strategy. Changing sentence structure was the
27
second most difficult. For the common mistakes, at sentence level, changing word
was mostly found followed by changing grammar and structure. In contrast, the result
showed the opposite direction in paragraph level. Changing grammar and structure
was the most difficult one for students.
Related studies on paraphrase in Thailand
Boonsang (1996) studied the effect of paraphrasing practice on speaking and
writing ability in Thai language. The participants in this study were students in
secondary school (M.3). They were purposively selected from Thyhad school,
Samutsongkhram. The students were divided into two groups: 28 students in the
experimental group and 30 students for the controlled group. The experimental group
was taught by using paraphrasing practice and the controlled group was provided an
ordinary instruction using teacher’s handbook. The researcher designed 12 daily
lesson plans, Thai speaking ability test and Thai writing ability test as the major
instruments. After 6 weeks of taking an investigation, the result showed that students
in experimental group performed better than students in the other group in both
speaking and writing ability. This finding asserted that paraphrasing practice can
improve students’ ability in speaking and writing in academic context.
Phucharasupa and Netisopakul (2012) proposed and firmly illustrated six
sentence paraphrasing techniques for Thai. The researchers attempted to demonstrate
Thai-sentence Paraphrase Generation (TPG) system and Thai Lexical Conceptual
Structure with Thai Lexicalized Tree Adjoining Grammar (TLCS-TLTAG) Resource.
As an overall view, six techniques of sentence paraphrasing were defined as follows:
the Replacement Technique which is similar to the use of synonyms, the Movement
Technique which is similar to changing word order, the Removal/Insertion Technique
which means condense and expand for clarity, the Switching Technique refers to the
switching of agent and participant in particular sentence, the Promotion/Demotion
Technique which refers to the occurrence of promoting some words while some other
words were demoted, and the last one, the Nominalization Technique which can
compare with changing sentence structures.
To sum up, the research findings also support that students who perform
very well in paraphrasing can achieve their success in academic more than those who
have insufficient skill to paraphrase. However, only few studies investigating how
28
Thai students employ paraphrasing strategies as well as the differences of using
strategies among students who acquire diverse level of second language proficiency.
29
CHAPTER 3
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
This chapter included all the major components of research methodology
involved the current study: participants, instruments, procedure and data analysis.
Participants
The subjects in this study were 60 third-year English major students at
Burapha University who enrolled in the course of Note Taking and Summarizing in
the first semester of the academic year 2014. They were classified as purposive
subjects. All participants attended in the same class so that they were under the same
condition in the scope of number of English courses taken, the instruction and also the
time for completing paraphrasing tasks. In term of proficiency, however, there were
multilevel of students’ English proficiency as an overall academic proficiency.
Instruments
The major instrument used in this study was a test of paraphrasing strategies
which mainly investigated the use of paraphrasing strategies among university
students. In each task, the original sentences would be distributed and the paraphrased
sentences were required.
1. A Test of Paraphrasing Strategies
Based on the purpose of the present study, a test of paraphrasing strategies
was created by the corporation of the researcher and the instructor who took the
responsibility on Note Taking and Summarizing class.
Regarding a test at sentence level, the original sentences were excerpted
from Whyte (2010) who contributed online practice especially for ESL students.
There were two main reasons for selecting this source. Firstly, the level of difficulty
was appropriate for college students since it was designed especially for ESL college
students. Secondly, there were wide ranges of sentence types and lessons. As a result,
there were 15 items of sentences and 5 items of paragraph. The length of paragraph
was from 5 to 8 sentences.
30
Theoretical framework for data analysis
In this study, Pieterick’s conceptual framework (as cited in Dung, 2010) was
adopted. Then, it was combined and synthesized from several sources (see Chapter II)
that proposed strategies for paraphrasing in order to get a complete conceptual
framework after using with pilot group analysis. This framework was classified into
three groups: changing structure and grammar paraphrase (syntactic paraphrase),
changing word paraphrase (semantic paraphrase), and changing structure of idea
(organization).
Table 4 Framework of paraphrasing strategies
Changing structure and
grammar paraphrase
(syntactic paraphrase)
Changing word
paraphrase
(semantic paraphrase)
Changing structure of
idea
(organization
paraphrase)
a. Changing active to
passive
b. Changing positive to
negative
c. Separating long
sentence to short
sentences
d. Expanding phrase for
clarity
e. Condensing the
original
f. Combining sentences
g. Using varied sentence
structures
a. Changing word order
b. Changing parts of
speech
c. Using synonyms
d. Changing numbers
and percentages
a. Changing
structure of idea
31
A preliminary study
A preliminary study was considered as one of the most important process
because it could provide and assured a full preparation for both the measurement of
the real tasks and the framework of paraphrasing strategies. The students in the pilot
study were 30 students majoring in teaching English. They also enrolled in the same
course as taken by the real participants. The finding from the pilot study revealed that
11 paraphrasing strategies employed by students when composing a task of
paraphrase. Changing structure of ideas (organization) was not found among pilot
students. Consequently, the official framework of paraphrasing consisted of 12
strategies that were classified into three main categories; syntactic paraphrase,
semantic paraphrase, and changing structure of ideas. Regarding the most frequently
used strategy, the finding indicated that using synonyms was mostly used at both
sentence and paragraph levels.
Procedure for data collection and strategies classification
The process for data collection was arranged as follows:
1. The participants completed learning how to paraphrase from their
instructor.
2. All participants were provided a test of paraphrase and were asked to
generate their own paraphrase from the original at both sentence and paragraph levels.
In order to get rid of bias on the study, all participants were allowed to utilize all kinds
of paraphrasing strategies in order to observe students’ actual behavior of
paraphrasing. Students independently built up their own paraphrase versions and
dictionaries were allowed the use during the test.
3. After collecting all students’ paper, the researcher obtained 2,740
sentences which were 895 sentences at the sentence level and 1,845 sentences at the
paragraph level. All data were analyzed in scope of strategies used, and the
differences of strategies used between sentence and paragraph levels. In addition, the
use of paraphrasing strategies by individual group of paraphrasing ability was
analyzed, followed by the analysis of paraphrase types.
32
4. In terms of the classification of paraphrasing strategies, all students’
paraphrased versions were collected in order to classify what type of strategies used.
The data were analyzed by the researcher and were finally presented in form of tables.
The following was the excerpt of using paraphrasing strategies by the participants in
this study. The strategies classification was based on framework of paraphrasing
strategies used in this study:
Original: More than half of women who attended the one-day meeting
were in business with their spouses.
Paraphrased version: More than 50% of women join the one day meeting were in
business with their partners.
From the example above, it can be seen that student changed “half of
women” in the original sentence to be the percentage form. Obviously, student
employed the strategy of changing numbers and percentages. Furthermore, student
also tried to use synonyms in their paraphrasing. Thus, from the example, there were
two strategies included in student’s paraphrased versions.
The illustration of student’s using paraphrasing strategies
1. Changing number to percentage
half of women 50% of women
2. Using synonyms
spouses partners
5. Regarding Inter-rater reliability, the students’ paraphrased versions were
submitted to three raters in order to assess the validity of the data analysis. The raters
were the educators who were in charge of English writing courses. There were two
native speakers and one Thai. All three raters were provided the student’s paraphrased
versions with a blank space of table and were required to code the label of
paraphrasing strategies names. For example, the raters would code “A” if students
applied “Changing active to passive”. When the process of three raters complete, the
33
result was analyzed and then was compared with the researcher’s analysis. The
process of Inter- rater reliability adopted from Kay (2009) who has published over
120 articles in the area of computer education journals.
6. After the process of strategies classification and Inter- rater reliability, the
researcher then compared the use of paraphrasing strategies at the level of sentence
and paragraph in order to answer research question 2.
7. Focusing on the level of paraphrasing ability, the students’ paraphrased
versions were submitted to the fourth rater in order to rate the score by using the
criteria of appropriate paraphrasing. When the process of scoring complete, students’
individual scores were classified by the researcher using the process of Normalized T-
Score. All students were classified into the level of low, moderate, and high
paraphrasing ability. After that, the researcher analyzed the use of paraphrasing
strategies by students with low, moderate, and high paraphrasing ability and presented
the result.
8. The final procedure was to determine what types of students’ paraphrased
versions were. According to Keck (2014), the percentage of copying unique link was
mainly used in terms of analysis the types of paraphrase. The taxonomy of paraphrase
types from Keck (2014) was adopted as a guideline. Then the analysis was rechecked
by the advisor.
Table 5 Taxonomy of paraphrase types
Paraphrase Types Linguistic criteria
Near Copy 50% or more words contained within unique links
Minimal Revision 20-49% words contained within unique links
Moderate Revision 1-19%words contained within unique links
Substantial Revision No unique links
Adopted from Keck’s (2014) “Taxonomy of Paraphrase Types”
Data analysis
In this study, Inter-rater reliability was used to verify the reliability of the
frequency of occurrences of paraphrasing strategies employed by the participants
34
from three raters who were the experts in fields of writing and who took the
responsibility on related writing courses. They were one Thai expert and two native
speaking experts. The Inter-rater reliability was 0.810 by the process adopted from
Kay (2009).
Statistics used for data analysis
To answer research questions, the following statistical procedures were used
to analyze data:
Research question 1: What types of paraphrasing strategies do Thai
university students employ in paraphrasing tasks?
In order to investigate types of paraphrasing strategies students try to use,
the researcher analyzed all students’ paraphrased texts by using the frequency of
occurrences of strategy according to framework of paraphrasing strategies and
indicated the result in the form of percentage.
Percentage formula:
P= X × 100
n
Where
P = percentage
X = frequency
n = number of sample
Research question 2: Are there any differences between strategies used at
the level of sentence and paragraph of paraphrased versions?
To demonstrate a difference of strategies used at sentence and paragraph
levels, the result from research question 2 was presented in form of bar graph in order
to provide a clear sight of a comparison between the use of particular paraphrasing
strategies at two different levels.
Research question 3: What are the differences between paraphrasing
strategies used among students with different level of paraphrasing ability?
To investigate the difference of paraphrasing strategies that students in
groups of low, moderate, and high paraphrasing ability tended to employ, insight
35
information was necessary for clarifying individual usage. After receiving raw data
from the fourth rater, there were students’ score for each item, and students’ total
scores. The researcher then applied the process of Normalized T-Score to classify the
clusters of score rank into three levels. After that, the types of paraphrasing strategies
used by different levels of paraphrasing ability were analyzed. The differences were
clarified by applying descriptive statistics.
Research question 4: Which type of paraphrase was found in students’
paraphrased versions?
To investigate types of students’ paraphrased texts, Keck’s (2014) taxonomy
which included the types of Near copy, Minimal Revision, Moderate Revision and
Substantial Revision was used in the analysis. All participants’ paraphrased versions
were collected in order to identify the frequency of copying unique links found in
each text. The unique link was defined as a word copying and strings of words
copying from the original. The result was presented in the form of percentage.
Percentage formula:
P = X × 100
n
Where
P = percentage
X = frequency
n = number of sample
36
CHAPTER 4
RESULTS
This chapter is the presentation of findings collected from 60 third-year
English major students who enrolled in Note Taking and Summarizing course in
academic year of 2014. They had finished learning how to paraphrase by the same
instructor. The students were required to complete a test of paraphrasing strategies.
After collecting students’ paper, in total, there were 2,740 sentences which were 895
sentences at the sentence level and 1,845 sentences at the paragraph level. Each paper
of student was scored by the fourth rater in order to classify the level of students’
paraphrasing ability applying the criteria in appendix C.
Part I was the presentation of types of paraphrasing strategies that used by
the students. The results showed the frequency of occurrences and percentages of
each strategy.
Part II was a comparison between paraphrasing strategies used at sentence
and paragraph levels.
Part III was the presentation of the differences of paraphrasing strategies
used among students with low and high levels of paraphrasing ability. The use of
paraphrasing strategies was analyzed on level of students’ paraphrasing ability which
resulted from the total score by the fourth rater.
Part IV was the presentation of “Taxonomy of Paraphrase Types” that was
found in students’ paraphrased versions.
37
Part I: Frequency of occurrences of paraphrasing strategies used by students
Table 6 Frequency of occurrences of paraphrasing strategies used by students
Paraphrasing Strategies Frequency of
Occurrences
Percentage (%)
Using synonyms 1948 51.23
Using varied sentence structures 782 20.57
Changing word order 238 6.26
Condensing the original 210 5.53
Expanding phrase for clarity 172 4.53
Changing active to passive 102 2.68
Changing positive to negative 79 2.08
Changing parts of speech 58 1.53
Combining sentences 55 1.44
Separating long sentence to short sentences 42 1.10
Changing numbers and percentages 33 0.87
Changing structure of idea - -
Other strategies 4 0.10
Direct copy 79 2.08
Total 3,802 100%
Table 6 showed the types of paraphrasing strategies that students applied in
their paraphrased versions. Using synonyms was used as the most frequency at
51.23%, followed by using varied sentence structures at 20.57%. The third
paraphrasing strategy was changing word order at 6.26%. On the other hand, students
rarely used changing numbers and percentages in their own paraphrased texts. It
showed 0.87% of changing numbers and percentages. The second and the third
strategies that rarely used among university students were the strategy of separating
38
long sentence to short sentences and the strategy of combining sentences at 1.10% and
1.44%, respectively. According to the results, direct copy was found in students’
paraphrased versions at 2.08%.
Since the strategies of using synonyms, using varied sentence structures, and
changing word order were employed at the third-highest frequency, the followings
were the excerpts and the data analysis of paraphrasing strategies used by the
participants in this study.
The example of using synonyms:
Original: A strange aquatic creature has been spotted in the waters
surrounding New Zealand.
Paraphrased 1: An aquatic monster has been found in the water in New
Zealand.
Paraphrased 2: A peculiar watery animal has been discovered in the
water around New Zealand.
Paraphrased 3: A strange aquatic monster has been spotted in the water
around New Zealand.
From the excerpts, students attempted to replace synonyms such as using
“watery” instead of the word “aquatic” in the original. Besides, they changed the
word “strange” to “peculiar” and changed “creature” to “monster”.
The example of using varied sentence structures:
Original: With the development of flash memory cards, the market
for portable music players jumped sharply.
Paraphrased: The sales for MP3 players are improvement with the
advances in flash drive.
Original: Using a mobile phone for a prolonged time can cause
serious damage to your health.
Paraphrased: A cell phone can cause serious hurt to your health if you
are using it for an extended time.
39
From the example, students rearranged the sentences by composing the new
sentence structures. They tended to start with the various styles of using words and
structures by preserving original meaning.
The example of changing word order:
Original: She didn’t get to class on time so she failed the exam.
Paraphrased: Because she came to class late, she didn’t pass the exam.
Original: The professor was helping a student when the bell
sounded.
Paraphrased: When the bell rang, the professor was aiding a student.
Students produced their paraphrased versions by altering the position of two
main clauses. Some students also attempted to rewrite the structure of clauses while
changing the order of each clause.
Part II: Paraphrasing strategies used at sentence and paragraph
levels
A test of paraphrasing strategies was divided into sentence level and
paragraph level. The following results were a comparison of paraphrasing strategies
used at both sentence and paragraph levels.
Figure 1 A comparison between paraphrasing strategies used at sentence and
paragraph levels
0.00%
10.00%
20.00%
30.00%
40.00%
50.00%
60.00%
Using
synonyms
Using varied
sentence
structures
Changing word
order
Expanding
phrase for
clarity
sentence level
paragraph level
40
Figure 1 showed both the similarities and the differences of strategies used
at the sentence level and the paragraph level. In both levels, it was found that students
used synonyms at the highest frequency, followed by using varied sentence structures.
The third frequently used strategy at the sentence level was changing word order
while expanding phrase for clarity was used at the third frequently used strategy at the
paragraph level. The followings were the example of strategies used at the sentence
and the paragraph level.
The example of paraphrasing at the sentence level
Original: The professor was helping a student when the bell sounded.
Paraphrased: When the bell rang, the teacher was helping the student.
The example showed that students employed the strategies “using
synonyms” and “changing word order” because they replaced the word “sounded”
with “rang”, and they also rearranged the order of clause and sentence.
Original: It is necessary for political candidates to give a good performance
during a TV debate.
Paraphrased: The important thing for political candidates to do during a TV
debate is to give a fantastic performance.
The example above presented the use of strategies “using varied sentence
structures” since students attempted to rewrite the paraphrased sentence in their own
words using different form of structure.
The example of paraphrasing at the paragraph level
Original:
(1)-Every day, a competition is present on the street. (2)-This is because
some drivers engage in aggressive driving. (3)-They think that the road is one big race
track they have to get past other cars in any way. (4)-For example, they like weaving
in and out of traffic, tailgating other vehicles and honking at them just to get to the
front of the queue.
41
Paraphrased 1:
Every day, a contest is present on the street. This is because some drivers
involved in bad driving. They assume that the road is one big playground they have to
get in front of cars in any way. For example, they like zigzagging in and out of traffic,
driving too close to the car in front and horning at them just to get to jump of the
queue.
The example of the use of paraphrasing strategies at the paragraph level
revealed that students mostly generated the paraphrased versions with several
strategies. It is noted that, from paraphrased 1, students sometimes included the
strategy “expanding phrase for clarity” in their paragraph level. They defined the
phrase “tailgating other vehicles” by using the phrase “driving too close to the car in
front” in order to simplify the word in the original to be easier for the readers. Also,
students employed the strategy of “using synonyms” by changing the words that were
underlined into the other words in their paraphrased texts. For example, they changed
the word “competition” to “contest” and the word “think” to “assume”.
Original:
(1)-Every day, a competition is present on the street. (2)-This is because
some drivers engage in aggressive driving. (3)-They think that the road is one big race
track they have to get past other cars in any way. (4)-For example, they like weaving
in and out of traffic, tailgating other vehicles and honking at them just to get to the
front of the queue. (5)-Aggressive drivers also do not care about whether what they
are doing is right or wrong. (6)-Even if it means ignoring traffic signals or driving in
the wrong lanes, they would still do it just to get ahead of other drivers. (7)-They
think that those who mind how they drive are the ones troublesome on the street,
when in fact; they [aggressive drivers] are the true road hazards.
Paraphrased 2:
On the street, the competition happens daily. The reason is because some
people drive aggressively. They get past other cars in any way like the road in one big
race track. For example, they drive in and out traffic, driving very close to the
vehicles in front of them, and sounding their horn to get in the front. They do not care
42
if they are doing the right or wrong things. They will do it to get in front of other
drivers even if they have to ignore traffic lights or driving in the wrong lanes. They
think about those who complain about their driving as the troublesome, in fact, they
(aggressive drivers) are the real trouble on the road.
The example from paraphrased 2 depicted the use of strategies “using varied
sentence structures” and “changing word order”. Students produced their paraphrased
versions by changing the order of the phrase “on the street” to be at the beginning. At
the same time, students also tried to rewrite a different form of sentence for they
changed the original sentence “Every day, a competition is present on the street.” to
“On the street, the competition happens daily.” Moreover, the use of strategies
“changing word order” could be found in sentence number 6. Students altered the
order of sentences and tried to change the sentence structures to be varied.
Part III: Paraphrasing strategies used among students with different
levels of paraphrasing ability
Table 7 presented the number of students with different levels of
paraphrasing ability. After completing a test of paraphrasing, all answer sheets were
submitted to the fourth rater in order to score and then classify the students based on
their paraphrasing score into three groups: high, moderate, and low paraphrasing
ability. The clusters of score rank resulted from the process of Normalized T-Score.
Regarding the process, at first, the student’s highest score was deducted by the lowest
score. After that, the result from the first step was multiplied by three because this
study focused on three levels of paraphrasing ability.
Table 7 Number of students grouped by level of paraphrasing ability
Level of paraphrasing ability Ranking Score Number of student
High 72 - 94.5 5
Moderate 49 - 71.5 48
Low 26 - 48.5 7
Total - 60
43
Table 7 demonstrated groups of students who were classified by the level of
their paraphrasing abilities. Students with high paraphrasing ability were 5 people
while students with low paraphrasing ability were 7. Apparently, there were 48
students with moderate level of paraphrasing ability.
The following was the paraphrasing strategies used by students with low,
moderate, and high paraphrasing ability.
Table 8 The use of paraphrasing strategies among low, moderate, and high ability students
Paraphrasing Strategies
Level of students’ paraphrasing ability
High Moderate low
Frequency
of
Occurrences
Percentage
(%)
Frequency
of
Occurrences
Percentage
(%)
Frequency
of
Occurrences
Percentage
(%)
Using synonyms 134 37.12 1586 52.57 274 61.43
Using varied sentence structures 117 32.41 623 20.65 69 15.47
Changing word order 30 8.31 190 6.30 24 5.38
Condensing the original 15 4.16 178 5.90 22 4.93
Expanding phrase for clarity 16 4.43 140 4.64 23 5.16
Changing active to passive 21 5.82 72 2.38 7 1.57
Changing positive to negative 5 1.38 70 2.32 7 1.57
Changing parts of speech 6 1.66 62 2.06 4 0.90
Combining sentences 7 1.94 39 1.29 8 1.80
Separating long sentence to short
sentences
3 0.83 34 1.13 5 1.12
Changing numbers and percentages 7 1.94 23 0.76 3 0.67
Total 361 100 3,017 100 446 100
44
Table 8 depicted the way the students in a particular group selected
paraphrasing strategies. Surprisingly, the similarity of the strategies used was found in
all levels of paraphrasing ability. On the extent of frequently used, students with low,
moderate, and high paraphrasing ability utilized synonymous changing the most.
However, students with high paraphrasing ability employed synonyms changing less
than students with moderate and low paraphrasing ability did. For the second
frequently used strategy, using varied sentence structures was selected by all groups
of students. Similar to the first and second mostly used strategies, changing word
order found in all groups of students at their third frequently used strategy.
Part IV: Taxonomy of paraphrase types found in students’
paraphrased versions
All students’ paraphrased versions were analyzed in order to define what
types they were based on the taxonomy of paraphrase types from Keck’s (2014). The
essential criterion used to analyze was the number of unique link or the copying
words and also word strings from the original. The results were presented as in Table
9.
Table 9 Taxonomy of paraphrase types found in students’ paraphrased versions
Types of paraphrasing Frequency of
occurrences
Percentage
(%)
Near copy (More than 50% of unique links) 478 54.32
Minimal revision (20-49% of unique links ) 300 34.09
Moderate revision (1-19% of unique links) 41 4.66
Substantial revision (No unique links) 61 6.93
Total 880 100
Table 9 displayed the number of students’ paraphrased versions categorized
by the qualification of Keck’s 2014 (Taxonomy of paraphrase types). The highest
percentage (54.32%) showed that students’ paraphrased versions were in the
45
46
taxonomy of “Near copy” followed by “Minimal revision” with 34.09%. “Moderate
revision” was shown at 4.66% and 6.93% implied for students’ paraphrased versions
which were not contained unique link or “Substantial revision”.
46
47
CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSION AND DISCUSSION
The present study aimed to investigate paraphrasing strategies employed by
Thai EFL university students. It was also analyzed the types of paraphrase that found
among students’ paraphrased versions. The participants of this study were 60 third
year students majoring in English at Burapha University who enrolled in Note Taking
and Summarizing course in academic year of 2014.
The research instrument in this study was a test of paraphrasing strategies
which was divided into sentence and paragraph levels. The test was consisted of 15
sentences at the sentence level and 5 paragraphs at the paragraph level. The
participants were asked to paraphrase. Finally, there were 2,740 sentences collected
from both sentence and paragraph levels based on the students’ paraphrased versions.
The frequency of occurrences of paraphrasing strategies was showed in
percentage. Descriptive statistics was mainly used in this study to describe certain
phenomenon.
Findings summary
The research findings were presented as follows:
1. The most frequently used paraphrasing strategies by the students was
using synonyms (51.23%), followed by using varied sentence structures (20.57%) and
changing word order (6.26%), respectively.
2. Regarding the strategies used at sentence and paragraph levels, it was
shown that using synonyms was selected at the highest frequency followed by using
varied sentence structures in both sentence and paragraph levels. The results showed
the difference on the use of the third paraphrasing strategies, changing word order
(11.21%) was used at the sentence level while expanding phrase for clarity (6.52%)
was used at the paragraph level.
3. According to the level of students’ paraphrasing ability, students with
low and high paraphrasing ability used the same strategies. It was shown that using
synonyms was employed at the highest frequency for both groups followed by using
48
varied sentence structures. The similarity also found in the third frequently used
strategies. Students in both levels of paraphrasing ability attempted to change word
order at their third frequently used strategy.
4. Based on the taxonomy of paraphrase types by Keck (2014), the highest
number of students’ paraphrased versions was in type of “Near copy” at 54.32%
which means that students copied 50% or more of words from the original texts. The
lowest frequency was in type of “Moderate revision” at 4.66%. Finally, the type of
“Substantial revision” or no unique link was found at 6.93%.
Discussion
The results of this study revealed the use of paraphrasing strategies by Thai
EFL university students. The findings showed a number of interesting aspects which
were discussed as follows.
The noticeable results depicted that changing synonyms was greatly used by
the major participants in this study, followed by using varied sentence structures and
changing word order respectively. Based on the results from the study of Khrismawan
and Widiti (2013), it was also stated that synonyms were mostly employed by the
participants. Additionally, the use of two highest strategies in the present study (using
synonyms and using varied sentence structures) was consistent with the findings of
Dung (2010). It was stated that students employed changing sentence structures and
changing word (synonyms) as their most preference.
The evidences from a number of research findings could support the reason
why the most frequently used strategy in this study was using synonym. It might be
caused by EFL and ESL learners’ linguistics knowledge and the insufficient ability to
comprehend original content that was necessary for paraphrase. The findings of this
study were in line with the summary by Campbell (1990) that the L2 students were
more likely to use available tools for them especially dictionary in order to overcome
the paraphrasing task. However, using this kind of tool (dictionary) did not always
guarantee the effectiveness of paraphrased versions for students. Also, it could be
explained that students in this study used changing synonym for the most frequency
because they were allowed to bring dictionary during taking the test, so they could
easily access on the strategy of using synonyms. Many times, students changed only
49
the synonyms that they found in the original; they did not draw attention on applying
other strategies to create their own paraphrased versions in the sophisticated way.
Furthermore, when focusing on the preference of paraphrasing strategy use, the study
of Dung (2010) also asserted that students were more likely to employ changing
sentence structures and using synonyms when paraphrasing. This was because they
viewed that using synonyms was easier than the other strategies because they could
replace the vocabulary with some other words that they could find in the dictionary.
These could be implied to the main reason affected the use of synonyms in students’
paraphrased versions as the highest rank for this study.
Regarding the different levels of paraphrasing task, this research finding was
in line with the results from Dung (2010) who attempted to explore how different
students paraphrased on each level (word level, phrase level, sentence level, and
paragraph level). The result revealed that students liked to paraphrase at the sentence
level more than at the paragraph level because a test at the sentence level was not
complicated and easier than a test at the paragraph level. Based on this research
finding, the level of task had no impact on the paraphrasing strategies used but
directly influenced the number of words copying from the original. Out of 100%,
96.2% was the number of direct copying found in the level of paragraph while only
3.80% of direct copying found in the sentence level. This could be explained that
paraphrasing at the paragraph level was more difficult than paraphrasing at the
sentence level due to the difficulty, complexity, and the length of original content.
Students were not successful in doing paraphrasing in the paragraph level.
Surprisingly, it was noted that students with different levels of paraphrasing
ability employed the same paraphrasing strategies at three highest frequencies.
However, it was found the differences in detail when focusing on the way in which
they applied a particular strategy to produce their paraphrased versions. The
followings were the illustrations and the explanations of the use of paraphrasing
strategies by students with high and low paraphrasing ability.
The differences on how to paraphrase by high and low paraphrasing ability students
Original: It is necessary for political candidates to give a good performance
during a TV debate.
50
Paraphrased version (Student with high paraphrasing ability):
It is crucial to show high potential on TV argument for political
candidates.
Paraphrased version (Student with low paraphrasing ability):
It is essential for legislative candidates to give a good performance
during a TV debate.
From the examples above, based on the scores given by the fourth rater,
students with high paraphrasing ability produced more acceptable paraphrased
versions. The students attempted to paraphrase without copying words or string of
words that considered as unique link according to Keck (2014) from the original
sentences. At the same time, they attempted to preserve the equivalent meaning as in
the original, the taxonomy of this paraphrased version was “Substantial revision”
because high paraphrasing ability students did not mention any words (unique link)
from the original version. On the other hand, students with low paraphrasing ability
copied some words and string of words into their paraphrased versions. After
calculating, the result showed 66.66% of containing unique link. This meant that
students with low paraphrasing ability produced “Near copy” type of paraphrase
because there were 10 words out of 15 that considered as the copying words
In the present study, most of students had the moderate level of paraphrasing
ability. The followings were the comparison of paraphrasing strategies used by high
and moderate ability students and the comparison between low and moderate ability
students.
The use of strategies by high and moderate paraphrasing ability students
Original: The Korean President did not give an explanation for the pardon of his
business friend.
Paraphrased version (students with high paraphrasing ability):
The president of Korea did not explain the pardon of his business friend.
Paraphrased version (students with moderate paraphrasing ability):
The Korean leader didn’t present a clarification for the pardon of his
business.
51
The example showed a few points of the difference in which the students
with high and moderate paraphrasing ability use the paraphrasing strategies. Firstly,
high paraphrasing ability students tried to change the order of word “The Korean
President” to “The president of Korea”, in contrast; students with moderate
paraphrasing ability only put the synonym of “president” instead. Secondly, students
with high paraphrasing ability attempted to change part of speech by changing the
word “explanation” to “explain” in their paraphrased sentences while moderate
paraphrasing ability students tended to use only the synonyms of particular word that
they found.
The use of strategies by low and moderate paraphrasing ability students
Original: Using a mobile phone for a prolonged time can cause serious damage to
your health.
Paraphrased version (students with moderate paraphrasing ability):
A cell phone can cause serious hurt to your health if you are using it for a
long time.
Paraphrased version (students with low paraphrasing ability):
Using a cell phone for an extend time can cause serious damage to your
health.
The example pointed out that students with moderate paraphrasing ability
applied more various paraphrasing strategies than students with low paraphrasing
ability did. For example, students with low paraphrasing ability were more likely to
use single strategy in their certain paraphrased sentence. In contrast, students with
moderate paraphrasing ability changed some words with the synonyms and also
reproduced the paraphrased sentences by using varied sentence structures.
When focusing on the paraphrased versions by students with moderate
paraphrasing ability, it is noted that the outstanding point showing the dramatic
difference was not obviously when comparing with other two groups of students who
had high and low paraphrasing ability. On one hand, it can be said that the obvious
characteristic can be found when taking a comparison between the students with low
and high paraphrasing ability. Since some restricted conditions of this present study,
the researcher grouped the students by the level of students’ paraphrasing ability. It
52
would be useful for the further study to focus on the level of students’ language
proficiency as an overall.
To conclude, students’ paraphrasing ability had a direct influence on the
output of paraphrased versions that were highly different when comparing with the
paraphrased versions from students with low paraphrasing ability in terms of
correctness and appropriateness.
Regarding the taxonomy of paraphrase types, by applying the framework of
Keck (2014), it was found that 54.32% of students’ paraphrased versions were in the
type of “Near copy” which means that students tended to copy 50% or more of words
and also word strings from the original text. On the other hand, there was only 6.93%
of “Substantial revision” which considered as no unique links in paraphrased version.
It was obviously explained that most students’ paraphrased versions were perceived
as an unacceptable paraphrase.
Concerning the type of “Near copy”, it has been supported by many
researchers that direct copy or “Near copy” was perceived as the main problem and
harmfulness because this will lead to the act of plagiarism which is unacceptable in
higher level of education (Liao & Tseng, 2010; Khrismawan &Widiti , 2013; Keck,
2014). The findings involving types of paraphrase were also supported by the result
from Keck (2006); Dung (2010); Liao and Tseng (2010); and Khrismawan and Widiti
(2013). The study of Liao and Tseng (2010) pointed out that students were unable to
paraphrase correctly; most of them had the difficulty with paraphrasing the proper
ones. Similarly, the results of Dung (2010) depicted that 66.7% of students’ graduate
papers were unsuccessful because their papers were involved with plagiarism
including word for word plagiarism or compared as near copy in the present study.
The findings from Keck (2006) who made a comparison of L1 and L2 writers’ use of
paraphrase in students’ writing also showed that L2 learners produced “Near copy”
more than L1 learners.
The problem on paraphrasing among novice students has been also
supported by Chimbganda (2006); Orellana and Reynolds (2008); Dung (2010); Loh
(2013); Choy, Lee, and Sedhu (2014). As stated in the study of Loh (2013), ESL
learners who lack proficiency in English always confront with the obstacle to
comprehend academic texts. Moreover, they are also unable to use appropriate
53
academic vocabulary, so they fail to produce the effective paraphrase due to
numerous errors. The response from several participants in the study of Choy and Lee
(2012) depicted that poor vocabulary was one of major problems they found when
doing paraphrasing. Also, they realized that using synonyms substitution was mostly
challenging for them. As shown in the present study, low ability students highly
encountered with the difficulty on paraphrase. Their paraphrased versions depicted
that they did not have language awareness and did not convey the linguistic
knowledge to their work. Since they struggled with this sort of problem, the score on
the criteria of changing word form, and changing sentence structures were deducted.
Focusing on level of students’ paraphrasing ability, this study showed that
level of ability on paraphrasing did not have an effect on selecting types of
paraphrasing strategies among students. It has been clearly seen that the use of
paraphrasing strategies was similar among students with all levels of paraphrasing
ability which were low, moderate, and high ability. Apparently, it was noted that the
level of students’ paraphrasing ability had a significant influence on how to use
certain strategy in each sentence when dealing with paraphrasing task. This could be
explained that although they used the same strategy, the effectiveness of paraphrased
versions was not equivalent. The following examples demonstrated the way students
with low and high ability of paraphrasing applied the strategy of using synonyms.
The differences in using synonyms by high and low ability students
Original: A strange aquatic creature has been spotted in the waters
surrounding New Zealand.
Paraphrased version (Student with high paraphrasing ability):
A peculiar watery animal has been discovered in the water around
New Zealand.
Paraphrased version (Student with low paraphrasing ability):
A strange aquatic monster has been spotted in the water around New
Zealand.
The above examples demonstrated how students with different levels of
paraphrasing ability employed the same strategy in their paraphrased versions. It can
be noticed that students with high paraphrasing ability replaced the original words
54
with synonyms in an effective way rather than students with low paraphrasing ability
did. High ability student tended to alter “animal” instead of “creature” from the
original while low ability student changed “creature” to be “monster”. Besides, high
ability students mostly concerned about the appropriateness of synonyms substitution
in order to make the content more natural. On the other hand, low ability students
lacked of using the suitability of certain synonym in a particular context. Thus, they
received a lower score in terms of using appropriate synonyms.
The results of this study were supported by the finding from Khrismawan
and Widiti (2013) who found that the strategies used among students with different
levels of language knowledge were not different. Interestingly, the researchers
additionally stated some information on a difference between the use of synonym by
low and high paraphrasing ability students. Students with high paraphrasing ability
performed very well and be able to handle with lexical choice in terms of suitability in
particular context. Meanwhile, students with low paraphrasing ability had some
difficulties on the way of replacing synonym and often copied word strings directly
from the original text.
Further results found in this study shed some light on the individual
performance of students when dealing with paraphrasing task. Regarding a number of
strategies which were employed per sentence, high ability students attempted to use
vary types of strategies within one sentence. For example, low ability student selected
only one strategy in his or her particular sentence while student with high
paraphrasing ability adopted two or more strategies inside each sentence to create
his/her own words at the same time by holding equivalent meaning from the original.
The highest number of using strategies per sentence was three strategies at 8.96% by
students with high paraphrasing ability while only 2.40% of using three strategies
found in students with low paraphrasing ability. On the other hand, low paraphrasing
ability students used one strategy per sentence more than high paraphrasing ability
students did; there was 52.24% by high paraphrasing ability students but 60.24% in
group of low paraphrasing ability students.
To conclude, participants in this study shared a similar characteristic of
using paraphrasing strategies. Most of them selected using synonyms at the highest
frequency followed by using varied sentence structures and changing word order. The
55
investigation on the effect of test in different levels showed no difference about the
influence of using paraphrasing strategies; it was found the similarity on the strategies
used at both sentence and paragraph levels. Surprisingly, the findings revealed that
level of paraphrasing ability had a direct influence on the way students paraphrased.
Though they chose the same strategy, the high paraphrasing ability students
performed better than low paraphrasing ability students in terms of the
appropriateness and correctness. Moreover, based on the score from the rater, they
tended to preserve the meaning to be as equal as in the original to avoid any kinds of
plagiarism act. This could be implied that the types of paraphrasing strategies used
among students might not be used to predict how effective students were. The most
important things are how much students understand the original text and how
effective they complete on specific paraphrasing task. Specifically, the core of dealing
paraphrase is trying to convey the equivalent meaning by using ones’ own words.
Regarding the use of other paraphrasing strategies, 0.10% of the additional
paraphrasing strategies found in this study were in line with the results presented in
the study of Bhaget and Hovy (2013) who stated the various types of paraphrasing
strategies. There was the strategy named Pronoun/Co-referent substitution based on
the study of Bhaget and Hovy (2013). The data also revealed a small number of using
this strategy as the additional strategy. The example was presented as follows:
The example of using the strategy of Pronoun/Co-referent substitution:
Original: Aggressive drivers also do not care about whether what
they are doing is right or wrong.
Paraphrased version: They also do not care about whether what they are doing
is right or wrong.
Finally, the findings from this study lead the educators to concern about the
necessary role of the criteria for appropriate paraphrase. This is because a great
number of students’ paraphrased versions found in this study were “Near copy” which
still perceived as the act of plagiarism and also unacceptable in higher level of
education. Thus, the content included in the criteria for paraphrase should be elaborate
because it is essential not only paraphrasing strategies but also the potential of
particular paraphrased versions from learners. Additionally, the situation of types of
56
paraphrase which was observed from this study goes in line with the recent educators’
emphasis on the protection of plagiarism act among students in higher education. This
can be supported by Akarawisut computer program organized by Chulalongkorn
University. By using this program, teachers will be able to detect and examine
plagiarism submitted by university students. This can be stated that the university
students need to put a high concern on how to paraphrase and need to avoid copying
others’ idea.
Recommendations for educational management
Since paraphrasing has been accepted as an obstacle that cause the major
problems involving academic writing, the recommendations for the educational
development are:
1. The lecturers, educators as well as teachers should draw emphasis on how
to use paraphrasing strategies in order to achieve a successful paraphrase and avoid
the act of plagiarism. They need to reinforce students’ ability on linguistic knowledge
in order to comprehend the original and produce the effective versions of paraphrase
by rearranging sentence structures with students’ own words.
2. Students’ ability to comprehend academic text as well as the paraphrasing
ability should be improved especially the potential of replacing appropriate synonyms
in a particular context.
3. Students should realize the importance of the criteria for appropriate
paraphrase and adopt it as a guide when dealing with paraphrasing in any kinds of
writing tasks.
4. Students should try not to copy unique links and try to generate their own
language styles when composing paraphrased versions.
Recommendations for further studies
This study was attempted to examine the use of paraphrasing strategies
among Thai EFL university students who have low and high proficiency of
paraphrase. Some interesting variables were analyzed in order to acquire the obvious
result. The recommendations for further studies were suggested as follows:
1. Additional study would rather investigate on the part of grammatical
errors found in students’ paraphrased versions.
57
2. The various types of paraphrasing task should be designed namely
multiple choices or other types of assessment.
3. The level of proficiency in overall performance should be compared in
order to gather more detailed because this study mainly focused on paraphrasing
ability that scored from students’ paraphrasing test.
4. Since this study found that the strategies used by students were not quite
different, the further study about their metacognitive and language awareness when
composing English texts probably provide more insight into this phenomenon.
58
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61
APPENDICES
62
APPENDIX A
A test of paraphrasing strategies
63
A Test of Paraphrasing Strategies
Name:______________________________________ ID:_____________________
Part I: Sentence level
Directions: Rewrite the sentences given in your own words. Using paraphrasing
strategies you have learned to make new sentences with the equivalent meaning.
Dictionary is also allowed.
1. More than half of women who attended the one-day meeting were in business
with their spouses.
__________________________________________________________________
2. With the development of flash memory cards, the market for portable music
players jumped sharply.
__________________________________________________________________
3. The professor was helping a student when the bell sounded.
__________________________________________________________________
4. The green team will finish the new truck design by next week.
__________________________________________________________________
5. In 2016, the columnist is going to be writing a book about Albert Einstein.
__________________________________________________________________
6. The French professors used to teach students in the East Building.
__________________________________________________________________
7. The Korean President did not give an explanation for the pardon of his
business friend.
__________________________________________________________________
8. The school club of actors did a performance of Romeo and Juliet on the
second of June.
__________________________________________________________________
9. There is a need for further study of this Master’s program.
__________________________________________________________________
10. The police conducted an investigation of the robbery.
__________________________________________________________________
11. On average, most people should drink at least two liters of water a day to
maintain a healthy lifestyle.
__________________________________________________________________
64
12. A strange aquatic creature has been spotted in the waters surrounding New
Zealand.
__________________________________________________________________
13. Using a mobile phone for a prolonged time can cause serious damage to your
health.
__________________________________________________________________
14. She didn’t get to class on time so she failed the exam.
__________________________________________________________________
15. It is necessary for political candidates to give a good performance during a TV
debate.
_____________________________________________________________________
Part II: Paragraph level
Directions: Rewrite the Paragraphs given in your own words. Using
paraphrasing strategies you have learned to make new Paragraph with the
equivalent meaning. Dictionary is also allowed.
Passage 1
(1)-When women and men participate in sports dominated by the opposite
gender there is often overwhelming objection to individuals defying the norm. (2)-
Often women are the people who attempt to participate in so called non-traditional
sports. (3)-But just as importantly, men are struggling against a similar resistance. (4)-
An example of this is when men participate on field hockey teams dominated by
women, creating positive and negative implications to the game and also socially. (5)-
However, individuals who make the move across gender boundaries in any sport are
helping pave the way for equality in a sector of our society that is still bound to
traditional sex roles.
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
65
Passage 2
(1)-Computers are helpful because they offer a wide range of functions and
services that are not available anywhere else. (2)-There are four main uses: word
processing, internet/communications, digital video/audio composition, and desktop
publishing. (3)-Although one can create a typed paper with a typewriter, the computer
has more features to do it with. (4)-Internet and communications, digital video and
audio composition, and desktop publishing are all features that are only offered on
computers. (5)-With these tools human society has progressed exponentially.
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
Passage 3
(1)-Surfing is a water sport that involves planning, “in a controlled way,” on
the sloping portion of a wave as it moves toward shore. (2)-The most basic form of
the sport is body surfing. (3)-It is done without a board. (4)-A person first swims
toward shore “to equal the wave speed.” (5)-Then the person stiffens the body in
order to “plane” on the front of the wave. (6)-Surfing is basically the same as body
surfing. (7)-The only difference is, instead of stiffening the body; the surfer must
stand on a surfboard.
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
66
Passage 4
(1)-Every day, a competition is present on the street. (2)-This is because
some drivers engage in aggressive driving. (3)-They think that the road is one big race
track they have to get past other cars in any way. (4)-For example, they like weaving
in and out of traffic, tailgating other vehicles and honking at them just to get to the
front of the queue. (5)-Aggressive drivers also do not care about whether what they
are doing is right or wrong. (6)-Even if it means ignoring traffic signals or driving in
the wrong lanes, they would still do it just to get ahead of other drivers. (7)-They
think that those who mind how they drive are the ones troublesome on the street,
when in fact; they [aggressive drivers] are the true road hazards.
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
Passage 5
(1)-Lions are the only big cats to live in groups, called prides. (2)-Prides are
close family groups. (3)-They work together to defend territory and hunt. (4)-Lions
communicate through a range of behaviors and their expressive movements are very
highly developed. (5)-They will perform peaceful tactile actions such as licking each
other and rubbing heads. (6)-Head rubbing, or nuzzling, is a common greeting
behavior for lions. (7)-They also communicate through a variety of vocalizations
including purrs, snarls, miaws and hissing. (8)-Their vocalizations also vary in
intensity and pitch.
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
67
APPENDIX B
Framework of paraphrasing strategies
68
Framework of paraphrasing strategies
Changing structure and
grammar paraphrase
(syntactic paraphrase)
Changing word
paraphrase
(semantic paraphrase)
Changing structure
of idea
(organization
paraphrase)
a. Changing active to
passive
b. Changing positive to
negative
c. Separating long
sentence to short
sentences
d. Expanding phrase for
clarity
e. Condensing the
original
f. Combining sentences
g. Using varied sentence
structures
a. Changing word
order
b. Changing parts of
speech
c. Using synonyms
d. Changing numbers
and percentages
a. Changing
structure of idea
69
APPENDIX C
Criteria for appropriate paraphrase
70
Criteria for appropriate paraphrase with explanations
Criteria Explanations
1.Preserve original meaning - Include all important ideas
- Meaning is the same as in the original
- All key points are retained
2.Participant’s opinion is not
reflected
- Do not add participant’s own view
- Do not stress any single point
3.Appropriate use of synonym - Replace words with appropriate meaning
4.Word form changed - Word form is altered properly
5.Sentence structure changed - Do not copy the exact sentence from the
original
- Sufficient syntactical shift
71
APPENDIX D
Examples of paraphrasing strategies and definitions
47
Examples of paraphrasing strategies and definitions
Paraphrasing Strategies Examples Definitions
Changing active to passive Original: “The trip was cancelled by the researcher because of
the rain.”
It is the way of changing an active
voice sentence into its passive form
by changing “The trip was
cancelled by the researcher” in
the original to “The researcher
cancelled the trip”.
Paraphrased: “The researcher cancelled the trip because of the
rain.”
Changing positive to
negative Original: “Shuan was disappointed, because the movie wasn’t
very good.”
It is the way of altering a positive
expression into a negative form, or
a negative expression into a
positive form by changing the word
“disappointed” to “wasn’t
satisfied”.
Paraphrased: “Shuan wasn’t satisfied, because the movie wasn’t
very good.”
Separating long sentence to
short sentences Original: “Ireland is a wonderful country, which has beautiful
scenery and friendly people.”
It is the strategy students use when
break up long sentence into smaller
ones or separate sentences. Thus,
there are two sentences in the
paraphrased version.
Paraphrased: “Ireland is a wonderful country. It has a beautiful
scenery and friendly people.”
72
48
Appendix D (Continued)
Paraphrasing Strategies Examples Definitions
Expanding phrase for clarity Original: “A college student usually has homework to do.” It is how to clarify some phrases in
the original sentence to be more
obvious by using phrase “A person
going to college” to clarify “A
college student”.
Paraphrased: “A person going to college typically has to study at
home.”
Condensing the original Original: “65 is the traditional age for workers to retire in
Canada.”
It is the way of restating some
phrases into a short form by using
“retirement age” instead of “age
for workers to retire”.
Paraphrased: “65 is the traditional retirement age in Canada.”
Combining sentences Original: “Elizabeth I was the daughter of Henry VIII. She is one
of England’s most famous queens.”
It is the strategy that used when
combining short sentences with
other short sentences. Thus, there is
only one sentence in paraphrased
version.
Paraphrased: “Elizabeth I, who was the daughter of Henry VIII,
was one of England’s most famous queens.”
Using varied sentence
structure Original: “Technology can cause a disaster.” It is how to use varied sentence
patterns or express in a new
structure when dealing with
paraphrasing task.
Paraphrased: “A technological disaster is possible.”
73
49
Appendix D (Continued)
Paraphrasing Strategies
copy
Examples Definitions
Changing word order Original: “The field researchers cancelled their trip because it was
raining.”
It is the way students alter the order
of clause when the original
sentence has two or more clauses
by rearranging the clause “Because
it was raining”.
Paraphrased: “Because it was raining, the field researchers
cancelled their trip.”
Changing parts of speech Original: “Fifty-four men signed the Declaration of
Independence.”
It is how to change some of the
words in the original sentence into
different parts of speech by using
noun “signatures” instead of verb
“signed” in the original.
Paraphrased: “Fifty-four men put their signatures on the
Declaration of Independence.”
Using synonyms Original: “It can be difficult to choose a suitable place to study
English.”
It is how to replace the exist
vocabulary with another word that
has the same meaning. For
example, changing the word
“difficult” to “hard”; changing the
word “choose” to “select” and
“suitable” to “appropriate”.
Paraphrased: “It can be hard to select an appropriate place to
learn English.”
74
50
Appendix D (Continued)
Paraphrasing Strategies Examples Definitions
Changing number and
percentage Original: “More than half of women who attended the one-day
meeting were in business with their spouses.”
It is the strategy that used when
combining short sentences with
other short sentences by changing
“Over 50%” instead of “More
than half”.
Paraphrased: “Over 50% of females who attended the one-day
meeting own a business with their partners.”
75
BIOGRAPHY
Name Miss Rungaroon Injai
Date of birth May 7, 1987
Place of birth Chiang Mai, Thailand
Present address 253 Moo 10 Banluang, Chomthong,
Chiang Mai, 50160
Position held
2009- present English lecturer at School of Liberal Arts,
University of Phayao, Thailand
Education
2005-2009 Bachelor of Arts (B.A.), Faculty of Liberal Arts,
Naresuan University Phayao Campus, Thailand
2011-2015 Master of Arts (M.A.), Faculty of Humanities
and Social Sciences, Burapha University,
Thailand
Awards or Grants
2015 The first place for the Master’s level in the
International Speech Contest entitled “Desirable
Competencies for Future Leaders on the Global
Stage” by the Graduate School of Public
Administration, Burapha University
76