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TRANSCRIPT
AN ANALYSIS OF STUDENTS’ ERROR IN WRITING
RECOUNT TEXT (A Case Study in the Second Grade Students of SMP Trimulia Jakarta Selatan)
A Skripsi
Presented to the Faculty of Tarbiyah and Teachers’ Training in a Partial
Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Strata 1 (Bachelor of Art) in
English Language Education
By:
Cholipah
207014000542
DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH EDUCATION
THE FACULTY OF TARBIYA AND TEACHERS’ TRAINING
SYARIF HIDAYATULLAH STATE ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY
JAKARTA
2014
i
ABSTRACT
Cholipah, 2014, An Analysis of Students’ Error in Writing Recount Text (A
Case Study in Second Grade Students of SMP Trimulia Jakarta
Selatan), A ‘skripsi’ of English Education Department, Faculty of
Tarbiya and Teachers’ Training, State Islamic University Syarif
Hidayatullah Jakarta.
Advisor : Drs. Bahrul Hasibuan, M.Ed.
Key Words : Error Analysis, Writing, Recount Text.
This study was carried out to find empirical evidence of the most common
errors and the source of errors in recount text writing made by the second grade
students of SMP Trimulia Jakarta. The method used in this study was a case study
included as qualitative research. The data was presented in descriptive analysis
way and the procedure of Error Analysis used is according to Ellis and
Barkhuizen theory.
The result of the study showed that there are the highest-three and the
lowest-three errors made by the students. The highest-three common errors are
capitalization with the number is 200 or 23.90% errors, word choice with the
number is 110 or 13.14% errors and verb tense with the number is 105 or 12.54%
errors. The lowest-three errors are 3 or 0.36% incomplete sentence errors, 13 or
1.55% meaning not clear errors and 21 or 2.51% singular-plural errors.
Based on the total result types of errors, the writer found that the number
of total source of errors are communication strategy has 428 or 51.14% source of
errors, interlingual transfer has 295 or 35.24% source of errors, intralingual
transfer has 94 or 11.23% source of errors, and context of learning has 20 or
2.39% source of errors.
ii
ABSTRAK
Cholipah, 2014, Analisa Error Siswa dalam Menulis Teks Recount, (Studi
Kasus pada Siswa Kelas Dua SMP Trimulia Jakarta Selatan), Skripsi
Jurusan Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris, Fakultas Ilmu Tarbiyah dan
Keguruan, Universitas Islam Negri Syarif Hidayatullah Jakarta.
Pembimbing : Drs. Bahrul Hasibuan, M.Ed.
Kata Kunci : Analisa Error, Menulis, Teks Recount.
Penelitian ini dilakukan untuk menemukan bukti empiris kesalahan yang
paling sering umumnya dilakukan oleh siswa kelas dua SMP Trimulia Jakarta dan
menemukan sumber dari kesalahan tersebut. Metode yang digunakan dalam
penelitian ini adalah studi kasus yang termasuk ke dalam penelitian kualitatif.
Data disajikan dalam bentuk deskriptif analysis dan prosuder Error Analysis yang
digunakan menurut teori Ellis and Barkhuizen
Hasil dari penelitian menunjukkan bahwa ada tiga teratas dan tiga
terbawah error yang dilakukan oleh siswa. Tiga teratas error yang umumnya
sering dilakukan adalah capitalization dengan jumlah 200 atau 23.90% error,
word choice dengan jumlah 110 atau 13.14% error dan verb tense dengan jumlah
105 atau 12.54% error. Tiga terbawah error yang jarang dilakukan siswa adalah 3
atau 0.36% incomplete sentence, 13 atau 1.55% meaning not clear dan 21 atau
2.51% singular-plural.
Berdasarkan hasil keseluruhan dari jenis error tersebut, penulis
menemukan bahwa jumlah total sumber error adalah communication strategy
memiliki 428 atau 51.14% sumber error, interlingual transfer memiliki 295 atau
35.24% sumber error, intralingual transfer memiliki 94 atau 11.23% sumber
error, dan context of learning memiliki 20 atau 2.39% sumber error.
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
In the name of Allah, the beneficent and the merciful.
All praise be to Allah the lord of this universe, by the grace of Allah the
highest finally the writer is able to finish her ‘skripsi’ after long effort of writing.
Peace, blessing and salutation be upon our great prophet Muhammad, his family,
his descendants, and his followers who strived in Islam.
In this precious occasion, the writer would like to express her greatest
gratitude and honor to her beloved parents, Rohmat and Nur Mutiah who have
been supporting and encouraging the writer to finish this ‘skripsi’.
The writer also would like to address her greatest thanks and appreciation
to her kind advisor, Drs. H. Bahrul Hasibuan, M.Ed., who has guided, helped,
suggested, and corrected during developing until accomplishing this ‘skripsi’.
May Allah always bestow blessing along his life.
Her gratitude and appreciation are also addressed to:
1. Nurlena Rifa’i, M.A., Ph.D., as the Dean of Faculty of Tarbiya and
Teachers’ Training of State Islamic University Syarif Hidayatullah
Jakarta.
2. Drs. Syauki, M.Pd., as the chairman of English Education Department.
3. Zaharil Anasy, M.Hum., as the secretary of English Education
Department.
4. All lecturers of English Education Department who have taught and
educated the writer during her study.
5. The principal of SMP Trimulia Jakarta Selatan and also especially Eri
Fathony Handoyo, S.Pd. and Ulfianti Ulfa, S.Pd. who accompanied the
writer when she asked the school’s permission to conduct the research
in the school.
iv
6. My friends of English Education Department who have encouraged,
motivated and given to the writer memorable times during her study.
Hopefully, this ‘skripsi’ can be beneficial in broadening the perception of
Error Analysis for the writer particularly and for anyone who read this ‘skripsi’
generally. The writer realizes that this ‘skripsi’ is still far from being perfect.
Hence, she accepts any constructive suggestions to make this ‘skripsi’ better.
Jakarta, July 18th
2014
The Writer
v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................ i
ABSTRAK .............................................................................................................. ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ...................................................................................... iii
TABLE OF CONTENT .......................................................................................... v
LIST OF TABLES .................................................................................................. vii
LIST OF CHARTS ................................................................................................. viii
LIST OF APENDICES ........................................................................................... ix
CHAPTER I : INTRODUCTION
A. The Background of the Study ................................................. 1
B. The limitation and Formulation of the Problem ...................... 3
C. The Objective of the Study ..................................................... 4
D. The Significance of the Study ................................................. 4
CHAPTER II : THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
A. Error and Error Analysis
1. The Understanding of Error Analysis ............................... 5
2. The Distinction between Error and Mistake ..................... 7
3. The Source of Error ........................................................... 9
4. The Cause of Error ............................................................ 12
5. The Types of Error ............................................................ 12
6. The Procedure of Error...................................................... 28
7. The Goal of Error Analysis ............................................... 30
B. Writing
1. The Understanding of Writing .......................................... 31
2. The Purpose of Writing ..................................................... 33
3. The Types of Writing ........................................................ 36
4. The Stage of Writing Process ............................................ 41
5. The Principles of Writing .................................................. 45
C. Recount Text
1. The Definition of Recount Text ........................................ 47
2. The Types of Recount Text ............................................... 48
3. The Schematic Structures of Recount Text ....................... 49
4. The Language Features of Recount Text .......................... 50
D. Previous Study ....................................................................... 51
vi
CHAPTER III : RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
A. The Place and Time of the Research ....................................... 54
B. The Method of the Research ................................................... 54
C. The Population and Sample of the Research........................... 54
D. The Instrument of the Research .............................................. 55
E. The Technique of Data Analysis ............................................. 55
F. The Procedure of the Research ............................................... 55
CHAPTER IV : RESEARCH FINDINGS
A. The Description and Analysis of Data ................................ 57
1. The Description and Analysis of Grammatical Errors ... 57
2. The Description and Analysis of Sources of Errors ....... 64
B. The Data Interpretation ........................................................... 72
CHAPTER V : CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION
A. Conclusion .............................................................................. 74
B. Suggestion ............................................................................... 74
REFERENCES
APPENDICES
vii
The List of Tables
1. Table 2.1 : The Distinction between Error and Mistake………………... 9
2. Table 2.2 : A Sample Linguistic Category Taxonomy…………………. 13
3. Table 2.3 : Example of Regularization Errors………………………….. 16
4. Table 2.4 : Simple Addition Errors……………………………………... 16
5. Table 2.5 : Capitalization Rules……………………...…………………. 25
6. Table 2.6 : The Types of Error Based on Betty Schampfer Azar………. 26
7. Table 2.7 : The Types of Writing Texts…...……………………………. 36
8. Table 2.8 : The Types of Writing……………………………………….. 40
9. Table 2.9 : The Schematic Features of Recount Text……..……………. 49
10. Table 2.10 : The Language Features of Recount Text….………………... 51
viii
The List of Charts
1. Figure 4.1 : The Students’ Types of Errors..……………………………... 59
2. Figure 4.2 : The Students’ Sources of Errors….………………………….. 67
ix
List of Appendices
1. The Description of Students’ Error
2. Surat Bimbingan Skripsi
3. Surat Keterangan Penelitian dari Sekolah
1
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
A. The Background of Study
As an international language, English plays an important role as a means
of communication among people in the world for business, science, economy,
technology, etc. Realizing the importance of English as spoken and written
international communication, the Ministry Education of Indonesia includes
English as a compulsory subject to learn in Junior High School up to Senior High
School. In learning English, there are certain skills that students need to learn,
namely: listening, speaking, reading and writing. Listening and reading skills that
involve receiving messages are regarded as receptive skills. Speaking and writing
skills which involve language production are considered to be productive skills.1
As productive skill, writing is not like speaking skill nor other receptive
skills. Writing is the most difficult skill for not only it needs a lot of vocabularies
in composing paragraph, but also grammatically correct in order to be
comprehensible besides other writing’s rules. Therefore, composing paragraph in
writing activity takes a lot of time. As Harmer states that, “Writing is often not
time-bound in the way conversation is. When writing, students frequently have
more time to think than they do in oral activities. They can go through what they
know in their minds, and even consult dictionaries, grammar books or other
reference material to help them.”2
Especially for second language (L2) or foreign language (FL) learners, the
difficulty in writing doesn’t only lie in creating and organizing ideas but also
translating the ideas into readable writing, as Richards and Renandya explain:
There is no doubt that writing is the most difficult skill for L2 learners to
master. The difficulty lies not only in generating and organizing ideas, but
also in translating these ideas into readable text. The skills involved in
writing are highly complex. L2 writers have to pay attention to higher
1Jeremy Harmer, The Practice of English Language Teaching, (New York: Longman,
1989), p. 16. 2Jeremy Harmer, How to Teach Writing, (Essex: Pearson Education Limited, 2004), p.
31.
2
level skills of planning and organizing as well as lower level skill of
spelling, punctuation, word choice, and so on.3
It can be summed up that writing is a hard work which needs a plenty of
time for it not only generates and organizes the ideas but also must translate the
ideas into understandable writing by using grammatical rules correctly, and it
takes a process which needs a lot of practices to be good writing. Therefore, it is
inevitable for students of L2 or FL not making mistakes and committing errors in
their English writing because it is the most complex skill.
The explanation above is supported by the writer’s unstructured interview
result with the English teacher of SMP Trimulia Jakarta Selatan that the main
problem faced by students in writing activity is grammatical rules. Most of
students are getting difficult in choosing the verb to write, so they got much
mistakes, for instance in writing recount text the students had difficulties in
choosing the right form verb for past events.
The writer also got such the case above when she was in her PPKT
(Praktik Profesi Keguruan Terpadu) in a Public Junior High School, most of the
students were not correct in using the verb of past tense and some other
grammatical rules when the writer gave them a task to write their personal
experience for a recount text. The writer thought that the students’ mistakes are
caused by some factors; first they translated their ideas in Indonesian sentences
word by word into English sentences and it often made their sentences read
unusual and wrong in English way.
The other factor is the students’ knowledge. Probably they didn’t know the
correct changing form of verb tense they wrote in their writing and they were
confused to put to be in the non-verbal or verbal sentence they wrote. It could be
caused by the interference of the students’ first language or their deficiency
competence that reflected on how much the students had learnt the grammatical
rules of the target language.
3Jack C. Richards and Willy A. Renandya, Methodology in Language Teaching: An
Anthology of Current Practice, (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002), p. 303.
3
Students need to learn certain kinds of texts in Secondary School. It is
based on KTSP (Kurikulum Tingkat Satuan Pendidikan) School-Based
Curriculum that mentions in SK (Standar Kompetensi) Competence Standard and
KD (Kompetensi Dasar) Basic Competence that there are five kinds of writing
texts to learn in Secondary School, namely: Narrative, Recount, Procedure,
Descriptive, and Report Text. One of the texts that close to the student’s life is
recount text because it is a text that retells past events which the place and
occurred events flow smoothly based on the sequence of time,4 it differs from
narrative text which the climax and the resolution of problem must be created in
the story. Therefore the students can explore their interesting or unforgettable
experiences they already had or people around them in recount text. Due to the
events they already went through smoothly, so they don’t need to struggle on how
to make it happen, and it could have motivated them in writing. In fact, most of
them considered writing as a burden because of some reasons related in using the
proper lexical and grammatical rules. Therefore, the writer decided to choose
recount text as students’ writing activity in this research.
The above explanation stimulates the writer to conduct research in
analyzing students’ grammatical error in their writing and finding out the sources
of errors. The writer decided to undertake a study which explores grammatical
errors that students have done in writing recount text. This issue would be
discussed in her paper entitled “An Analysis of Students’ Error in Writing Recount
Text”. This research is conducted by using a case study in the second grade
students of SMP Trimulia Jakarta Selatan.
B. The Limitation and Formulation of Problem
It is necessary to make limitation in order to clarify the problem. The
writer focused on analyzing grammatical errors in writing recount text made by
the second grade students of SMP Trimulia Jakarta Selatan. She classified the
errors based on Betty S. Azzar’s classification of errors and analyzing the errors to
4 Mark Anderson and Kathy Anderson, Text Types in English 3, (South Yarra: Macmillan
Education Australia PTY LTD., 1998), p. 24.
4
find out the sources of errors using Brown’s theory. In a hypothetical sentence, the
study will answer these questions:
1. What are the most common errors which students made in their
recount text writing?
2. What are the sources of errors in their recount text writing?
C. The Objective of Study
Based on the formulation of the problem above, the objectives of this
study mainly intend as follow:
1. To find empirical evidence of students’ grammatical errors in second
grade of SMP Trimulia in their recount text writing.
2. To find the sources of errors made by the students in their recount text
writing.
D. The Significance of Study
Particularly, this paper is expected to be beneficial in improving the
writer’s perception in Error Analysis and generally for anyone who is interested in
reading about Error Analysis field. Especially for students of English Education
Department, they can read this study as one of their references for additional
information.
5
CHAPTER II
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
A. Error and Error Analysis
1. The Understanding of Error Analysis
In the middle of the twentieth century, one of the most pursuits of applied
linguistic branches was the study of two languages in contrast. Eventually, the
backlog of comparative and contrastive data on a myriad of pairs of languages
yielded Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH).1 The main focus of Contrastive
Analysis (CA) was on comparing the mother tongue (MT) and the target language
(TL) in order to predict or explain the errors made by learners.2 CA lasted until
late 60‘s affected by behaviorist theory which considered second language
acquisition as learning new sets of habits and transferring the learner‘s native
language as the basic process of second language learning. Therefore errors were
considered as being the result of the persistence of existing mother tongue habits
in the new language.3
Vecide Erdogan states in his journal that Error Analysis (EA) appeared in
the sixties to demonstrate that learner errors were not only because of the learners‘
native language but also they reflected some universal learning strategies.
According to him, ―EA deals with the learners‘ performance in terms of the
cognitive process they make use of in recognizing or coding the input they receive
from the target language. Therefore, a primary focus of EA is on the evidence that
learners‘ errors provide with an understanding of the underlying process of second
1 H. Douglas Brown, Principles of Language Learning and Teaching 5
th Edition, (New
York: Pearson Education, Inc., 2007), p. 248. 2 Namiko Sakoda, Error Analysis within Newspaper Reporting Written by Japanese
Secondary School Students, 広島経済大学研究論集 Departmental Bulletin Paper, 27, 2004, p.
42. 3 Vecide Erdogan, Contribution of Error Analysis to Foreign Language Teaching, Mersin
University Journal of the Faculty of Education, Vol. 1, Issue 2, December 2005, p. 262.
6
language acquisition.‖4
EA achieved considerable popularity in the 1970s,
replacing CA.5
Dulay, et al have in line idea such the opinion above that, ―The EA
movement can be characterized as an attempt to account for learner errors that
could not be explained or predicted by CA or behaviorist theory, and to bring the
field of applied linguistics into step which current climate of theoretical opinion‖.6
It can be summed up that EA emerged to change the place of CA perception about
learner‘s errors which the CA was affected by behaviorist theory.
Some experts give their opinions about EA. According to Gass and
Selinker EA is a type of linguistic analysis that focuses on the errors learners
make. EA compares between the errors a learner makes in producing the TL and
the TL form itself. They explain that, ―Error analysis provides a broader range of
possible explanations than contrastive analysis for researchers/teachers to use to
account for errors, as the latter only attributed errors to the NL –Native Language
(By the writer)—.‖7 It means that EA which concerns in learners‘ error can
explain more about learner‘s error what CA can‘t predict.
While Corder points out that ―Error analysis (EA) is part of methodology
of the psycholinguistic investigation of language learning. It aims at telling us
something about the psycholinguistic process of language learning.‖8
The
Corder‘s opinion is in line with other experts‘ opinion about EA such as Ellis who
states that EA is used as a tool to investigate how learners acquire a second
language (L2).9 Ellis and Barkhuizen further explain that ―Error Analysis (EA)
consits of a set of procedures for identifying, describing, and explaining learner
4 Ibid., pp. 262—263.
5 Rod Ellis, The Study of Second Language Acquisition 2
nd Edition, (New York: Oxford
University Press, 2008), p. 62. 6 Heidi Dulay, et al., Language Two, (New York: Oxford University Press, 1982), p. 141.
7 Susan M. Gass and Larry Selinker, Second Language Acquisition: An Introductory
Course: An Introductory Course 3rd
Edition, (New York: Routledge Taylor & Francis Group,
2008), pp. 102—103. 8 S. P. Corder, Error Analysis and Interlanguage, (New York: Oxford University Press,
1981), p. 35. 9 Ellis, Op. Cit., p. 45.
7
errors.‖10
Gorbet also explains that, ―The basic task of error analysis is to describe
how learning occurs by examining the learner‘s ‗output‘.‖11
James furthermore
argues that, ―Error analysis is the process of determining the incidence, nature,
causes and consequences of unsuccessful language.‖12
It seems that the use EA is
such a tool that investigates student‘s learning process in acquiring second
language by identifying, describing, analyzing, and explaining the learner‘s error.
It can be concluded that the presence of EA was to explain what CA
cannot predict about learners‘ error. CA considered error as interference of mother
tongue affected by behaviorist theory and lasting until late sixties. EA which
regarded error was not only because of the learner‘s native language but also it
reflected some universal learning strategies, is as a tool to investigate the learner‘s
error in acquiring language which consists of identifying, describing, analyzing,
and explaining the errors.
2. The Distinction between Error and Mistake
Some people have overlapping perception between Error and Mistake, so
do some teachers. Then further dealing with Error and Mistake becomes
inappropriate treated and then it gives negative impact to the students to know and
to measure their competence in language learning process. Therefore, a systematic
elaboration of the distinction between Error and Mistake is necessary in order to
have sound explanation.
Inevitably the learner will make Mistakes and Errors in the language
acquisition process. As Dulay hints that, ―Making error is an inevitable part of
learning. People cannot learn language without first systematically committing
errors.‖13
Brown also states that, ―Learning is fundamentally a process that
involves the making of mistakes. Mistakes, misjudgments, miscalculation, and
10
Rod Ellis and Gary Barkhuizen, Analysing Learner Langaue, (Oxford : Oxford
University Press, 2008), p. 51. 11
Frances Gorbet, ‗To Err is Human‘: Error Analysis and Child Language Acquisition,
English Language Teaching Journal, XXXIV, 1979, p. 24. 12
Carl James, Errors in Language Learning and Use: Exploring Error Analysis,
(London: Longman, 1998), p. 1. 13
Dulay, Op. Cit., p. 138.
8
erroneous assumptions form an important aspect of learning virtually and skill or
acquiring information.‖14
It means that making Mistakes and Error is naturally
happened for learner because it is a part of learning in language acquisition
process.
Further Brown distinguishes between Mistake and Error. He explains that:
A mistake refers to a performance error that is either a random guess or a
‗slip‘, in that it is a failure to utilize a known system correctly. All people
make mistakes, in both native and second language situations. Native
speakers are normally capable of recognizing and correcting such ―lapses‖
or mistakes, which are not the result of a deficiency in competence but the
result of some sort of temporary breakdown or imperfection in the process
of producing speech. An error is a noticeable deviation from the adult
grammar of a native speaker, reflecting the competence of the learner.15
It means that Error reveals the learner‘s knowledge of the target language,
while Mistake is the learner‘s temporary impediment or imperfection in process of
utilizing the language.
Corder in Larsen-Freeman and Long give more explanation about Error
and Mistake.
Corder made a distinction between a mistake and an error, i.e.: Whereas a
mistake is a random performance slip caused by fatigue, excitement, etc,
and therefore can be readily self-corrected, an error is a systematic
deviation made by learners who have not yet mastered the rules of the L2.
A learner cannot self-corrected an error because it is a product reflective of
his or her current stage of development, or underlying competence. Rather
than being seen as something to be prevented, then errors were signs that
learners were actively engaged in hypothesis testing which would
ultimately in the acquisition of TL rules.16
It can be concluded that Mistake is related to the students‘ quality
performance caused by some factors such as fatigue, lack of attention and
motivation, carelessness and some other factors but it can be self-corrected
because actually the students know the language‘s rule when they focus on. Error
14
Brown, Op. Cit., p. 257. 15
Ibid., pp. 257—258. 16
Diane Larsen-Freeman and Michael H. Long, An Introduction to Second Language
Acquisition Research, (London & New York: Longman Group UK, 1991), pp. 58—59.
9
is student‘s deficiency competence, it means that students don‘t know about the
knowledge of the language at all because they have not mastered it yet therefore it
can‘t be self-corrected. The explanation above can be summarized in the table
below.
Table 2.1
The Distinction between Error and Mistake
Mistake Error
Related to the students‘
quality performance.
Related to the students‘ deficiency
competence.
Reflected the students‘
temporary impediment or
imperfection when utilizing
the target language.
Reflected the students‘
understanding or competence in
the target language.
Inconsistent deviation. Consistent deviation.
Caused by some factors
such as fatigue, lack of
attention and motivation,
carelessness, etc.
Caused by learners who have not
mastered yet the L2 rules.
Can be self-corrected when
students pay attention.
Cannot be self-corrected because
the students do not know the
correct of the L2 rules.
3. The Sources of Error
It‘s necessary to know the source of error in order to identify the troubles
that faced by students in language learning process. Taylor in Ellis points out the
source of error into four categories:
a. Psycholinguistic sources concern the nature of the L2 knowledge
system and the difficulties learners has using it in production.
b. Sociolinguistics sources such matters as the learners‘ ability to adjust
their language in accordance with the social context.
c. Epistemic sources concern the learners‘ lack of world knowledge.
d. Discourse sources involve problems in the organization of information
into a coherent ‗text‘.17
17
Ellis, Op. Cit., p. 53.
10
Different from Ellis, Brown categories the source of error into interlingual
transfer, intralingual transfer, context of learning and communication strategies.
a. Interlingual transfer is the negative influence of first language. Before
the second language system is familiar for the learner. The first
language is the only previous linguistic system which can be referred
by the learner.
b. Intralingual transfer is the negative transfer within the target language
itself. In other words, it‘s the incorrect generalization of rules within
the target language.
c. Context of Learning is Context refers, for example, to the classroom
with its teacher and its materials in the case of school learning or the
social situation in the case of untutored second language learning. In a
classroom context the teacher or the textbook can lead the learner to
make faulty hypotheses about the language. In other words, the
learners have wrong hypotheses of the teacher‘s explanation or the
textbook which lead them to make errors.
d. Communication strategy is related to the learning style. Learners
obviously use production strategies in order to enhance getting their
messages across. However, at times these techniques can themselves
become a source of error.18
James‘ idea parallels with Brown in talking about the source of error as
follows:
a. Mother-tongue Influence: Interlingual Errors. The error caused by
the mother tongue interference. The learners are influenced by the
persistence of their native language in using the target language.
b. Target Language Causes: Intralingual Errors. The learners in
ignorance of a TL form on any level and of any class can do either of
two things:
18
Brown, Op. Cit., pp. 263—266.
11
1) The learner can set about learning the needed item, engaging
the learning strategies.
2) The learner can try to fill the gap by resorting to
communication strategies.
c. Communication Strategy-Based Errors. The error includes holistic
strategies and analytic strategies.
1) Holistic strategies, the term ‗holistic‘ refers to the learners‘
assumption. The most general term for this is approximation.
2) Analytic strategies express the concept indirectly, by allusion
rather than the direct reference: this is circumlocution.
d. Induced Error refers to learner errors that result more from the
classroom situation than from either the students‘ incomplete
competence in English grammar (intralingual error) or first language
interference (interlingual error). They are the result of being misled
by the ways in which the teachers give definitions, examples,
explanations, and arrange practice opportunities. Errors are caused
by material-induced error, teacher-talk induced error, exercise-based
induced error, errors induced by pedagogical priorities, and look-up
errors.19
It can be highlighted that Taylor classifies the source of error based on the
learners‘ linguistic development stage. While Brown and James classify the
source of error into four main categories, namely: interlingual transfer,
intralingual transfer, communication strategy and context of learning or in James
called induced error. The writer uses the four main categories sources of error
based on Brown‘s idea to find out the students‘ sources of error in her research.
19
Carl James, Op. Cit., pp. 179—200.
12
4. The Causes of Error
John Norrish exposes three causes of errors:
a. Carelessness: It is often closely related to lack of motivation. Many
teachers will admit that it is not always the students‘ fault if he loses
interest; perhaps the materials and/or the style of presentation do not
suit him.
b. First language interference: Learning a language (mother tongue or a
foreign language) was a matter of habit information. The learners‘
utterances were thought to be gradually ‗shaped‘ towards those of the
language he was learning.
c. Translation: Probably the most students make errors is translation.
This happens because a student translates his first language sentence of
idiomatic expression in to the target language word by word.20
It can be highlighted that Norrish divides the cause of errors into three
categories, those are Carelessness, First Language Interference and Translation
which those are from the learners themselves or the teacher, and the method.
5. The Types of Error
Some experts give their idea about kinds of error. They classify it into
several types. Corder in Ellis distinguishes three types of error according to their
systematicity:
a. Pre-systematic errors occur when the learner is unaware of the
existence of a particular rule in the target language. These are random.
b. Systematic errors occur when the learner has discovered a rule but it is
the wrong one.
c. Post-systematic errors occur when the learner knows the correct target-
language rule but uses it inconsistently (i.e. makes a mistake).21
20
John Norrish, Language Learners and Their Errors, (London: Macmillan Press, 1983),
pp. 21—26. 21
Rod Ellis, Op. Cit., p. 51.
13
The other type of errors is elaborated by Dulay et al who classify error into
four descriptive classifications of errors. They are linguistic category, surface
strategy taxonomy, comparative taxonomy, and communicative effect taxonomy.
a. Error Types Based on Linguistic Category
These linguistic category taxonomies classify errors according to
either or both the language component or the particular linguistic
constituent the errors effects.
Language components include the phonology (pronunciation),
syntax and morphology (grammar), semantic and lexicon
(meaning and vocabulary), and discourse (style).
Constituents include the elements that comprise each language
component. For example, within syntax one may ask whether
the error is in the main or subordinate clause; and within a
clause, which constituent is affected, e.g. the noun phrase, the
auxiliary, the verb phrase, the preposition, the adverb, the
adjectives, and so forth.22
Table 2.2
A Sample Linguistic Category Taxonomy23
No. Linguistic Category and
Error Type
Example of Learner
Error Explanation
1. Morphology
a. Indefinite article
incorrect
b. Possessive case
incorrect
c. Third person
singular verb
incorrect
d. Simple past tense
incorrect
e. Past participle
incorrect
f. Comparative
adjective/adverb
A ant
The man feet
The bird help man.
He putted the cookie
there.
He was call.
He got up more
higher.
a used for an before
vowels
Omission of ‘s
Failure to attach -s
Regularization by adding
–ed
Omission of -ed
Use of more + er
22
Dulay, Op.Cit., pp. 146—147. 23
Ibid., pp. 148—150.
14
incorrect
2. Syntax
a. Noun Phrase
b. Verb Phrase
c. Verb-and-Verb
Construction
d. Word Order
e. Some
Transformations
He put it in the his
room.
He is in water.
I go play
The bird (object) he
was gonna shoot it.
He not play anymore.
Use of possessive with
the article
Omission of to be
Omission of to in
identical subject
construction
Repetition of the object
Formation of no or not
without the auxiliary do
b. Surface Strategy Taxonomy
Learner may omit necessary any morphemes or words, add
unnecessary ones, misform items, or misorder them. Therefore, Dulay
et al divide the error based on surface strategy taxonomy into four
categories. There are Omission, Addition, Misformation, and
Misorder.
1) Omission
Omission errors are characterized by the absence of an item
that must appear in a well-formed utterance. Content morphemes
carry the bulk of the referential meaning of a sentence: Nouns,
verbs, adjectives, adverbs.24
Language learners omit grammatical
morphemes much more frequently than content words.25
For
example:
Mary is the president of the new company.
Mary, president, new, company. (Content Morpheme)
Is, the, of, the. (Grammatical Morpheme)
Marry the president of the new company. (Omission of
Grammatical Morpheme ‘is’)
Marry is the president of the new. (Omission of Content
Morpheme ‘Company’)
24
Ibid., p. 154. 25
Ibid., p. 155.
15
2) Addition
Addition errors are the presence of an item which must not
appear in a well-formed utterance.26
There are three types of addition errors, namely: double
marking, regularization, and simple addition.
a) Double Marking
Many addition errors are more accurately described
as the failure to delete certain items which are required
in some linguistic construction, but not in others.27
Double marking is two items marked for the same
feature. Learners who have acquired the tensed form for
both auxiliary and verb often place the marker both, as
in;28
He doesn’t knows my name.
We didn’t went there.
Which the correction of the sentence above is;
He doesn‘t know my name.
We didn‘t go there.
b) Regularization
Regularization errors that fall under the addition
category are those in which a marker that is typically
added to a linguistic item is erroneously added to
exceptional items of the given class that do not take a
marker.29
It means that regularization error occurs when
learners add morpheme to the exceptional words, for
example:
26
Ibid., p. 156. 27
Ibid. 28
Ibid. 29
Ibid., p. 157.
16
Table 2.3
Example of Regularization errors
No. Regularization Errors Correction
1. Sheeps Sheep
2. Putted Put
3. Deers Deer
4. Hitted Hit
5. Beated Beat
c) Simple Addition
No particular features characterize simple additions
other than those that characterize all addition errors—
the use of an item which should not appear in a well-
formed utterance.30
Table 2.431
Simple Addition Errors
Linguistic Item Added Example
3rd
person singular –s The fishes doesn‘t live in the water
Past tense (irregular) The train is gonna broke it
Article a a this
Preposition in over there
3) Misformation
Misformation errors are characterized by the use of the
wrong form of the morpheme or structure. In misformation
errors the learner supplies something, although it is incorrect.32
For example:
The dog eated the chicken.
There are three types of misformation errors, they are
regularization errors, archi-forms, and alternating forms. The
explanation is elaborated as follows:
30
Ibid., p. 158. 31
Ibid. 32
Ibid.
17
a) Regularization Errors
Regularization errors that fall under the
misformation category are those in which a regular
marker is used in place of an irregular one, as in runned
for ran or gooses for geese.33
b) Archi-forms
The selection of one member of a class of forms to
represent others in the class is a common characteristic
of all stages of second language acquisition.34
For
example;
Give me that.
Me hungry.
That dog.
That dogs.
c) Alternating Forms
As the learner‘s vocabulary and grammar grow, the
use of archi-forms often gives way to the apparently
fairly free alternation of various members of a class
with each other.35
For example;
Those dog.
I seen her yesterday.
4) Misoreder
As the label suggests, misordering errors are characterized
by the incorrect placement of a morpheme or group of
morphemes in an utterance. For example, in the utterance:36
He is all the time late.
What Daddy is doing?
I don‘t know what is that.
The correct utterances are:
He is late all the time.
What is Daddy doing?
I don‘t know what that is.
33
Ibid. 34
Ibid., p. 160. 35
Ibid., p. 161. 36
Ibid., p. 156.
18
c. Comparative Taxonomy
The classification of errors in a comparative taxonomy is based on
comparisons between the structure of L2 errors and certain other types
of constructions.37
These comparisons have yielded the two major
errors categories in this taxonomy: developmental errors and
interlingual errors. Two other categories that have been used in
comparative analysis taxonomies are derived from the first two:
ambiguous errors, which are classifiable as either developmental or
interlingual; and of course, the grab bag category, other, which are
neither.38
1) Developmental Errors
Developmental errors are errors similar to those made by
children learning that target language as their first language,
take for example:39
Dog eat it.
2) Interlingual Errors
Interlingual errors are similar in structure to a semantically
equivalent phrase or sentence in the learner‘s native language.40
Interlingual errors simply refer to L2 errors that reflect native
language structure, regardless of the internal processes or
external conditions that spawned them.41
For example the word order of Spanish adjectival phrase
(e.g. el hombre flaco) which converted in English to be:
The man skinny.
3) Ambiguous Errors
Ambiguous errors are those that could be classified equally
well as developmental or interlingual. That is because these
errors reflect the learner‘s native language structure, and at the
same time, they are of the type found in the speech of children
acquiring a first language. For example, in the utterance:42
I no have a car.
37
Ibid., p. 163. 38
Ibid., p. 164. 39
Ibid., p. 165. 40
Ibid., p. 171. 41
Ibid. 42
Ibid., p. 172.
19
4) Other Errors
Few taxonomies are complete without a grab bag for items
that don‘t fit into any other category. For example, in the
utterance;43
She do hungry.
d. Communicative Effect Taxonomy
The communicative effect classification deals with errors from the
perspective of their effect on the listener or reader. It focuses on
distinguishing between errors that seem to cause miscommunication
and those that don‘t. Errors that affect the overall organization of the
sentence hinder successful communication, while errors that affect a
single element of the sentence usually do not hinder communication.44
It means that the errors of communicative effect taxonomy can
lead to be misunderstood by the listener or reader to get the intended
message. Some of the learner‘s speaking or writing errors can be
comprehended because there is a minor infraction in the sentence
therefore the intended meaning can be guessed but some of the errors
prevent the information to be comprehended.
Burt and Kiparsky in Dulay et al discover two types of errors
based on communicative effect taxonomy.
1) Global Error
Errors that affect overall sentence organization significantly
hinder communication.45
It means that Global Error is happened in the sentence
which has a big portion of violation therefore it‘s difficult to be
comprehended.
The most systematic global errors include:46
a) Wrong order of major constituents
e.g. English language use many people
43
Ibid. 44
Ibid., p. 189. 45
Ibid., p. 191. 46
Ibid.
20
b) Missing, wrong, or misplaced sentence connectors
e.g. (if)
not take this bus, we late for school
He will be rich until he marry.
(when)
c) Missing cues to signal obligatory exceptions to pervasive
syntactic rules
e.g. the student’s proposal (was)
looked into (by)
the principal
d) Regularization of pervasive syntactic rules to exceptions
e.g. We amused that movie very much
(That movie amused us very much)47
2) Local Error
Errors that effect single elements (constituents) in a
sentence do not usually hinder communication significantly.
These include errors in noun and verb inflections, articles,
auxiliaries and the formation of quantifiers.48
It means that Local Error is the error that can be
comprehended by the hearer or reader by guessing the intended
meaning because there is a bit violation in a part of the
sentence.
For example:49
Why like we each other?
and
Why we like each other?
Further Corder in Brown gives another view of errors, he talks about Overt
and Covert Errors that:
Overtly erroneous utterances are unquestionably ungrammatical at the
sentence level. Covertly erroneous utterances are grammatically well
formed at the sentence level but are not interpretable within the context of
communication. Covert errors, in other words, are not really covert at all,
if you attend to surrounding discourse (before or after the utterance). ―I‘m
47
Ibid. 48
Ibid.,pp. 191—192. 49
Ibid., p. 192.
21
fine, thank you‖ is grammatically correct at the sentence level, but as a
response to ―who are you?‖ it is obviously an error.50
It can be highlighted that Overt Error is incorrect grammatically at the
sentence level and Covert Errors is correct grammatically at the sentence level but
inappropriate in the context of communication, e.g.; ―Who are you? I‘m fine,
thank you.‖
Meanwhile, Betty Schrampfer Azar explains the type of errors into
fourteen kinds. The explanation is elaborated as follows:
a. Singular-Plural
Number is the form of word to show whether it is singular or
plural. Singular number is when a noun denotes one object e.g. I have
one pen. Plural number is a noun denotes more than one object e.g. I
have two pens. In addition, singular can be identified by putting a or
an before noun e.g. I has a bird. Generally, plural nouns can be added
by –s (as in friends) or –es (as in classes) after noun. Moreover, in
irregular noun form, plural has various types e.g. child-children, ox-
oxen, foot-feet, man-men, wife-wives, etc.51
b. Word Form
―Word form is the phonological or orthographic sound or
appearance of a word that can be used to describe or identify
something; the inflected forms of a word can be represented by a stem
and a list of inflections to be attached‖.52
It means that word form is the change form of word based on the
grammatical rules, for example, beautiful (adjective), beautifully
(adverb). The error word form in a sentence e.g. I saw a beauty picture.
(See table 2.6)
50
Brown, Op. Cit., p. 260. 51
J. C. Nesfield, M.A., Outline of English Grammar, (New York: St. Martin Press, Inc.,
1957), pp. 6—7. 52
http://www.thefreedictionary.com/word+form, retrieved on November, 5th
2013.
22
c. Word choice (Diction)
Diction will be effective only when the words you choose are
appropriate for the audience and purpose, when they convey your
message accurately and comfortably. The idea of comfort may seem
out of place in connection with diction, but in fact words can
sometimes cause the reader to feel uncomfortable.53
Word choice is to use the word that suits to the context of
utterance, the error in word choice for example in the sentence; I am
looking at you.
d. Verb tense
Tense means time. However, it should be pointed out that time in
relation to action is a concept that exists in the mind of the speaker,
reader, or listener. Tense, in actual usage, refers consistently only to
grammatical forms. Often tense and time do not correspond at all. In
addition to denoting time relationship, the verbs tenses may indicate
whether an activity has been completed, has extended over a period of
time, or still in progress.54
Verb tense indicates the relationship between an action or state of
being and the passage of time. The present tense indicates that
something is taking place now. The past indicates that something was
completed in the past. The future indicates that something will take in
the future.55
It means that verb tense is the changing form of verb as symbol
which expresses or tells about activity or condition and statement
happened in the past, present and future.
e. Add a word
Add a word has slight similar example with the term of Omission
in Dulay, et al. According to Dulay et al, Omission is the absence of an
item of morphemes that must appear in a sentence or utterance56
, e.g.
They want ^ go to the museum. The absence preposition is to, the
sentence called Omission Error of preposition to according to Dulay et
53
http://grammar.about.com/od/d/g/disctionterm.htm, retrieved on November, 15th
2013. 54
George E. Wishon and Julia M. Burks, Let’s Write English, (New York: Litton
Educational Publishing Inc., 1980), p. 192. 55
Linda C. Stanley, et al., Ways to Writing: Purpose, Task and Process, (New York:
MacMillan Publishing Company, 1988), p. 427. 56
Dulay et al., Op. Cit., p. 156.
23
al, while according to Betty S. Azzar e.g. They want ^ go to the
museum is categorized as error Add a word, because the preposition to
must be added in the sentence.
f. Omit a word
Omit a word is same as Addition in Dulay et al theory in the term
of example. Betty S. Azzar gives example the error of Omit a word e.g.
She entered to the university. The preposition to is not a necessary
morpheme in the sentence therefore the morpheme must be omitted
and it called as Error of Omit a Word. While according to Dulay et al
e.g. She entered to the university is categorized as Addition Error
which the preposition to considered as a morpheme that mustn‘t be
added in the sentence.
g. Word Order
In linguistic, word order typology refers to the study of the order of
the syntactic constituents of a language, and how different language
can employ different orders.57
It means that word order is to place the word correctly based on the
rules, the error in word order e.g. I saw five times that movie. (See
table 2.6)
h. Incomplete Sentence
―Incomplete sentences are missing necessary words or phrases.‖58
The incomplete sentence happens when a necessary morphemes of
words or phrases is missing in a sentence or utterance.
There are causes and examples of incomplete sentences:
1) In a compound construction, a word that functions as but
differs grammatically from a preceding word should not be
omitted. For example,
The car was given an oil change, and its wheels (?)
aligned.
57
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Word_order/, retrieved on November, 5th
2013. 58
Stanley et al., Op. Cit., p. 439.
24
2) An incomplete sentence also results when a comparison is
made completely or illogically. For example,
My car is faster (?)59
i. Spelling
Spelling rules apply to a relatively small number of words, and
unfortunately almost all rules have exceptions. Nevertheless, some of
the rules may help you to spell common words especially those words
form with suffixes.
1) Final Silent –e
Drop a final silent –e before suffixes beginning with a
vowel (ing, age, able). Keep a final silent –e before suffixes
beginning with a consonant (ful, ly, ness).
Hope + ing = Hoping Hope + ful = Hopeful
Dot + age = Dotage Late + ly = Lately
Love + able = Loveable Pale + ness = Paleness
Learn the following exceptions: dyeing, hoeing, gluey,
awful, ninth, truly, duly, wholly.
The -e is retained in such words as the following in
order to keep them soft sound of c and g: noticeable,
peaceable, courageous, and outrageous.
2) Doubling Final Consonant
When adding a suffix beginning with a vowel to words
ending in one consonant proceed by one vowel (Red, Redder),
notice where the word is accented. If it is accented on the last
syllable or if it is a monosyllable, double the final consonant.
Prefer + ed = Preferred Benefit + ed = Benefited
Omit + ing = Omitting Profit + ing = Profiting
Occur + ance = Occurrence Differ + ence =
Difference
Red + er = Redder Travel + er = Traveler
Note that in some words the accent shifts when the
suffix is added.
Referred Reference
Preferring Preference
There are a few exceptions to this rule, like transferable
and excellent; and many words that should follow the rule have
alternate spellings: either worshiped or worshipped; traveling
or travelling; traveler or traveler.
59
Ibid.
25
3) Words Ending in –y
If the –y is preceded by a consonant, change the –y to –i
before any suffix except –ing.
Lady + es = Ladies Lonely + ness = Loneliness
Try + ed = Tried Accompany + es =
Accompanies60
Another example,
He won the game successfully.
j. Punctuation
―Punctuation can help a reader to follow the separations or links
that you wish to make between sentences and parts of sentences are the
same.‖61
According to Stanley et al., there are 12 types of punctuations.
They are period (.), the question mark (?), the exclamation point (!), the
comma (,), the semicolon (;), the colon (:), the dash (- or – ), the
parenthesis (( )), the brackets ([ ]), the ellipsis (…), the quotation mark
(―‖), and the apostrophe (‗).62
k. Capitalization
Capitalization is to capitalize the first letter of a word. In English
there are many rules for using capital letters. Notice the following
table:
Table 2.5
Capitalization Rules63
No. Rule Example
1. The first word in a sentence My best friend is my dog.
2. The Pronoun I He and I never argue.
3. Abbreviations and acronyms formed
from the first letters of words
USA, IBM, AIDS.
4. All proper nouns. God, New York City, Asian,
etc.
60
Langdon Elsbree and Frederick Bracher, Heath’s College Handbook of Composition,
(Boston: D. C. Heath and Company, 1967), pp. 493—496. 61
Ibid., p. 458. 62
Ibid., pp. 458—474. 63
Alice Oshima and Ann Hogue, Introduction to Academic Writing 3rd
Edition, (New
York: Pearson Education, Inc., 2007), p. 7.
26
l. Article
The articles are a, an and the. They modify noun. A and a are
indefinite; a car could mean any car. The is indefinite: the car indicates
a specific car. The article a precedes nouns that start with a consonant
sound (a rocket). The article an precedes noun that start with a vowel
sound (an astronaut).64
m. Meaning Not Clear
Meaning not clear happens when a sentence or utterance is not
interpretable, for example: He borrowed some smoke. (See table 2.6)
n. Run-On Sentence
A run-on is two complete thoughts that are run together with no
adequate sign given to mark the break between them. Some run-ons
have no punctuation at all to mark the break between the thoughts.
Such run-ons are known as fused sentences: they are fused, or joined
together, as if they were only one thought.65
It means that run-on sentence is two simple sentence joined
together without a comma and without a connecting word.
The example of error sentences based on the type of errors above as
follows:
Table 2.6
The types of Error based on Betty Schampfer Azar66
No. Types of Error Example
1. Singular-plural Incorrect: He have been here for six month.
Correct : He has been here for six months.
2. Word form Incorrect: I saw a beauty picture.
Correct : I saw a beautiful picture.
64
Stanley, Op. Cit., pp. 431—432. 65
John Langan, College Writing Skill with Readings 5th
Edition, (New York: McGraw-
Hill, 2001), p. 432. 66
Betty Schrampfer Azar, Understanding and Using English Grammar, (New Jersey:
Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1989), pp. A29—A30.
27
3. Word choice Incorrect: She got on the taxi.
Correct : She got into the taxi.
4. Verb tense Incorrect: He is here since June.
Correct : He has been here since June.
5. + Add a word Incorrect: I want ^ go to the zoo.
Correct : I want to go to the zoo.
6. Omit a word Incorrect: She entered to the university.
Correct : She entered the university.
7. Word Order Incorrect: I saw five times that movie.
Correct : I saw that movie five times.
8. Incomplete Sentence Incorrect: I went to bed. Because I was tired.
Correct : I went to bed because I was tired.
9. Spelling Incorrect: An accident occured.
Correct : An accident occurred.
10. Punctuation Incorrect: What did he say.
Correct : What did he say?
11. Capitalization Incorrect: I am studying english.
Correct : I am studying English.
12. Article Incorrect: I had a accident.
Correct : I had an accident.
13. Meaning Not Clear Incorrect: He borrowed some smoke.
???
14. Run-on Sentence
Incorrect: My roommate was sleeping, we didn’t
want to wake her up.
Correct : My roommate was sleeping. We didn’t
want to wake her up.
There are several types of errors according to some experts as elaborated
above. The writer decides to use the types of error based on Betty S. Azar‘s
classification of errors to measure the error of students‘ writing in grammatical
aspect.
28
6. The Procedure of Error Analysis
It needs some steps or stages of procedure in conducting Error Analysis.
Theo Van Els, et al., states that there are some procedures in Error Analysis,
namely:
a. Identification of errors. The first step in the process of analysis is
recognition/identification of errors. In this step, teachers recognize the
students‘ errors from the task given by the teachers.
b. Description of errors. The next step is describing errors; it begins
when an identification stage has taken place. The description of student
errors involves classification of kinds of errors made by the students.
c. Explanation of errors. The third step in the process of analysis is the
explanation of error that can be regarded as a linguistic problem. This
step attempts to account for how and why the students‘ errors occur.
d. Evaluation of errors. In this step, the teacher gives evaluation from the
task done by the students depends on the task that the teacher will be
giving to the students.
e. Preventing/correcting of errors. The last step is correction of errors;
the teacher checks the errors and then gives the correct one. It is done
to make the students realize with their errors in order to prevent the
students make the same errors later.67
Carl James in his book ―Error in Language Learning and Use: Exploring
Error Analysis‖ explains that there are five procedures in identification of errors:
a. Error detection. It‘s a stage which the errors are detected, so the
researcher becomes aware of its presence.
b. Locating error. The researcher locates the errors, but error location is
not always so straightforward. Not all errors are easily localizable in
this way. Some are diffused throughout the sentence or larger unit of
the text that contains.
67
Theo Van Els, et al., Applied Linguistics and the Learning and Teaching of Foreign
Languages, (London: A Division of Hodder & Stoughton, 1983), p. 74
29
c. Describing error. The grammar used for describing them must be the
most comprehensive we have, and the one capable of maximum
‗delicacy‘ of descriptive detail.
d. Classifying error. The errors are classified based on the errors
classification.
e. Counting error. The last stage is counting error that the researcher
counts the errors made by learner.68
Gass and Selinker state that the great deal of the work on Error Analysis
was carried out within the context of classroom. Therefore, there are a number of
steps taken to conduct error analysis.
a. Collect data. Although this typically done with written data, oral data
can also serve as a base.
b. Identify errors. What is the error (e.g., incorrect sequence of tenses,
wrong verb form, singular verb form with plural subject)?
c. Classify errors. Is it an error of agreement? Or is it an error in irregular
verbs?
d. Quantify errors. How many errors of agreement occur? How many
irregular verb forms of errors occur?
e. Analyze source. See later discussion.
f. Remediate. Based on the kind and frequency of an error type,
pedagogical intervention is carried out.69
According to Corder in Ellis and Barkhuizen the procedure of Error
Analysis includes the following steps:
a. Collecting a sample of learner language. Collecting a sample of
learner language provides the data for the EA. The researcher needs to
be aware that the nature of the sample that is collected may influence
the nature and distribution of the errors observed.
b. Identification of Errors. The identification of errors involves a
comparison between what the learner has produced and what a native
speaker counterpart would produce in the same context. The basic
produce is as follow:
1. Prepare a reconstruction of the sample as this would have been
produced by the learner‘s native speaker counterpart.
68
Carl James, Op. Cit., pp. 91—114. 69 Gass and Selinker, Op. Cit., p. 103
30
2. Assume that every utterance/sentence produced by the learner is
erroneous and systematically eliminate those that an initial
comparison with the native speaker sample shows to be well-
formed. Those utterances/sentences remaining contain errors.
3. Identify which parts of each learner utterance/sentence differs
from the reconstructed version.
c. Description of Errors. The Description of errors is essentially a
comparative process, the data being the original erroneous utterances
and the reconstructed utterance. Thus, description of learner errors
involves specifying how the forms produced by the learner differ from
those produced by the learner‘s native-speaker counterparts.
d. Explanation of Errors. Explaining errors involves determining their
sources in order to account for why they were made. From the point of
view of SLA research this is the most important stage in an EA.
e. Error Evaluation. It involves determining the gravity of different
errors with a view to deciding which ones should receive instruction.70
Based on the detail explanation of the procedure of EA above it can be
summed up that actually in the procedure of EA has the same stages to conduct,
firstly is collecting the data, next the data is identified to find the errors made by
students, thirdly the researcher describers the error based on the error
classifications and then she/he explains the sources the students‘ error and the last
stage the errors are counted to get the total of errors made by students as
evaluation. In her study, the writer chooses the procedure of EA which identified
by Corder cited in Ellis and Barkhuizen to conduct the research.
8. The Goal of Error Analysis
Some experts reveal their opinions of the goal of EA. According to
Norrish, ―Error Analysis can give a picture of the type of difficulty learners are
experiencing. If carried out on a large scale such a survey, it can be helpful in
drawing up a curriculum.‖71
It means that EA has significant to check the
students‘ difficulty in learning. Then the teacher can rearrange the curriculum that
70
Ellis and Barkhuizen, Op. Cit., p. 57—67. 71
Norrish, Op. Cit., p. 80.
31
suits for the students. While Corder has parallel opinion with Norrish, he divides
the significant of EA in three aspects:
1) The teacher. EA gives information of the learners‘ progress in
acquiring the language, and it tells him what remain for him to teach.
2) The researcher. EA give evidence to the research of how the learner
learn and acquire the language, what strategies or procedures they use
in discovering the language.
3) The learner. Making error can be used for the learner as device to
learn.72
He further explains that EA as branch of applied linguistic activity has two
functions, they are: theoretical and practical.
a. The theoretical aspect of error analysis is part of the methodology of
investigating the language learning process.
b. The practical aspect of error analysis is its function in guiding the
remedial action we must take to correct an unsatisfactory state of
affairs for learner or teacher.73
Based on the explanation above, the writer sums up that the goal of EA in
theoretical aspect is as a tool to investigate the language learning process and it
also gives information of the learners‘ progress in the process of acquiring
language in the practical area. It can be a very useful feedback for the teacher, the
researcher, the learner and the curriculum in how to overcome the students‘
difficulty and how to deal against the error.
B. Writing
1. The Understanding of Writing
Writing has a significant function as a medium of communication to
express our ideas, to share knowledge and to exchange information. As Ann
72
Jack C. Richards (ed), Error Analysis: Perspective on Second Language Acquisition,
(London: Longman, 1973), p. 25. 73
Corder, Op. Cit., p. 45.
32
Brown states that ―Writing is important in our lives and as a communicative act
that transmit information and link people together‖.74
Related to the opinion,
Raymond points out that, ―Writing is more than a medium of communication. It is
a way of remembering and a way of thinking as well. Write makes words
permanent, and thus expands the collective memory of human beings from the
relatively small store that we can remember and pass on orally to the infinite
capacity of a modern library‖.75
It can be summed up that writing develops
human‘s lives by informing the knowledge and the idea. People can forget spoken
information in second but writing makes it permanent.
Writing skill for foreign learners is the most challenging activity because it
is a complex skill that involves knowledge, concepts and writing‘s rules.
Moreover, for second language (L2) or foreign language (FL) learners, the
difficulty in writing does not only lie in creating and organizing ideas but also
translating the ideas into readable writing, Richards and Renandya explain that:
There is no doubt that writing is the most difficult skill for L2 learners to
master. The difficulty lies not only in generating and organizing ideas, but
also in translating these ideas into readable text. The skills involved in
writing are highly complex. L2 writers have to pay attention to higher
level skills of planning and organizing as well as lower level skill of
spelling, punctuation, word choice, and so on.76
Celce-Murcia and Olshtain give their idea about writing that:
Writing is the production of the written word that results in a text but the
text must be read and comprehended in order for communication to take
place. The writer, in order words, communicates his/her ideas in the form
of a written text from which known or unknown reader will eventually
extract the ideas and their meanings.77
74 Ann Brown, Helping Children‘s Write, (New York: Paul Chapman Publishing Ltd.,
1993), p. 2. 75
James C. Raymond, Writing: Is an Unnatural Act, (New York: Harper & Row
Publisher Inc., 1980), p. 2. 76
Jack C. Richards and Willy A. Renandya, Methodology in Language Teaching: An
Anthology of Current Practice, (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002) p. 303. 77
Marianne Celce-Murcia, Elite Olshtain, Discourse and Context in Language Teaching,
(United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press, 2000), p. 142.
33
In means that writing is a hard skill for foreign learners because the
learners don‘t only concentrate in communicating and composing the idea into
comprehended writing but also must pay attention to the writing‘s rule.
English teacher can use writing as a means of learning or evidence of
successful learning. A good writing reflects a plenty of practicing because it needs
processes of thinking and then evaluating and revising it. White highlights that
―Writing can be viewed as involving a number of thinking process which is drawn
upon in varied and complex ways as an individual composes, transcribes,
evaluates, and revises‖.78
Richards hints that ―Writing is used either as evidence
of successful learning or as a means of learning‖.79
It can be summed up that
writing can be as a tool for learning feedback.
It can be concluded that through writing many information and knowledge
can be shared, therefore writing can develop human‘s life. While, writing in the
sense of learning English is a challenging activity for foreign language learners
because the FL learners not only have to interpret the idea into comprehended text
but also they have to pay attention to the writing‘s rules. However, writing reflects
the FL learners competency because it can be such a tool that gives feedback in
the learning process.
2. The Purpose of Writing
There are some purposes of writing that many experts have explained,
according to Penny Ur the ―The purpose of writing, in principle, is the expression
of ideas, the conveying of a message to the reader.‖80
Diestch states that ―The
general purpose of writing may be primary to inform, to persuade, to express and
to entertain. The specific purpose involves responding to a certain need for
78
Ronald V. White, New Ways in Teaching Writing, (Bloomington, Teachers of English
to Speakers of Other Languages, Inc., 1995) p. 15. 79
Jack C. Richards, The Language Teaching Matrix, (New York: Cambridge University
Press, 1990), p. 100. 80
Penny Ur, A Course in Language Teaching, (UK: Cambridge University Press, 1991),
163.
34
writing.‖81
It can be summed up that the purpose of writing is to express the idea
or entertaining the audience.
While according to Miller that the purpose of writing is ―A writer‘s
purpose is essentially the same as a writer‘s motive both terms are used to
describe what a writer hopes to accomplish. The benefit of having a clear sense of
purpose is obvious; the writer is much likely to accomplish his objective.‖82
He
divides the purpose of writing into ten points as follows:
a. Writing to understand experience.
Writing to understand experience thus achieves at least two goals:
Writers come to a better understanding of themselves, and readers
come to understand experience different from their own….Writing to
understand experience relies on thought and reflection more than on
emotion and confession.…Writing to understand experience means
finding a truth that is conveniently stored somewhere in your head,
some secret knowledge that, once uncovered, will explain everything
you want to understand. Writing often leads to new perceptions. If you
write thoughtfully about experience, you will be constructing
knowledge as you proceed.83
b. Writing to report information.
Writing to report information is arranged in a pattern so that readers
can make sense of it.84
c. Writing to explain information.
Writing to explain information needs to analyze or classify
information, examine causes and consequences and define concepts by
distinguishing them from other.85
d. Writing to evaluate something.
Evaluation requires that the writer determines the nature or the quality
of what he/she is judging. Evaluation also means determining
importance, benefit, or worth. When writing an evaluation, the writer
81
Betty Matix Diestch, Reasoning and Writing Well 3rd
Edition, (New York: McGraw-
Hill Companies, Inc., 2003), pp. 4—5. 82
Robert Keith Miller, Motives for Writing 5th
Edition, (New York: McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 2006), p. 4. 83
Ibid., pp. 47—48. 84
Ibid., p. 98. 85
Ibid., p. 173.
35
also needs to assure that he/she has credentials to make judgments
about the subject he/she is addressing.86
e. Writing to analyze images.
Like writing to evaluate, writing to analyze images requires the ability
to discern the difference between the effective and the ineffective and
to explain why the writer has made the judgment. Moreover, analysis
is almost always instructive to some extent. As in writing to explain
information, as well as in writing to evaluate something, writing an
analysis helps readers to increase their understanding of the subject.87
f. Writing to analyze texts.
Writing to analyze texts is not really different from writing to analyze
images. Writing to analyze the texts is aimed to analyze the certain
text.88
g. Writing to persuade others.
Writing to persuade others means that the aim of the writing is to
persuade the readers to act or to convince the reader to adopt the
particular view or action.89
h. Writing to inspire others.
Writing to inspire others means being able to elevate the human spirit
by reminding people of what is most important in life and what it is
possible to achieve.90
i. Writing to amuse others.
Writing to amuse gives you an opportunity to bring pleasure to others.
Seize the opportunity, and make the most of it.91
j. Writing to experiment with form.
Writing to experiment with form is different from the previous
purpose. It is about inventing something. Then, the invention is
documented through writing.92
86
Ibid., p. 241 87
Ibid., p. 304. 88
Ibid., p. 381. 89
Ibid., p. 451. 90
Ibid., p. 531. 91
Ibid., p. 569.
36
It seems that writing has its own purpose which it depends on the author‘s
goal in composing the text.
Based on the explanation above the main purpose of writing is to express
the idea. The idea of writing can be delivered in different ways depended on the
author‘s intention.
3. The Types of Writing Text
Students of Secondary School need to learn five kinds of writing texts.
They are Narrative, Recount, Procedure, Descriptive and Report Text. In order to
understand each of the type of writing texts easily, the explanation is drawn up
into a table as follows:
Table 2.7
The Types of Writing Texts93
Text Type Example of Text Explanation
Narrative 1) Orientation
Once upon a time there was a
beautiful girl called Cinderella. She lived
with her stepsister and stepmother. They
were very bossy. She had to do all the
housework.
2) Complication
One day an invitation to the ball came
to the family. Her stepsister didn‘t let her
go, so Cinderella was very sad. The
stepsister went to the ball without her.
3) Resolution
Fortunately, the fairy came and
helped her to get to the ball. At the ball,
Cinderella danced with the prince. The
prince fell in love with her then he married
her.
4) Coda
They lived happily ever after.
Narrative text is
text type that tells a
story.
Its purpose is to
present a view of the
world that entertains or
informs the reader or
listener.
92
Ibid., p. 610. 93
Mark Anderson and Kathy Anderson, Text Types in English 2, (South Yarra:
MacMillan education Australia PTY LTD, 2003), pp. 3—5.
37
Recount Earthquake
1) Orientation
I was driving along the coast when
the car suddenly lunched to one side.
2) Sequence of Events
At first I thought a tire had gone but
then I saw telegraph poles collapsing like
matchsticks. The rocks came tumbling
across the road and I had to abandon the
car.
3) Reorientation
When I got back to town, well, as I
said, there wasn‘t much left.
Recount text is a
piece of text that retells
past events, usually in
the order in which they
happened.
The purpose is to
give the audience a
description of what
occurred and when it
occurred.
Procedure How to Make Jelly
1) Goal
Jelly can be very simply by following
these directions.
2) Materials
You will need one packet of jelly
crystals, a 500 ml jug, 250 ml boiling
water, 200 ml of cold water, a bowl.
3) Steps
1. Empty contents of a packet of jelly
crystals into the jug.
2. Add boiling water.
3. Stir well until crystals dissolve.
4. Add the cold water and stir.
5. Pour mixture into a bowl.
6. Refrigerate until firm.
Procedure text is a
piece of text that gives
instruction for doing
something.
The purpose is to
explain how something
can be done.
Descriptive My Pet
1) Identification
I have a pet. It is a dog and I call it
Brownie.
2) Description
Brownie is a Chinese breed. It is
small, fluffy and cute. It has got thick
Descriptive text is
a piece of text that
describes living things
or non-living things.
Its purpose is to
describe to audience
the characteristics of
38
brown fur. When I cuddle it, the fur feels
soft. Brownie doesn‘t like bones. Every
day it eats soft food like steamed rice, fish
or bread. Every morning I give her milk
and bread. When I am at school, Brownie
plays with my cat. They get along well, and
never fight maybe because Brownie does
not like bark a lot. It treats the other
animals in our house gently, and it never
eats shoes. Brownie is really a sweet and
friendly animal.
people, things, animals,
or places. 94
Report
(Information
Report)
1) General Classification
For many years people believed that
the cleverest animals after man were the
chimpanzees. Now, however there is proof
that dolphins may be even cleverer than
these big apes.
2) Description
Although a dolphin lives in the sea, it
is not a fish. It is a mammal. It is in many
ways, like a human being.
Dolphins have a simple language.
They are able to talk to another. It may be
possible for man to learn how to talk to
dolphins. But this will not be easy because
dolphins cannot hear the kind of sounds
man can make. If man wants to talk to
dolphins, therefore, he will have to make a
third language with both he and the
dolphins can understand.
Dolphins are also very friendly
toward man. They often follow ships.
There are many stories about dolphins
guiding ships through difficult and
dangerous waters.
An information
report text is a piece of
text that presents
information about a
subject. The text
usually contains facts
about the subject, a
description and
information on its
parts, behavior and
qualities.
Its purpose is to
classify, describe or to
present information
about a subject.
Meanwhile, Hedge has more thorough classification of the writing activity
types in general. He divides the writing types into six kinds as follows:
94
Pradiyono, Pasti Bisa! Teaching Genre-Based Writing: Metode Mengajar Writing
Berbasis Genre Secara Efektif, (Yogyakarta: C.V. Andi Offset., 2007), p. 33.
39
a) Personal writing is writing for oneself, and includes various kinds of
aide-memories, as well as diaries and journals. These writing activities
would normally be carried out in the first language but there may be
good motivational reasons for using them in the foreign language
classroom. As we have seen, keeping journals in English provides
valuable practice opportunities.
It seems that personal writing is individual writing which used to write the
important things in the person‘s activity.
b) Study writing is also for oneself and may never be shown to others.
The student makes notes while reading, takes notes in lectures, and
makes summaries for exam revision. All of these types require skills
which can usefully be taught to students learning English for study
purpose.
It means that study writing is writing used as note for the students in their
study.
c) Public writing is writing as a member of the general public to
organizations or instructions, so that there are certain conventions to
keep to in the writing. It includes such activities as writing letters of
enquiry, complaint, letter to the editor, form filling, and applications.
Different from the two kinds of writing above, in public writing the author
shares his/her writing to public area. The writing‘s rule in public writing must be
applied appropriately by the author.
d) Creative writing can includes poems, stories, rhymes, drama, all types
of writing which again are mainly for oneself but which may be shared
with others. It is a kind of writing most commonly found at primary and
lower secondary levels in mother-tongue classroom. In these contexts it
has the values of helping personal and social development, building
confidence and self-esteem, and developing writing skills through
narrative. Some teachers report great success with creative writing in
general-purpose English classes to adults, but careful decisions are
necessary about its appropriateness and likely success with particular
groups of adults.
It can be summed up that creative writing is used as development stage to
write which mostly the content of writing is related on the literacy.
40
e) Social writing is a category which includes all the writing that
establishes and maintains social relationships with family and friends.
Social writing is used for people who want to send a message in order to
establish or maintain communication with other people.
f) Institutional writing relates to professional roles and is needed by
business executives, teachers, engineers, and students in these and other
fields. It may well be possible to draw up a core of this type of writing
which all professional people need to be able to write, e.g. reports,
summaries, minutes, memos, etc. however, each area of activity well
have its own specialized texts, such as legal contracts or academic
essays. Language students in these more specialized groups can usually
draw up specifications of their own needs in writing English, and
provide authentic products.95
Institutional writing is used for people in the institution or professional
area, this kind of writing is regarded as formal writing which the author has to
concrete to the writing‘s conventions. The types of writing above can be specified
into table as below:
Table 2.8
The Types of Writing96
Personal Writing
Diaries.
Journals.
Shopping List.
Reminders for
oneself.
Packing Lists.
Addresses.
Recipes.
Public Writing
Letter of:
1) Enquiry.
2) Complaint.
3) Request.
Form Filling.
Applications/Memberships.
Creative Writing
Poems.
Stories.
Rhymes.
Drama.
Songs.
Autobiography.
Social Writing
Letter.
Invitations.
Notes.
1) Of condolence.
Study Writing
Making notes while
reading.
Taking notes from
lectures.
Institutional Writing
Agendas.
Minutes.
Memoranda.
Reports.
95
Tricia Hedge, Writing, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998), pp. 95—96. 96 Ibid., p. 96.
41
2) Of thanks
3) Of
congratulations.
Cablegrams.
Telephone messages.
Instructions to:
1) Friends
2) Family
Making a card index.
Summaries.
Synopses.
Reviews.
Reports of:
1) Experiments.
2) Workshops.
3) Visits.
Essays.
Bibliographies.
Reviews.
Contracts.
Business letters.
Public notice.
Advertisement.
Posters.
Instructions.
Speeches.
Applications.
Curriculum Vitae.
Specifications.
Note-making
(doctors and other
professional).
4. The Stage of Writing Process
According to Oshima and Hogue there are roughly four steps in writing
process, namely:
Step 1: Prewriting
The first step is called prewriting. Prewriting is a way to get ideas. In this
step, you choose a topic and collect ideas to explain the topic.
There are several techniques you can use to get ideas. In this chapter, you
will practice the technique called listing. Listing is a prewriting technique in
which you write the topic at the top of a piece of paper and then quickly make a
list of the words or phrases that come into your mind. Don‘t stop to wonder if an
idea is good or not. Write it down! Keep on writing until the flow of ideas stops.
In prewriting step, the student start to write by gaining the ideas, there are
several tips to get ideas, one of them suggested by Oshima and Hogue is listing
technique.
Step 2: Organizing
The next step in writing process is to organize the ideas into a simple
outline.
In this step the idea is organized into a simple outline to choose the
specific angle or part to develop into paragraph.
42
Step 3: Writing
The next step is to write a rough draft, using your outline as a guide. Write
your rough draft as quickly as you can without stopping to think about grammar,
spelling, or punctuation. Just get your ideas down on paper. You will probably see
many errors in your rough draft. This is perfectly usual and acceptable-after all,
this is just a rough draft. You will fix the error later. Notice that the writer added
some ideas that were not in his outline. Notice also that he added a concluding
sentence at the end.
After getting the specific idea and then the student can start writing. This
step of writing can be called as rough draft because the student probably makes
many errors.
Step 4: Polishing
In this step, you polish what you have written. This step also called
revising and editing. Polishing is most successful if you do it in two steps. First,
attack the big issues of content and organization (revising). Then work on the
smaller issues of grammar, punctuation, and mechanics (editing).97
This is the last step of writing process. The student edits and fixes the
rough draft in the aspect of grammatical rules, punctuation, etc. The student has
finished the writing process after revising, editing stage.
It seems similar slightly with Oshima and Hogue, Dietsch categories the
writing process into four steps as follows:
1. Strategies for Prewriting
The first stage of writing is simply setting forth ideas in whatever
shape or form that is handy for you—fragments, lists, sentences, or
clusters. The purpose of prewriting is to capture and preserve ideas.98
There is no need to think about order or correctness in the prewriting
stage—the objective is to produce as many ideas as possible.
In prewriting stage is the step to catch as many as idea. The
students don‘t need to worry about correctness or order. The point is to
keep writing. There are five techniques to get idea in prewriting stage,
97
Oshima and Hogue, Op. Cit., pp. 15—18. 98
Betty Mattix Dietsch, Reasoning and Writing Well: A Rhetoric, Research Guide,
Reader, and Handbook, (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2006), p. 11
43
namely: Freewriting, Brainstorming, Clustering, Questioning, and
Keeping a Journal. The explanation as follows:
a. Freewriting
Freewriting, uncensored writing in fragments or sentences, is a
good way to find a topic and details.99
When you freewrite, you
write ―freely‖—without stopping—on a topic for a specific
amount of time. You just write down sentences as you think of
them without worrying about whether your sentences are
correct or not. You also don‘t have to punctuate sentences or
capitalize words. You can even write incomplete sentences or
phrases. The main goal in freewriting is to keep your pencil
moving across the paper.100
b. Brainstorming
You can brainstorm to find a topic for a paper, to narrow a
topic, and to find supporting details. The secret of success in
brainstorming is to think fast and forgo criticism.
c. Clustering
To begin, take a fresh sheet of paper and write a general subject
in the center. Then circle the word. As each new thought bursts
forth, jot it near the word that prompted it. Circle the new
word. Next, draw a line between the two. Repeat the procedure.
When you cluster, you start by writing your topic in a circle in
the middle of your paper. As you think of related ideas, you
write these ideas in smaller circles around the first circle. The
related idea in each small circle may produce even more ideas
and therefore more circles around it. When you have run out of
ideas, your paper might look something like the following
model.
d. Questioning
By questioning and thoughtful reflection, you can take notes on
a significant incident or event and transform them into an
essay.
e. Keeping a Journal
Some instructors require that students keep journals to store
ideas for writing. When you conduct firsthand research, a
journal is useful for recording observations, impressions,
reactions to a piece of literature, or incidents. In some ways a
99
Ibid., p. 39. 100
Oshima and Hogue, Op. Cit., p. 34.
44
journal is similar to a diary, but journals often include a wider
range of material. A journal can be a private account of
conversation, events, perceptions, reactions, or anything else
you care to record. Some writers save quotations, funny stories,
or poems. Any of these items may jump-start ideas for
writing.101
2. Drafting
The second stage of the writing process, drafting, is the time to
develop ideas and start thinking about focus and order. With each new
draft, you will discover more details the reader might desire to know.
You can begin by scanning your prewriting notes and selecting core
ideas.102
In this stage is to develop the idea in freewriting to be a good
paragraph. It needs to focus on a core idea and discover the detail of
the main idea.
3. Revision
The goal of revision is to rethink and reshape your writing so that it
effectively reaches your audience and accomplishes your purpose.
Revision involves the larger aspects of the draft: the organization and
presentation of idea. The smaller items within the sentences—word
choice, grammar, spelling, and punctuation—are treated in the final
stage of the writing process, editing and proofreading.103
Revision is to revise or sharpen the idea. So the writing can be
a effective paragraph to read with clear purpose.
4. Editing and Proofreading
During editing and proofreading, you attend to matters within the
sentence. Editing refers to correcting the sentence structure and
improving the word choice. Proofreading means examining grammar
and punctuation. The goal in the stage four is to clarify meaning and
eliminate grammatical distractions so that the writing purpose can be
achieved.104
101
Dietsch, Op. Cit., p. 42. 102
Ibid. 103
Ibid., p. 62. 104
Ibid., p. 71.
45
In editing and proofreading stage is the strict stage to correct
the all aspect, starting grammatical rules, word choice, punctuation,
etc.
Basically the two opinions above have same points in writing process, it
started by gaining any ideas using some suggested technique called prewriting and
then developing the idea called organizing and writing stage in Oshima and
Hogue and drafting in Dietsch. After developing the idea, the writer or student
draw up the idea by writing it on paper as rough draft. The last step is revising the
rough draft, editing and proofreading the rough draft to be good and correct
writing which the process involved examining the grammar and eliminating
grammatical distractions.
5. The Principles of Writing
Idea within a paragraph should flow smoothly from one to the text and
subordinate ideas should be related to the main idea presented in the topic
sentence. Based on Dietsch‘s book there are distinctive features of principles
writing in order the paragraph to be effective, those are:
a. Interest
To write an effective paragraph that is worth reading, choose a topic
you know and care about. Consider how you might arouse interest.
Scan your prewriting; you may find an overlooked gem that will be
just the hook for your opening. Can you approach the topic in an
unusual way? What might readers like to know? A secret of good
essay writing is to remember that readers like to be entertained; include
anecdotes and offbeat examples. Supply action verbs and concrete
nouns that enable the reader to share your vivid impression.105
It means that the writer should choose a good topic to read. An
interesting title or topic can encourage the reader to know the whole of
paragraphs. Try to make interest topic sentence. So, the reader will be
eager to continue their reading. The readers like to be entertained. The
105
Dietsch, Op. Cit., p. 78.
46
way to catch readers‘ attention of the paragraph is to stimulate
curiosity by choosing an interesting topic.
b. Unity
To unify a paragraph, focus on one major idea in the topic sentence.
The relate all of the support sentences in the paragraph to the topic
sentence. Support sentences may amplify the major idea with
examples, facts, statistics, opinions, or reasons. If a sentence lacks a
connection to the topic sentence, either establish one or discard the
sentence.106
Unity is the paragraph explains one idea. It means that the
supporting sentences/supporting details in the paragraph correlate to
the major idea in the topic sentence, therefore the paragraph has unity.
c. Completeness
To be complete, a paragraph must supply adequate and appropriate
information.107
A paragraph must have complete information. Lack of
information can cause to illogical analysis or gambling information.
The audience will be bored and uninterested in reading the paragraph.
d. Coherence
You might think of a paragraph as a jigsaw puzzle—each piece must
fit. If not, the paragraph lacks coherence; it does not flow smoothly.
During revision, you rearrange any words, phrases, or sentences that
are in the wrong places. If there are still gaps between details, you can
add transitions, either signpost or embedded, to bridge the gaps, or you
might devise parallel structure. Transitions are parallelism show
relationships.108
It can be summed up that coherence is to connect one
paragraph to the next paragraphs smoothly. The writer can use
transitions to cohere sentences in the paragraph.
106
Ibid. 107
Ibid. 108
Ibid., p. 79.
47
e. Clarity
… the main idea should be clear the first time. Clarity is the end result
of knowing your purpose, correctly assessing the audience and
occasion, selecting appropriate words, being complete, and connecting
details to a central idea.109
Clarity prevents the audience to read the paragraph several
times to get the purpose or intended information. An unclear paragraph
will puzzle the audience therefore clarity in delivering information in a
paragraph is needed to have.
C. Recount Text
1. The Definition of Recount Text
Based on School-Based Curriculum or KTSP, there are some kinds of text
that Students of Junior High School need to learn, one of them is Recount Text.
The writer believes that recount text is the text which is so close to the students‘
life. The students do not need to think hard to find the ideas in creating the story,
because they went through with the events, so they can write the story smoothly.
According to Anderson and Anderson ―speaking or writing about past events is
called recount.‖110
They further explain that, ―A recount is a text that retells past
events, usually in the order in which they occurred. Its purpose is to provide the
audience a description of what occurred and when it occurred.‖111
Furthermore according to Derewianka recount is a text that retells events
or experiences in the past which its purpose is either to inform or to entertain the
audience. Recount is very similar Narrative, so the thing that differentiates both
of them is the schematic structure of the body paragraph. There is no complication
among the participants in recount text instead in recount text explores the series of
events which happened to the participants. However, it just focuses on the events
109
Ibid., p. 81. 110
Mark Anderson and Kathy Anderson, Text Types in English 1, (Malaysia: Macmillan,
1997), p. 48. 111
Mark Anderson and Kathy Anderson, Text Types in English 3, (South Yarra:
Macmillan Education Australia PTY LTD., 1998), p. 24.
48
themselves. The events will be told chronologically based on the time and place.
While in narrative the body paragraph is complication which the story has the
climax of problem and the story ended by solving the problem.112
It can be
summed up that recount text is a kind of text that retells about events or
experiences in the past chronologically based on the sequence of events. The
purpose is to give the audience information or to entertain.
2. The types of Recount Text
Derewianka explains that there are five types of recount text, namely:
1. Personal recount is retelling an event that the writer was personally
involved in for example: personal experience, personal letter, diary,
entries, journal, anecdotes, and postcard. Personal recount is usually
written in the first person (I and We) and often to entertain and to
inform.
2. Factual recount is concerned with recalling events accurately. It can
range from the everyday task such as accidents, structured research,
science, news recording and police report. The emphasis is on using
language that is precise, factual, and detailed, so that the reader gains a
complete picture of an event, experience or achievement.
3. Imaginative or literary recounts entertain the reader by recreating the
events of an imaginary world as though they are real such as fiction.
4. A procedural recount records the steps taken in completing a task or
procedures. Example: include a flow chart of the actions required for
making bread and the steps to solve a mathematical problem.
5. A biographical recount tells the story of a person‘s life using a third
person narrator (He, She, and They). In this case, of autobiography,
first person narration (I, We) is used.113
112
Beverly Derewianka, Exploring How Texts Work, (Newtown: Primary English
Teaching Association, 1990), p. 14. 113
Ibid., p. 10.
49
Hardy and Klarwein have a bit different type of recount text. There are
two types of recount text according to them. They divided two kinds of recount
text, namely; Personal Recount as in personal letters and excursion write-ups and
Historical Recount which attempts to retell past experience in the objective view,
such as report of science experiment and police reports.‖114
3. The Schematic Features of Recount Text
A recount text usually has three main sections: Orientation, Sequence of
Events and Reorientation.
Table 2.9
The Schematic Features of Recount Text115
The Stage Function
Step 1 : Orientation Introductory paragraph that tells who, what, where
and when.
Step 2 : Sequence of Events A sequence of events in the order in which they
occurred.
Step 3 : Reorientation A conclusion.
It can be elaborated the three section of recount text as follows:
Step 1: Orientation
Orientation introduces the participants, place and time. It
provides all the necessary background information to make
sense of the text. 5W questions (Who, What, Where, When
and Why) are used in order to have systematic and thorough
information. Therefore, what happened, who or what was
involved in the story, why, where and when the events occurred
needed to write.
Step 2: Sequence of Events
This step tells the sequence events that happened in the past
based on the time and place when it occurred.
114
Judy Hardy and Damien Klarwein, Written Genres in the Secondary School,
(Brisbane: Department of Education Queensland, 1990), p. 12. 115
Anderson and Anderson, Op. Cit., pp. 24—25.
50
Step 3: Reorientation
It consists of optional closure of events or it can be stating
personal comment of the writer to the story.
Model of a recount text116
A Postcard
Dear Nan,
We are having a great holiday here on the Gold Coast. Yesterday we
went to Movie World.
When we got up in the morning it looked like rain. After a while the
clouds disappeared and it became a sunny day. We then decided to go
to Movie World.
The first ride I went on was Lethal Weapon. Next I saw the Police
Academy show. After that I had lunch as I was really hungry.
Meanwhile, Mum and Kelly queued for the Batman ride.
About one o‘clock we got a light shower of rain but it cleared up soon
after. We then went on all the other rides followed by the studio tour.
It was a top day. See you when we get back.
Love
Sam
4. The Language Features of Recount Text
Recounts usually include the following language features:
1. Proper nouns to identify those involved in the text.
2. Descriptive words to give details about who, what, when, where,
and how.
3. The use of the past tense to retell the events.
4. Words that show the order of events (for example, first, next,
then).117
116
Ibid., p. 25. 117
Ibid., p. 24.
Ori
enta
tio
n
Seq
uen
ce o
f ev
ents
R
eori
enta
tion
Event 1
Event 2
Event 3
51
The points above can be summed up in table below:
Table 2.10
The Language Feature of Recount Text
No. Language Features of
Recount Text Example
1. Proper Noun Andy, Jakarta, The Statue of Liberty, etc.
2. Descriptive Word Walking, hairy, clever, etc.
3. Past Tense Went, ate, learned, etc.
4. The word of order of events First, second, last, etc.
The language features has significant role to help in getting the point of the
story. The audience can identify those who involved in the story by finding the
proper nouns. The descriptive words will give more details about the person, time,
place, setting and the plot of the story. The kind of text easily can be identified by
looking for the tense used, the use of past tense directly showed that the text is
recount which retell past events always used past tense. The words that show the
sequence of events will make the story read systematically. It can be concluded
that language features convey the story to be more interesting, alive and
systematic to read.
D. The Previous Study
The writer takes three previous studies related her research which the title
is an analysis of students‘ error in writing recount text. The detail explanation is
below.
The first previous study was written by Nur Elah Amaliah entitled An
Error Analysis on Students‘ Writing Recount Text a Case Study at Second Grade
of SMP Al-Kholidin Kebayoran Baru, Jakarta Selatan. The objective of her
research was to analyze the students‘ error in writing recount text and to know the
highest frequency of the students‘ types of error made by Second Grade of SMP
Al-Kholidin. The Errors Classification in her research covers error in Article,
52
Capitalization, Omission, Punctuation, Spelling, Tenses, Word Choice, and Word
Order. The result of the research was 5.4% errors in Article, 0.5% errors in
Capitalization, 11.4% errors in Omission, 1.6% errors in Punctuation, 5.4% errors
in Spelling, 55.4% errors in Tenses, 4.4% errors in Word Choice, 15.2% errors in
Word Order. It can be concluded that the highest error made by students was in
Tenses area and the lowest was error in Article.118
The second pervious study was conducted by Nurwahid which the title is
Grammatical Error Analysis of Students‘ Writing Recount Text a Case Study at
Second grade Students of SMP Nusantara Plus. The objective of his study was to
analyze the common error on students‘ writing made by the second grade students
of Junior High School. He used Betty Schrampfer Azzar‘s Errors Classification to
analyze the students‘ errors. The research finding showed that the common kind
of errors that the students made was error in Verb Tense which received 93 errors
from 301 errors or 30.89%. The other students‘ error was in Add a Word which
the result was 59 errors or 19.60%, and 33 or 10.96% errors in Spelling. Those
were the top-three errors made by students. Most of the errors were detected
caused by Interlingual Transfer which the total was 180 causes or 67.66%.119
The third previous study was An Analysis of The Second Grade Students‘
Grammatical Errors in Writing written by Roghibah at SMP YMJ Tangerang
Selatan. Her study was to analyze and to classify the types of students‘
grammatical errors in writing. Besides, the purpose of the study was to find out
the frequency of occurrence and to find out the causes of errors which students
made in paragraph. The Grammatical Error covered into six areas, namely: Tense,
Subject Verb, Word Choice, Spelling, Capitalization, and Noun Phrase which
adapted from Azar‘s Grammatical Error theory. The highest frequency was Tense
which the total was 56.48% or 61 errors. The result of the Error Analysis process
118
Nur Elah Amaliah, ―An Error Analysis on Students‘ Writing Recount Text (A Case
Study at Second Grade of SMP Al-Kholidin Kebayoran Baru, Jakarta Selatan)‖, Skripsi in UIN
Syarif Hidayatullah Jakarta, Jakarta, 2012, tidak dipublikasikan. 119
Nurwahid, ―Grammatical Error Analysis of Students‘ Writing Recount Text (A Case
Study at Second grade Students of SMP Nusantara Plus)‖, Skripsi in UIN Syarif Hidayatullah
Jakarta, Jakarta 2013, tidak dipublikasikan.
53
showed that students committed errors into four types: Omission, Addition,
Misnformation/Miselection and Misorder. Misformation was the highest error
made by students which the total was 62.04% of all the total errors made by
students. Intralingual Transfer which the result was 89 or 82.40% was the highest
cause of error of students‘ writing.120
120
Roghibah, ―An Analysis of The Second Grade Students‘ Grammatical Errors in
Writing‖. Skripsi in UIN Syarif Hidayatullah Jakarta, Jakarta, 2013, tidak dipublikasikan.
54
CHAPTER III
RESEARCH METHODLOGY
A. The Place and Time of the Research
The writer conducted this research started from 4th
—6th
of December 2013
at SMP Trimulia which is located on Jl. H. Adam Malik No. 1, Petukangan
Selatan, Pesanggrahan, Jakarta Selatan.
B. The Method of Research
Error Analysis is considered as qualitative research. A qualitative research
can be conducted by using a case study. In this study, the writer used a case study
to do the research and she employed descriptive analysis to deliver the result of
research. There are several procedures in conducting Error Analysis and she chose
the procedure of Error Analysis based on Ellis and Barkhuizen. She classified the
students’ errors in writing recount text by using Betty S. Azar’s classification of
errors, and then she analyzed the errors to find the sources of students’ errors and
using Brown’s theory to reveal them. After she calculated the data to get the result
of total errors and then she interpreted the data descriptively. Finally, she could
have a conclusion based on the result of students’ total errors.
C. The Population and Sample of Research
The subject in this research is the second grade students of SMP Trimulia
Jakarta Selatan. The second grade students are divided into five classes A, B, C,
D, E and the writer took a class to conduct the research using purposive cluster
sampling used for specific purpose to generate a more efficient probability sample
in term of monetary and/or time resources.1 The class was VIII-A. There were 30
students’ who took part in the research.
1 Charles Teddlie and Fen Yu, Mixed Method Sampling: A Typology with Examples, Journal of
Mixed Methods Research, 1;77;2007, pp. 79—80.
55
D. The Instrument of the Research
The writer collected the data by giving test to the students. The test
instrument was to write recount text. She gave a writing test for a recount text
telling their unforgettable moment. Then she distributed the test papers to all
students. When the students finished their writing, the papers were collected and
then the writer circled in the incorrect words. Then, the writer asked them to
correct and revise the circling words and collecting the papers again. After all the
data have been collected, the writer analyzed them.
E. The Technique of Data Analysis
The writer used qualitative research in her study which the method is
conveyed in descriptive analysis way to describe and to interpret the result of
qualitative data. To get the qualitative result, the data will be calculated and drew
up in the table of percentage which the formula as follows:
P= Percentage
F= Frequency of error occurred
N= Number of cases (total frequent / total individual)
F. The Procedure of Research
Conducting research needs a process or some stapes. The writer did some
procedures to conduct her research as a process. The procedures are elaborated
below:
1. The writer needs to collect the data. Therefore before conducting the
research she already prepared an instrument or a test for the students.
The instrument/test consists of instruction to compose a recount text.
2. She came to school to ask the principle’s permission who has the
authority to allow the writer conducted the research. After getting the
56
permission, the writer was allowed to meet the English teacher to
arrange time for doing the research.
3. The writer did her research in the class VIII-A, and she got the class as
sample of her research based on purposive cluster sampling. Before
giving the writing test she watched the teaching learning process. The
English teacher gave explanation to the students which the topic was
recount text. After explaining the material, the writer gave instruction
and guidelines how to do the writing test.
4. Next, she collected the students’ writings test and checking it by
circling the wrong words or sentences and returning it to the students
to correct their writing by themselves.
5. Then, the students’ writings were collected again and the writer
checked it once more to find whether the students could correct the
words or not, if students could correct it that means he/she did a
mistake and vice versa means he/she did an error and then she
identified the errors.
6. Next, the writer analyzed the writing test to find the most common
grammatical errors made by students based on Betty S. Azar’s
classification of errors.
7. She calculated the total errors by drawing it up in a table based on the
classification of errors then she made the result of total errors into
percentages and charts.
8. The writer analyzed and classifying the sources of errors based on
Brown’s theory and then she explained the sources of errors made by
the students. The total number of the sources of errors is drawn up in a
table and converted into percentages and chart.
9. Then she interpreted all of the data descriptively.
10. The last step was she made conclusion of her research.
57
CHAPTER IV
THE RESEARCH FINDING
A. The Description and Analysis of Data
1. The Description and Analysis of Grammatical Errors
The writer has identified the students’ error and she has calculated the
number of each error. She draws up the result of calculation into table and
converting them into percentages. Then, she makes a pie chart based on the result.
After that, she interprets the data after processing the result. This table below is
the recapitulation of the students’ recount text writing errors.
Table 4.1
The Classification of Errors
The
Students
The Classification of Error
Total
Sin
gu
lar
- P
lura
l
Word
Form
Word
Ch
oic
e
Ver
b T
ense
Ad
d a
Word
Om
it a
Word
Word
Ord
er
Inco
mp
lete
Sen
ten
ce
Sp
elli
ng
Pu
nct
uati
on
Cap
itali
zati
on
Art
icle
Mea
nin
g n
ot
Cle
ar
Ru
n-O
n S
ente
nce
Student 1 1 1 9 4 7 3 4 1 0 0 9 0 4 2 45
Student 2 0 0 2 4 1 2 2 0 4 1 6 1 0 3 26
Student 3 7 1 9 11 2 3 5 0 0 3 10 0 1 3 55
Student 4 0 1 3 18 4 0 1 0 5 3 8 0 0 10 53
Student 5 1 1 3 2 5 1 2 0 1 3 8 3 1 0 31
Student 6 1 1 5 3 2 2 2 0 0 1 8 1 0 3 29
Student 7 0 0 1 4 1 0 2 0 3 4 12 1 0 3 31
Student 8 1 0 4 16 3 2 1 0 6 4 9 0 0 12 58
Student 9 0 3 10 0 5 2 0 0 1 1 4 1 0 2 29
Student 10 0 11 15 4 9 6 1 0 4 3 2 0 0 0 55
Student 11 0 0 1 2 0 0 0 0 7 3 10 0 0 0 23
Student 12 1 0 5 0 2 2 4 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 16
Student 13 0 0 4 0 1 0 0 0 4 0 2 0 1 0 12
58
Student 14 1 1 3 4 1 0 0 0 0 1 2 1 0 0 14
Student 15 0 0 2 4 1 0 0 0 1 2 6 0 0 0 16
Student 16 0 0 1 1 2 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 9
Student 17 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 9 1 0 0 11
Student 18 0 0 0 0 2 0 3 0 0 0 2 1 0 0 8
Student 19 0 1 6 0 4 1 1 0 0 0 6 0 0 0 19
Student 20 0 0 1 11 3 3 1 1 10 2 1 0 2 0 35
Student 21 4 1 5 1 4 1 1 0 1 0 8 0 0 0 26
Student 22 0 2 5 5 4 2 3 0 5 3 4 1 1 1 36
Student 23 0 0 2 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 14 0 0 0 20
Student 24 0 0 1 0 2 0 0 0 2 5 16 1 0 7 34
Student 25 1 0 7 1 3 1 8 0 3 0 6 0 0 1 31
Student 26 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 2 2 0 0 0 0 6
Student 27 0 2 3 2 3 1 0 0 1 1 11 2 0 0 26
Student 28 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 7 0 0 0 12
Student 29 0 2 2 5 1 0 0 0 3 0 7 3 0 1 24
Student 30 3 5 0 3 7 3 2 0 4 2 12 3 2 1 47
Total 21 34 110 105 81 38 45 3 71 45 200 22 13 49 837
Percentage
of Error 2.5
1%
4.0
6%
13.1
4%
12.5
4%
9.6
8%
4.5
4%
5.3
8%
0.3
6%
8.4
8%
5.3
8%
23.9
0%
2.6
3%
1.5
5%
5.8
5%
100
%
59
The precentages of the recapitulation of students’ errors are converted into
a pie chart. The pie chart covers the highset until the lowest rank as follows.
Figure 4.1
The Students’ Types of Errors
The pie chart above based on the students’ writing data explains the
varieties of errors that students made. The writer would like to elaborate the result
of the pie chart above started from the highest error number until the lowest rank.
1) Capitalization
Most of students made error in capitalization which the error is
200 or 23.90%. An example sentence of it is “First, we Look The
Elephants.” It should be “First, we look the elephants.” (See
appendix table 4.9, p.8). The other example of it is “On monday I
24%
13%
13% 10%
8%
6%
5%
5%
5% 4%
3% 2%
2%
0%
The Types of Errors
Capitalization
Word Choice
Verb Tense
Add a Word
Spelling
Run-On Sentence
Word Order
Punctuation
Omit a Word
Word Form
Article
Singular-Plural
Meaning not Clear
Incomplete Sentence
60
went to malioboro with my uncle.” it should be “On Monday I went
to Malioboro with my uncle.” (See appendix table 4.19, p.35). The
writer assumes that the error caused by communication strategy.
Writing is different from speaking. When speaking the students don’t
pay attention to the capital letter and in writing the students have to
pay attention in capital letter. Therefore, capitalization error occurred
because the students didn’t capitalize the letter properly.
2) Word Choice
The students made 110 word choice errors or 13.14%. An
example sentence of it is “next ^ me ^ exit from animal’s garden….”
It should be “next to me was the exit of zoo….” (See appendix table
4.3, p.3). Other example of error in word choice is “On sunday 12th
mei.” It should be “On Sunday 12nd
Mei.” (See appendix table 4.3,
p.1). The writer thinks that the errors are caused by interlingual
transfer. It may occur when the students didn’t know the appropriate
word to compose in the paragraph because they translated the
Indonesian language into English directly and it becomes error.
Intralingual transfer also can be the cause of this error. The students
generalize one rule because they have not mastered yet the knowledge.
3) Verb Tense
Verb tense has 105 errors or 12.54%. The example is “The
driver could not controls his car because he drove fast.” The correct
sentence is “The driver could not control his car because he drove
fast.” (See appendix table 4.17, p.32). The other example is “We were
go a half past six.” The correct sentence is “We went at half past six.”
(See appendix table 4.9, p.17). The writer assumes that the error
caused by interlingual transfer because Indonesian language has
different grammatical rules from English. Verb doesn’t have to change
from the present to past or future and in English verb needs to change
from the present to past or future to express the tense. Especially for
61
the past verb which is divided into regular and irregular verb is
confusing enough for the students because it is not available in
Indonesian language. Sometimes it happened when students have
learnt a rule of grammar and they apply it the rule for all other rules
and this source of error called intralingual transfer.
4) Add a Word
The students made 81 add a word error or 9.68%. The example
of the error is “my friends and I went ^ camping.” which it should be
“my friends and I went to camping.” (See appendix table 4.20, p.36).
The other example of this error is “We walked down ^ got on the bus.”
which the correct sentence is “We walked down and got on the bus.”
(See appendix table 4.21, p.37). The writer predicts that the error is
caused by interlingual transfer and communication strategy. The
students can be influenced by their mother tongue language and also it
can be that the students create an easy strategy to write their story but
instead the strategy is not appropriate and it becomes error.
5) Spelling
Spelling has 71 errors or 8.48%. The example of error is “he
and I first meat ^ kidergarten…” which the correct is “he and I first
met in kindergarten….” (See appendix table 4.10, p.19). This error
can be caused by context of learning and communication strategy.
English is a language which has different in spoken and written, when
the student listen or talk in English they don’t think of the spelling but
when they have to write a paragraph they approximate the spelling and
unfortunately their strategy to approximate sometimes can be an error.
The error that caused by context of learning can be happened from the
students themselves or the teacher. Probably the teacher ever gave a
wrong spelling or the students don’t look carefully the English word
they learn, so the write incorrect spelling.
62
6) Run-On Sentence
Run-On sentence has 49 or 5.85% errors. The example of this
error is “we were go at half past six ^ my father drove The car and my
mother sat in front seat ^ mean while I and my sister sat at the back
sedt.” which the correct sentence is “We went at half past six. My
father drove the car and my mother sat in front seat, meanwhile my
sister and I sat at the back seat.” (See appendix table 4.9, p.17). The
writer assumes that the major of this error is context of learning. The
students didn’t pay attention to the coherence of sentence they wrote.
Therefore they ignore how to connect one sentence to the other
sentences correctly and it produced run-on sentence error.
7) Word Order
The writer believes that the source of word order error is
interlingual transfer. It can be proved in this sentence “Next we took
some pictur beautiful.” That it must be “Next we took some
beautiful pictures.” (See appendix table 4.27, p.49). The error caused
the students used Indonesian language to transfer their sentence into
English and it doesn’t appropriate with English rule therefore it
becomes error. The students made 45 or 5.38% word order errors.
8) Punctuation
The students made 45 or 5.38% punctuation error. The writer
assumes that this error can be caused by communication strategy. Most
of them didn’t pay attention to use the correct punctuation because
perhaps the students didn’t realize yet the importance punctuation in
writing. Therefore, they sometimes missed and misused punctuation or
even ignored to use it. The example is “though I was tired ^ it was
fun^” “Though I was tired, it was fun.” (See appendix table 4.26, p 47)
63
9) Omit a Word
Omit a word has 38 or 4.54% errors. The example of this error
is “after that we went to for a walk.” That it should be “After that we
went for a walk.”(See appendix table 4.25, p.45). The writer assumes
that intralingual transfer is the source of omit a word error. The
students wrote the word that didn’t need in the sentence. It happened
because the students had over-generalization and it turned to be error.
10) Word Form
There is 34 or 4.06% word form error. The writer thinks that
the caused is intralingual transfer because the students generalized the
rule that it’s not correct to apply to other word class. It occurred
because the students haven’t mastered the rule yet. For example of this
error is “…with my family ^ finished bathing and taking picture.”
That it should be “…with my family after finished taking a bath and
taking picture.”(See appendix table 4.24, p.43).
11) Article
Article has 22 or 2.63% errors. This kind of error can be caused
by interlingual transfer and intralingual transfer. Interlingual transfer
source of error happened when student didn’t use article in the word
that should use article because in Indonesian language the rule of using
article is not available. Intralingual transfer occurred when the students
used article for all of the words which do not need to use article. The
example of this error is “I and my family went to the cibodas.” which
it should be “my family and I went to Cibodas.” (See appendix table
4.32, p.56).
12) Singular-Plural
The students made 21 or 2.51% singular-plural error. It is
caused by interlingual transfer which in Indonesian language is not
available singular-plural noun. It differs from English which the
64
singular and plural nouns are different divided into uncountable and
countable plural noun, and regular and irregular plural noun. This is
the example of singular-plural error “Suddenly, I have cramps in my
foot.” That it should be “Suddenly, I had cramp in my foot.” (See
appendix table 4.14, p.32).
13) Meaning Not Clear
In this type of error the students made 13 or 1.55% errors. The
writer predicts that this error caused by interlingual transfer. The
students used inappropriate word to express their feeling. Therefore the
meaning becomes not clear. The example is “my family and five
brother go to animal garden, with climb onto something a car.”
That probably the intended sentence is “My family and five brothers
went to the zoo by a car.” (See appendix table 4.3, p.1).
14) Incomplete Sentence
The lowest rank error that made by the students is incomplete
sentence. It has 3 or 0.36% errors. This error is caused by
communication strategy. The students didn’t know how to write the
proper words to interpret their intention and then they tried to write
everything on their mind based on their version and this strategy
becomes error. For example is “The scenery was very interesting along
winding road. After we felt satisfied.” That it could be “The scenery
was very interesting along winding road. We were satisfied.” (See
appendix table 4.28, p.51).
2. The Description and Analysis of Sources of Errors
Based on the description of data above, the writer would like to analyze
the data by presenting the sources of students’ errors. She analyzes the students’
sources of error according to Brown et al theory. Brown divides the sources of
error into four categories. They are interlingual transfer, intralingual transfer,
65
context of learning and communication strategy. After analyzing the data, she
calculated them and then she draws up the total calculation into table. After that
she makes the percentages based on the total result and converting the percentages
into a pie chart. The table below is the recapitulation of students’ sources of
errors.
Table 4.2
The Recapitulation of Students’ Sources of Errors
The
Students
The Sources of Error
Total Interlingual
Transfer
Intralingual
Transfer
Context
of
Learning
Communication
Strategies
Student 1 24 4 0 17 45
Student 2 8 3 2 13 26
Student 3 34 4 0 17 55
Student 4 22 0 3 28 53
Student 5 13 4 1 13 31
Student 6 13 3 0 13 29
Student 7 5 6 0 20 31
Student 8 19 6 0 33 58
Student 9 12 6 0 11 29
Student 10 22 12 2 19 55
Student 11 2 0 0 21 23
Student 12 10 2 1 3 16
Student 13 4 1 0 7 12
Student 14 6 5 0 3 14
Student 15 2 2 0 12 16
Student 16 5 2 0 2 9
Student 17 0 1 0 10 11
Student 18 4 1 0 3 8
Student 19 9 2 0 8 19
Student 20 12 0 1 22 35
66
Student 21 10 2 4 11 27
Student 22 12 2 3 19 36
Student 23 3 2 0 15 20
Student 24 1 2 0 31 34
Student 25 16 3 0 12 31
Student 26 0 0 0 6 6
Student 27 8 4 0 14 26
Student 28 2 1 0 9 12
Student 29 7 6 0 11 24
Student 30 10 9 3 25 47
Total 295 94 20 428 837
Percentage
Source of
Error 35.24% 11.23% 2.39% 51.14% 100%
67
After getting the percentages from the recapitulation of students’ sources
of errors above, the writer displays them into a pie chart started from the highest
until the least rank as follows.
Figure 4.2
The Students’ Sources of Errors
The writer would like to elaborate the pie chart of the students’ sources of
errors above into explanation started from the highest until the lowest rank as
follows.
1) Communication Strategy
The major source of the students’ error is communication
strategy which the total result is 428 or 51.14%. Communication
strategy related to the students’ learning style. The students made a
strategy to comprehend the material easily. They try to explore a way
in delivering their intended message in writing based on their version.
Unfortunately, their strategy leads them to produce the error. These are
some examples of communication strategy:
Communication Strategy
51% Interlingual Transfer 35%
Intralingual Transfer 11%
Context of Learning 3%
The Sources of Errors
68
a) “After ^ some souvenirs we went to for a walk and how much to
meet new friend she is Lisa name.” it should be “After buying
some souvenirs we went for a walk and we met many people, I
had a new friend, her name is Lisa.” (See appendix table 4.30,
p.58). The student omitted a word “buying” and adding a word
“to” but the intended message still can be comprehended. It’s so
much different from the last sentence “how much to meet new
friend she is Lisa name.” which the intended meaning must be
comprehended hard. This is the student’s strategy to express the
idea in his/her mind in writing based on his/her version.
b) “I visited my family. She lived in water park.” (See appendix
table 4.15, p.13). The student had inappropriate word choice “my
family” that it should be “my relative”, “in water park” which it
should be “near Water Park.” and having incorrect word choice
“She” for the pronoun of my “my family (my relative)” which it
should be “They”. The student tried to communicate his/her idea
about his/her relative but the strategy leads him/her to the error.
c) “I and ^ family ^ so very-very happy.” It should be “My family
and I were very happy.”(See appendix table 4.18, p.34). The
student’s intention is to deliver his/her happiness but the
inappropriate word choice turns it into error. The word “so very-
very” must be omitted becomes “very” because both of them has
same meaning. The student also had add a word error, that is
possessive adjective “my” and to be “were”.
2) Interlingual Transfer
Interlingual transfer is the second highest common source of
error made by student which the total result is 295 or 35.24% error.
Interlingual transfer occurred when the students are influenced by the
first language in using the target language. It’s commonly happened
69
for the foreign learners when they learn second language or foreign
language, the interference of first language involved in language
learning process. These are the example errors caused by interlingual
transfer:
a) “At night, we held a fire camp night.” it should be “At night, we
held a camp fire night” (See appendix table 4.20, p.36). The
student’s error is caused by interlingual transfer which in
Indonesian language has different formation of noun from English.
It can be seen by his/her word order which it is the word order in
Indonesian language rule.
b) “I and family went to home grandmother.” that the correct
sentence is “My family and I went to grandmother’s home.”
(See appendix table 4.37, p.48). The student was influenced by the
interlingual transfer because in Indonesian language the possessive
of noun is different from English and the student still used
Indonesian language way in the sentence.
c) “That ^ a unforgettable moment and happy.” It should be “That
was an unforgettable and happy moment.” (See appendix table
4.7, p.14). The student didn’t use to be, proper article and also
having incorrect word order. Due to in Indonesian language the
rule of using article and to be are not available therefore the student
misused the article, and didn’t use to be in the sentence. Moreover,
he/she had incorrect word order which in Indonesian language
adjective word put after noun but in English adjective word put
before noun. It reflects that the student was still influenced by
mother tongue language or called interlingual transfer.
70
3) Intralingual Transfer
Intralingual transfer has 94 or 11.23% error. When students
who learnt a rule of target language but they haven’t mastered it yet
and they applied it in the new rule, it is called intralingual transfer.
Therefore the students had incorrect sentence structure because they
generalized one rule to others. These are the examples of intralingual
transfer:
a) “And me ^ happy” which the correct is “And I was happy.” (See
appendix table 4.3, p. 3). The student misused object pronoun
“me” therefore he/she used it in subject pronoun. The student also
didn’t use to be in the sentence.
b) “We were go at half past six” which it should be “We went at half
past six.” (See appendix table 4.9, p. 17). The student misused the
verb of past tense (to be) “were”. It caused by intralingual transfer
because the student generalized that the word “we” must be
followed by “were”.
c) “On Sunday my grandma and I went to the Tangkuban Perahu”
it should be “On Sunday my grandma and I went to Tangkuban
Perahu” (See appendix table 4.18, p.33). The student made over-
generalization of using article the, therefore he/she applied it in the
proper noun which do not need to use article the.
4) Context of Learning
The lowest source of error is context of learning which the
error is 20 or 2.39%. Context of learning can be caused by the teacher,
textbook material, or the student itself. Sometimes, the teacher mislead
explanation improperly contextualized based on the textbook when
he/she explains the pattern in the classroom or the textbook itself gives
hardly comprehensible explanation for the students, and may be the
71
students have misperception of teacher’s explanation from the
materials given that leads them to make the error. These are the
examples of context of learning:
a) “…and the next day morning we went to the recreation area is a
very beautiful waterfall.” which the correct “…and the next
morning we went to the recreation area which has a very beautiful
waterfall.” (See appendix table 4.24, p.42). The student didn’t use
the relative clause to connect word in the sentence and it can be
caused by the teacher’s explanation which didn’t have wide
coverage therefore the student wrote inappropriate sentence. The
student also had incorrect word “day morning” it can be caused
the student’s perception related using the word “day”.
b) “…we went a look the Tiger, Elephant, Snake, Bird, etc.” it
should be “…we went a look the tigers, elephants, snakes, birds,
etc.” (See appendix table 4.23, p.41). The student didn’t use the
plural noun, it can be caused in teaching learning process the
student only was familiar with the singular noun, therefore the
student didn’t use the singular-plural noun properly in the topic
he/she write related the number of animals in zoo.
72
B. The Interpretation of Data
The writer would like to interpret the data based on the description
and analysis data above. The result shows that the three most common
grammatical errors made by the students in recount text writing. The first
is capitalization which has 200 or 23.90% error. The major source of
capitalization errors is communication strategy. English is a language
which has difference in spoken and written. When the students speak in
English they didn’t think about the capital letter but when they write a
paragraph they have to pay attention to the capital and non-capital letter.
Therefore most of students had error in capitalization.
The second most common error is word choice. It has 110 word
choice errors or 13.14%. The sources of error are interlingual transfer and
communication strategy. The student chose wrong word whose meaning
is not appropriate in the sentence. The last is verb tense which the number
of error is 105 or 12.54%. The major source of verb tense error is
interlingual transfer. In Indonesian language the transform verb from
present to past or future tense is not available. It is so different from
English which each every verb has different pattern that explains the tense
occurred. Moreover the verb of past tense divided into regular and
irregular form and sometimes it is confusing for those learners.
Furthermore, the three lowest students’ grammatical errors in
recount text writing are incomplete sentence which it has 3 or 0.36%
errors, meaning not clear is 13 or 1.55% errors and 21 or 2.51% singular-
plural errors. The first lowest frequency of error is Incomplete sentence
error happened when the students wrote a sentence which missed some
words or verbs which have major meaning in the sentence. The source of
this error caused context of learning. The students’ competence of rules
was not complete yet, therefore it led them miss some words or verbs in
the sentence.
73
The second is meaning not clear. It happened when students wrote a
paragraph and the paragraph prevented to be comprehended by reader
because some incorrect patterns or inappropriate words in the sentence,
therefore the sentence didn’t have meaning. This kind of error is
interlingual transfer because the students translated their first language
into the target language word by word or communication strategy when
students tried to explore an easy writing way to write their idea based on
their version but it led them to the error.
The last is Singular-plural. It happened because the students don’t
have singular-plural rule in their first language and it differs from the
target language which has the rule of singular-plural noun. Moreover, the
nouns in the target language divided into countable and uncountable noun
and the plural nouns divided into regular and irregular patterns, is
sometimes confusing the learner. Therefore the dominant source of
singular-plural error is interlingual transfer.
74
CHAPTER V
CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION
A. Conclusion
Based on the data in the previous chapter, the writer would like to draw a
conclusion that the second grade students of SMP Trimulia Jakarta Selatan still
made many errors in recount text writing. The most common types of errors made
by the students are capitalization with the number of errors is 200 or 23.90%,
word choice with the number of error is 110 or 13.14% and verb tense with the
number of error is 105 or 12.54%.
The sources of errors identified in this study are communication strategy
with the number is 428 or 51.14% source of error, interlingual transfer with the
source of error is 295 or 35.24%, intralingual transfer with the source of error is
94 or 11.23%, context of learning with the number source of error is 20 or 2.39%.
B. Suggestion
After the writer carried out the research, she would like to give some
suggestion related to this result of research. Hopefully it can be applied easily in
teaching learning activity and decrease the errors.
1) The teacher should have brainstorming as warming-up before she starts
teaching learning in classroom in order to make the students happy and
relax. It also can help the students to switch their concentration from the
previous class-subject to focus on the material.
2) The teacher should create an impressing teaching writing technique
which can catch the students’ attention toward English writing activity.
3) Writing has some rules and text types. Therefore the teacher should
simplify the explanation without less the substance of material given.
4) The teacher should give feedback toward the students’ writing and
communicating their progress in writing.
75
5) Writing is a skill which needs a process and practice. Therefore, the
students should practice writing started from the simplest one such as
writing a daily activity or writing their past experience like recount text.
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1
Table 4.3
Student 1
Identification Classification
of Error Explanation Sources of Error Reconstruction
(1) (2) animal
(3)garden
(4)on
(5)sunday (6)12th
(7)^
(8)mei. (9)
my family and
(10)five brother
(11)go to (12)
animal garden,
(13)with climb
onto something a
car.
1) Word choice
2) Capitalization
3) Capitalization
4) Capitalization
5) Capitalization
6) Word choice
7) Add a word
8) Capitalization
9) Capitalization
10) Singular-
plural
11) Verb Tense
12) Word choice
13) Meaning not
clear
1) Choosing
incorrect word
“animal garden”
of zoo.
2) The first letter of
word “animal” in
the title must be
capitalized.
3) The first letter of
word “garden” in
the title must be
capitalized.
4) The first letter of
paragraph “on”
must be
capitalized.
5) The first letter of
proper noun
“sunday” must
be capitalized.
6) Choosing
incorrect word
“12th
” for the
ordinal number
of 12nd
.
7) Adding a word
“of”.
8) Not capitalizing
proper noun
“mei”.
9) Not capitalizing
the first letter of
paragraph “my
family”.
10) Not using –s for
the plural word
“five brother”.
11) Incorrect verb
of past tense
“go”.
12) Choosing
incorrect word
“animal garden”
1) Interlingual
Transfer.
2) Communication
Strategy.
3) Communication
Strategy.
4) Communication
Strategy.
5) Communication
Strategy.
6) Intralingual
Transfer.
7) Interlingual
Transfer.
8) Communication
Strategy.
9) Communication
Strategy.
10) Interlingual
Transfer.
11) Interlingual
Transfer
12) Interlingual
Transfer.
13) Communication
Strategy.
Zoo
On Sunday 12nd
of May. My family
and five brothers
went to the zoo by
a car.
2
of zoo
13) The sentence
couldn’t be
comprehended.
(1)after (2)^
already (3)to
animal garden, (4)me (5)queue up
(6)^ buy ticket in
counter, (7)and
me then direct
enter, my family
and five brother (8)seek (9)place
cool for eat
together (10)with,
(11)after eat. my
family and five
brother
(12)exceed
(13)stable
elephant, and
(14)it appears
stable elephant
wide once and are
hole big in edges (15)next me
stable lion stable
more wide from
stable elephant.
1) Capitalization
2) Add a word
3) Word choice
4) Word choice
5) Verb Tense
6) Add a word
7) Word form
8) Verb tense
9) Word order
10) Omit a word
11) Incomplete
sentence
12) Verb tense
13) Word order
14) Meaning not
clear.
15) Run-on
sentence
1) The first letter
word of “after”
in paragraph
must be
capitalized.
2) Adding a word
“we arrived”.
3) Choosing
incorrect word
“to animal
garden”.
4) Choosing
incorrect word
“me”.
5) Incorrect verb
tense “queue”.
6) Adding a word
“to”.
7) Having incorrect
word order.
8) Incorrect verb of
past tense
“seek”.
9) Having incorrect
word order
“place cool”.
10) Omitting a word
“with”.
11) Having
incomplete
sentence “after
eat”.
12) Incorrect verb
tense “exceed”.
13) Incorrect word
order “stable
elephant”.
14) The sentence
doesn’t have
clear meaning.
15) The sentence
runs on caused
without
punctuation.
1) Communication
Strategy.
2) Interlingual
Transfer.
3) Interlingual
Transfer
4) Intralingual
Transfer.
5) Interlingual
Transfer.
6) Interlingual
Transfer.
7) Communication
Strategy.
8) Interlingual
Transfer.
9) Interlingual
Transfer.
10) Interlingual
Transfer.
11) Communication
Strategy.
12) Interlingual
Transfer.
13) Interlingual
Transfer.
14) Communication
Strategy.
15) Communication
Strategy.
After we already
arrived in the zoo,
I queued up to buy
ticket in counter.
Then directly my
family and I
entered the zoo
and sought a cool
place to eat
together. After
eating, we
exceeded elephant
stable. The stable
was wide one and
there was a big
hole in edge of the
stable. The next
was lion stable. It
was wider than the
elephant stable.
3
(1)next (2)me
(3)stable gorilla
(4)^ (5)in you not
may carry snack
to stable gorilla (6)and stable
gorilla wide once
(7)^ many various
gorilla (8)in
there.
1) Capitalization
2) Word choice
3) Word order
4) Run-on
Sentence
5) Meaning not
clear.
6) Meaning not
clear.
7) Add a word
8) Omit a word
1) Not capitalizing
the first letter of
paragraph
“next”.
2) Choosing
incorrect word
“me”.
3) Incorrect word
order “stable
gorilla”.
4) The sentence
runs on caused
without
punctuation.
5) The sentence
doesn’t have
clear meaning.
6) The sentence
couldn’t be
comprehended.
7) Adding a word
“there were”.
8) Omitting a word
“in there”.
1) Communication
Strategy.
2) Intralingual
Transfer.
3) Interlingual
Transfer.
4) Communication
strategy.
5) Communication
strategy.
6) Communication
strategy.
7) Interlingual
Transfer.
8) Interlingual
Transfer.
Next I was in
gorilla stable. You
weren’t allowed to
carry snack to the
gorilla stable. The
gorilla stable was
wide one, and
there were many
various gorillas.
(1)next (2)^ me
(3)^ exit (4)from
(5)animal’s
garden and (6)go
in the direction of
to house.
(7)and (8)me
(9)^ happy.
1) Capitalization.
2) Add a word.
3) Add a word.
4) Word choice.
5) Word choice.
6) Word order.
7) Omit a word.
8) Word choice.
9) Add a word.
1) Not capitalizing
the first letter of
paragraph “next”.
2) Adding a word
“to”.
3) Adding a word
“was”.
4) Choosing
incorrect word
“from”.
5) Choosing
incorrect word
“animal’s
garden”.
6) Incorrect word
order.
7) Omitting a word
“and”.
8) Choosing
incorrect word
“me”.
9) Adding a word
“was”.
1) Communication
Strategy.
2) Interlingual
Transfer.
3) Interlingual
Transfer.
4) Interlingual
Transfer.
5) Interlingual
Transfer.
6) Interlingual
Transfer.
7) Interlingual
Transfer.
8) Intralingual
Transfer.
9) Interlingual
Transfer.
Next to me was
the exit of zoo and
the direction to go
home.
I was happy.
4
Table 4.4
Student 2
Identification Classification
of Error Explanation Sources of Error Reconstruction
On Sunday
(1)2st
(2)^
(3)(4)desember,
(5)I and my
family went to
Ragunan by car.
We (6)were go at
half past six (7)^
my father drove
(8)The car and my
mother sat in front
seat (9)^
(10)mean while
(11)I and my
sister (12)we
always sang along
the way. (13)we
arrived in
(14)ragunan at
08.00 o’clock.
1) Word choice.
2) Add a word.
3) Capitalization.
4) Spelling.
5) Word order.
6) Verb tense.
7) Run-on
sentence.
8) Capitalization.
9) Run-on
sentence.
10) Spelling.
11) Word order.
12) Omit a word.
13) Capitalizati
on.
14) Capitalizati
on.
1) Choosing
incorrect word
“2th
” for the
ordinal number
of 2nd
.
2) Adding a word
“of”.
3) Not capitalizing
proper noun
“desember”.
4) Misspelling the
word “desember”
5) Incorrect word
order “I and my
family”.
6) Incorrect verb of
past tense “were
go”.
7) The sentence
runs on caused
without
punctuation.
8) Capitalizing a
word improperly.
9) The sentence
runs on caused
without
punctuation.
10) Spacing the
word “mean
while”.
11) Incorrect word
order “I and my
family”.
12) Omitting a word
“we”.
13) Not capitalizing
the first letter of
sentence “we”.
14) Not capitalizing
proper noun
“ragunan”.
1) Intralingual
Transfer
2) Interlingual
Trnasfer
3) Communication
Strategy.
4) Interlingual
Transfer.
5) Interlingual
Transfer.
6) Intralingual
Transfer.
7) Communication
Strategy.
8) Communication
Strategy.
9) Communication
Strategy.
10) Communication
Strategy.
11) Interlingual
Transfer.
12) Interlingual
Transfer.
13) Communication
Strategy.
14) Communication
Strategy.
On Sunday 2nd
of
December, my
family and I went
to Ragunan by car.
We went at half
past six, my father
drove the car and
my mother sat in
front seat,
meanwhile my
sister and I always
sang along the
way. We arrived in
Ragunan at 08.00
o’clock.
5
After we
arrived, we
(1)take a (2)briak
for (3)the
minutes. After
that, we went to
have a look around
(4)the (5)ragunan
zoo.
1) Verb tense.
2) Spelling.
3) Word choice.
4) Article.
5) Capitalization.
1) Incorrect verb of
past tense “take”.
2) Misspelling
“briak” for
break.
3) Choosing
incorrect word
“the minutes” for
a minute.
4) Incorrect article
“the ragunan”.
5) Not capitalizing
proper noun
“ragunan”.
1) Interlingual
Transfer.
2) Communication
Strategy.
3) Context of
Learning.
4) Intralingual
Transfer.
5) Communication
Strategy.
After we
arrived, we took a
break for a minute.
After that, we went
to have a look
around Ragunan
zoo.
First, we looked
the elephants. It is
the big animal.
(1)and we (2)looks
around again
(3)this (4)is a very
funny and
(5)unforget table
moment in my
life(6)^
(7)we all were
happy.
1) Omit a word.
2) Verb tense.
3) Run-on
sentence.
4) Verb tense.
5) Spelling.
6) Punctuation.
7) Capitalization.
1) Omitting a word
“and”.
2) Incorrect verb of
past tense
“looks”.
3) The sentence
runs on caused
without
punctuation.
4) Incorrect verb of
past tense “is”.
5) Misspelling
caused giving
space for word
“unforget table”.
6) Punctuation isn’t
given in the end
of sentence.
7) Not capitalizing
the first letter of
paragraph “we”.
1) Interlingual
Transfer.
2) Context of
Learning.
3) Communication
Strategy.
4) Interlingual
Transfer.
5) Communication
Strategy.
6) Communication
Strategy.
7) Communication
Strategy.
First, we looked
the elephants. It is
the big animal. We
looked around
again. This was
very funny and
unforgettable
moment in my life.
We all were
happy.
Table 4.5
Student 3
Identification Classification
of Error Explanation Sources of Error Reconstruction
(1)on
(2)wednesday 15th
(3)^ November.
(4)my family and
(5)two uncle went
to the (6)animals
1) Capitalization.
2) Capitalization.
3) Add a word.
4) Capitalization.
5) Singular-
plural.
1) Not capitalizing
the first letter of
paragraph “on”.
2) Not capitalizing
proper noun
“wednesday”.
1) Communication
Strategy.
2) Communication
Strategy.
3) Interlingual
Transfer.
On Wednesday
15th
of November.
My family and two
uncles went to the
zoo. I rode on the
motorcycle. After
6
zoo (7) I (8)am
got on the
motorcycle.
(9)after we arrived
at the (10)animal
zoo. (11)mother
(12)buy ticket in
counter. (13)and
my mother already
(14)buy
(15)ticket.
(16)next I (17)am
enter to
(18)animals zoo.
(19)my family and
(20)two uncle
(21)pass by
(22)stable tiger
and after (23)me
(24)pass by
(25)stable bear.
6) Word choice.
7) Run-on
sentence.
8) Verb tense.
9) Capitalization.
10) Word choice.
11) Capitalizati
on.
12) Verb tense.
13) Word choice.
14) Verb tense.
15) Singular-
plural.
16) Capitalizati
on.
17) Verb tense.
18) Word choice.
19) Capitalizati
on.
20) Singular-
plural.
21) Verb tense.
22) Word order.
23) Word choice.
24) Verb tense.
25) Word order.
3) Adding a word
“of”.
4) Not capitalizing
the first letter of
sentence “my
family”.
5) Not having
plural noun “two
uncle”.
6) Choosing
incorrect word
“animals zoo”.
7) The sentence
runs on caused
without
punctuation.
8) Incorrect verb of
past tense “I am
got”.
9) Not capitalizing
the first letter of
sentence “after”.
10) Choosing
incorrect word
“animal zoo”.
11) Not capitalizing
the first letter of
sentence
“mother”.
12) Incorrect verb
of past tense
“buy”.
13) Choosing
incorrect word
“and”.
14) Incorrect verb
of past tense
“buy”.
15) Not having
plural noun
“ticket”.
16) Not capitalizing
the first letter of
sentence “next”.
17) Incorrect verb
of past tense “I
am enter”.
18) Choosing
4) Communication
Strategy.
5) Interlingual
Transfer.
6) Interlingual
Transfer.
7) Communication
Strategy.
8) Intralingual
Transfer.
9) Communication
Strategy.
10) Interlingual
Transfer.
11) Communication
Strategy.
12) Interlingual
Transfer.
13) Interlingual
Transfer.
14) Interlingual
Transfer.
15) Interlingual
Transfer.
16) Communication
Strategy.
17) Intralingual
Transfer.
18) Interlingual
Transfer.
19) Communication
Strategy.
20) Interlingual
Transfer.
21) Interlingual
Transfer.
22) Interlingual
Transfer.
23) Intralingual
Transfer.
24) Interlingual
Transfer.
25) Interlingual
Transfer.
we arrived at the
zoo. Mother
bought ticket in
counter. After my
mother already
bought the ticket.
Next I entered to
the zoo. My family
and two uncles
passed by tiger
stable and after
that I passed by
bear stable.
7
incorrect word
“animals zoo”.
19) Not capitalizing
the first letter of
sentence “my
family”.
20) Not having
plural noun
“two uncle”.
21) Incorrect verb
of past tense
“pass”.
22) Incorrect word
order “stable
tiger”.
23) Choosing
incorrect word
“me”.
24) Incorrect verb
of past tense
“pass”.
25) Incorrect word
order “stable
bear”.
(1)after my
family and (2)two
uncle (3)seek
place for (4)eat
day (5) the next
my family and
(6)two uncle
(7)climb on (8)to
something dragon
boat, after (9)my
family and two
uncle (10)stroll
(11)strive
(12)stable snake,
and (13)stable
monkey and
(14)stable cave
bat(15)^
1) Capitalization.
2) Singular-
plural.
3) Verb tense.
4) Word choice.
5) Run-on
sentence.
6) Singular-
plural.
7) Verb tense.
8) Omit a word.
9) Word choice.
10) Meaning not
clear.
11) Omit a word.
12) Word order.
13) Word order.
14) Word order.
15) Punctuation.
1) Not capitalizing
the first letter of
paragraph “after”.
2) Not having
plural noun “two
uncle”.
3) Incorrect verb of
past tense “seek”.
4) Choosing
incorrect word
“eat lunch” of
word have lunch.
5) The sentence
runs on caused
without
punctuation.
6) Not having
plural noun “two
uncle”.
7) Incorrect verb of
past tense
“climb”.
8) Omitting a word
“to something”.
1) Communication
Strategy
2) Interlingual
Transfer.
3) Interlingual
Transfer.
4) Interlingual
Transfer.
5) Intralingual
Transfer.
6) Interlingual
Transfer.
7) Interlingual
Transfer.
8) Communication
Strategy.
9) Interlingual
Transfer.
10) Interlingual
Transfer
11) Communication
Strategy.
12) Interlingual
Transfer.
After my family
and two uncles
sought place for
lunch. Next my
family and two
uncles climbed on
dragon boat, after
they strolled
around snake
stable, monkey
stable and bat cave
stable.
8
9) Inappropriate
word choice “my
family and two
uncle”.
10) Incorrect verb
of past tense
“stroll”,
11) Omitting a word
“strive”.
12) Incorrect word
order “stable
snake”.
13) Incorrect verb
of past tense
“stable monkey”.
14) Incorrect verb
of past tense
“stable cave bat”.
15) Not having
punctuation in the
end of sentence.
13) Interlingual
Transfer.
14) Interlingual
Transfer.
15) Interlingual
Transfer.
(1)after my
family and (2)two
uncle (3)go around
in (4)animals zoo
(5) (6)my family
and two uncle (7)direct (8)strive
(9)^ (10)door
exit(11)^
1) Capitalization.
2) Singular-
plural.
3) Verb tense.
4) Word choice.
5) Run-on
sentence.
6) Word choice.
7) Vern tense.
8) Omit a word.
9) Add a word.
10) Word form.
11) Punctuation.
1) Not capitalizing
the first letter of
paragraph “after”.
2) Not having
plural noun “two
uncle”.
3) Incorrect verb of
past tense “go”.
4) Choosing
incorrect word
“animals zoo”.
5) The sentence
runs on caused
without
punctuation.
6) Inappropriate
word choice “my
family and two
uncle”.
7) Incorrect verb of
past tense
“direct”.
8) Omitting a word
“strive”.
9) Adding a word
“to”.
10) Incorrect word
1) Communication
Strategy.
2) Interlingual
Transfer.
3) Interlingual
Transfer.
4) Interlingual
Transfer.
5) Communication
Strategy.
6) Interlingual
Transfer.
7) Interlingual
Transfer.
8) Communication
Strategy.
9) Interlingual
Transfer.
10) Interlingual
Transfer.
11) Communication
Strategy.
After my family
and two uncles
went around in the
zoo, we directed to
the exit door.
9
order “door
exit”.
11) Not having
punctuation in
the end of
sentence.
(1)my family
and (2)two uncle
(3)feel happy (4)^
1) Capitalization
2) Singular-
plural
3) Verb tense
4) Punctuation
1) Not capitalizing
the first letter of
paragraph “my
family”.
2) Not having
plural noun “two
uncle”.
3) Incorrect verb of
past tense “feel”.
4) Not having
punctuation in the
end of sentence.
1) Communication
Strategy.
2) Interlingual
Transfer.
3) Interlingual
Transfer.
4) Communication
Strategy.
My family and
two uncles felt
happy.
Table 4.6
Student 4
Identification Classification
of Error Explanation Sources of Error Reconstruction
I (1)wakeup at
05.00 (2)am every
day(3)^ I (4)make
the bed, (5)^ I
(6)go to
(7)batroom for
washing my face,
(8)Brushing my
teeth and also
doing ablution(9),
(10)I and my
family (11)do
(12)shubah prayer
together. I
(13)take
(14)abath and
(15)prepare to
go(16)^ school
after dressing.
(17)mother
(18)goes to
traditional market
1) Verb tense
2) Punctuation
3) Run-on
sentence.
4) Verb tense.
5) Add a word.
6) Verb tense.
7) Spelling.
8) Capitalization.
9) Run-on
sentence.
10) Word form.
11) Verb tense.
12) Capitalizati
on.
13) Verb tense.
14) Spelling
15) Verb tense.
16) Add a word.
17) Capitalizati
on.
18) Verb tense.
1) Incorrect verb of
past tense
“wakeup”.
2) Not having
punctuation in
word “am” for
a.m. 3) The sentence
runs on caused
without
punctuation.
4) Incorrect verb of
past tense
“make”.
5) Adding a word
“before”.
6) Incorrect verb of
past tense “go”.
7) Misspelling
“batroom”.
8) Incorrect
capitalizing letter
1) Interlingual
Transfer.
2) Context of
Learning
3) Interlingual
Transfer.
4) Interlingual
Transfer.
5) Communication
Strategy.
6) Interlingual
Transfer.
7) Communication
Strategy.
8) Communication
Strategy.
9) Communication
Strategy.
10) Interlingual
Transfer.
11) Interlingual
Transfer.
I woke up at
05.00 a.m. every
day. I made the
bed, before I went
to bathroom for
washing my face,
brushing my teeth
and also doing
ablution. My
family and I took
prayer Shubuh
together. I took a
bath and prepared
to go to school
after dressing.
Mother went to
traditional market
for shopping
groceries. Mother
bought vegetables,
fruits, and meat.
We had breakfast
10
for shopping
groceries(19),
mother (20)buy
vegetables, fruits,
and meat. (21)we
(22)have
(23)break fast
(24)^ leaving
home.
19) Punctuation.
20) Verb tense.
21) Capitalizati
on
22) Verb tense
23) Spelling
24) Add a word.
9) Incorrect
punctuation.
10) Incorrect word
order “I and my
family”.
11) Incorrect verb
of past tense
“do”.
12) Not capitalizing
proper noun
“shubuh”.
13) Incorrect verb
of past tense
“take”.
14) Misspelling
“abath”.
15) Incorrect verb
of past tense
“prepare”.
16) Add a word “to”
17) Not capitalizing
first letter in the
first sentence
“mother”.
18) Incorrect verb
of past tense
“goes”.
19) Incorrect
punctuation.
20) Incorrect verb
of past tense
“buy”.
21) Not capitalizing
first letter in the
first sentence
“we”.
22) Incorrect verb
of past tense
“have”.
23) Spacing the
word “break
fast”.
24) Adding a word
“before”.
12) Communication
Strategy.
13) Interlingual
Transfer.
14) Communication
Strategy.
15) Interlingual
Transfer.
16) Interlingual
Transfer.
17) Communication
Strategy.
18) Interlingual
Transfer.
19) Communication
Strategy.
20) Interlingual
Transfer.
21) Communication
Strategy.
22) Interlingual
Transfer.
23) Communication
Strategy.
24) Communication
Strategy.
before leaving
home.
I (1)study
(2)math on
Tuesday,(3)I (4)have to do
1) Verb tense.
2) Capitalization
3) Run-on
sentence.
1) Incorrect verb of
past tense
“study”.
2) Not capitalizing
1) Interlingual
Transfer.
2) Communication
Strategy.
I studied Math
on Tuesday. I had
to do prayer
Dzhuhur at the
11
(5)dzuhur prayer
(6)when the
break(7)(8),(9)my
friends (10)play a
football with me in the field
school(11)I
(12)have (13)a
mateball for
lunch(14), my
father (15)wolks
in the office,(16)
we (17)go back
home after doing
(18)dzuhur
prayer,(19)we (20)do maghrib
prayer after
(21)susent around
6 o’clock,(22)we
(23)eat fried
chickens and
vegetables soup
for
dinner,(24)after
(25)doing (26)isya
prayer, I (27)go to
(28)sleep(29)^
4) Verb tense.
5) Capitalization.
6) Word choice.
7) Add a word.
8) Run-on
sentence.
9) Word order.
10) Verb tense
11) Run-on
sentence
12) Verb tense
13) Spelling
14) Run-on
sentence
15) Verb tense
16) Run-on
sentence
17) Verb tense
18) Capitalizati
on
19) Run-on
sentence
20) Verb tense
21) Spelling
22) Run-on
sentence
23) Verb tense
24) Run-on
sentence
25) Word choice
26) Capitalizati
on
27) Verb tense
28) Word choice
29) Punctuation
proper noun
“math”.
3) The sentence
runs on caused
without
punctuation.
4) Incorrect verb of
past tense
“have”.
5) Not capitalizing
proper noun
“dzhuhur”.
6) Inappropriate
word choice
“when”.
7) Adding a word
“time”.
8) The sentence
runs on caused
without
punctuation.
9) Incorrect word
order “my friend
play a football
with me”.
10) Incorrect verb
of past tense
“play”.
11) The sentence
runs on caused
without
punctuation.
12) Incorrect verb
of past tense
“have”.
13) Misspelling
“mateball”.
14) The sentence
runs on caused
without
punctuation.
15) Incorrect verb
of past tense
“wolks”.
16) The sentence
runs on caused
without
punctuation.
3) Communication
Strategy.
4) Interlingual
Transfer.
5) Communication
Strategy.
6) Context of
learning.
7) Communication
Strategy.
8) Communication
Strategy.
9) Communication
Strategy.
10) Interlingual
Transfer.
11) Communication
Strategy.
12) Interlingual
Transfer.
13) Communication
Strategy.
14) Communication
Strategy.
15) Interlingual
Transfer
16) Communication
Strategy.
17) Interlingual
Transfer
18) Communication
Strategy.
19) Communication
Strategy.
20) Interlingual
Transfer.
21) Communication
Strategy.
22) Communication
Strategy.
23) Interlingual
Transfer.
24) Communication
Strategy.
25) Context of
Learning
26) Communication
Strategy.
break time. My
friends and I
played football in
the field school
after I had
meatball for lunch.
My father worked
in office. My
friend and I went
home after doing
Dzhuhur prayer.
We did prayer
Maghrib after
sunset around 6
o’clock. After that
we ate fried
chickens and
vegetables food for
dinner. After
taking prayer Isya,
I went to bed.
12
17) Incorrect verb
of past tense
“go”.
18) Not capitalizing
proper noun
“dzhuhur”.
19) The sentence
runs on caused
without
punctuation.
20) Incorrect verb
of past tense
“do”.
21) Misspelling
“susent”.
22) The sentence
runs on caused
without
punctuation.
23) Incorrect verb
of past tense
“eat”.
24) The sentence
runs on caused
without
punctuation.
25) Inappropriate
word choice
“doing”.
26) Not capitalizing
proper noun
“Isya”.
27) Incorrect verb
of past tense
“go”.
28) Inappropriate
word choice
“sleep”.
29) Not having
punctuation in
the end of
sentence.
27) Interlingual
Transfer
28) Interlingual
Transfer.
29) Communication
Strategy.
13
Table 4.7
Student 5
Identification Classification
of Error Explanation Sources of Error Reconstruction
A Tour to (1)the
(2)taman
(3)matahari
On
Thursday(4)^ 26th
(5)^ (6)Juni, (7)I
and Class mate went to (8)the
(9)taman
(10)matahari.
(11)we walked
down and got on
the bus.
1) Article.
2) Capitalization
3) Capitalization
4) Punctuation
5) Add a word
6) Spelling
7) Word order
8) Article.
9) Capitalization
10) Capitalizati
on
11) Capitalizati
on.
1) It’s incorrect to
put article in
proper noun “the
taman matahari”.
2) Not capitalizing
the tittle “taman
matahari”.
3) Not capitalizing
the tittle “taman
matahari”.
4) Not having
punctuation.
5) Adding a word
“of”.
6) Misspelling
“Juni”.
7) Incorrect word
form “I and Class
mate”.
8) It’s incorrect to
put article in
proper noun “the
taman matahari”.
9) Not capitalizing
proper noun
“taman matahari”.
10) Not capitalizing
proper noun
“taman matahari”.
11) Not capitalizing
first letter in
sentence.
1) Intralingual
Transfer.
2) Communication
Strategy
3) Communication
Strategy
4) Communication
Strategy
5) Interlingual
Transfer
6) Interlingual
Transfer
7) Interlingual
Transfer
8) Intralingual
Transfer
9) Communication
Strategy
10) Communication
Strategy
11) Communication
Strategy
A Tour to Taman
Matahari
On Thursday,
26th
of June, my
classmate and I
went to Taman
Matahari. We
walked down and
got on the bus.
After we arrived
at the Gardens,
(1)we asinging to
teacher that we
attention. I and
(2)^ (3)four
friend walked
down and (4)a
look around (5)^
scenery (6)in
1) Meaning not
clear
2) Add a word
3) Singular-
Plural
4) Word form
5) Add a word
6) Omit a word
1) The sentence
doesn’t have clear
meaning therefore
the sentence
couldn’t be
comprehended.
2) Adding a word
“my”.
3) Not having
plural noun “four
1) Communication
Strategy
2) Interlingual
Transfer
3) Interlingual
Transfer
4) Intralingual
Transfer
5) Context of
Learning
After we arrived
at the Gardens, we
were assigned that
we had to pay
attention to the
teacher. My four
friends and I
walked down and
looked around the
scenery.
14
there. friend”.
4) Incorrect word
form “a look
around” the
correct is looked
around.
5) Adding a word
“the”.
6) Omitting a word
“in there”.
6) Interlingual
Transfer
(1)next we
(2)return (3)^
(4)Souvenirs.
(5)After we (6)go
eat near river.
After that we (7)go
photo for
(8)kenang-
kenangan (9)^
1) Capitalization
2) Verb tense
3) Add a word
4) Capitalization
5) Word choice
6) Verb tense
7) Word choice
8) Word choice
9) punctuation
1) Not capitalizing
first letter of
paragraph
“next”.
2) Incorrect verb of
past tense
“return”.
3) Adding a word
“to buy”.
4) Incorrect
capitalizing
“Souvenirs”.
5) Inappropriate
word choice
“After”.
6) Incorrect verb of
past tense “go
eat”.
7) Inappropriate
word choice “go
photo”.
8) Inappropriate
word choice
“kenang-
kenangan”.
9) Not having
punctuation in
the end of
sentence.
1) Communication
Strategy.
2) Interlingual
Transfer
3) Communication
Strategy.
4) Communication
Strategy.
5) Interlingual
Transfer
6) Interlingual
Transfer
7) Intrelingual
Transfer
8) Intrelingual
Transfer
9) Communication
Strategy.
Next we returned
to buy souvenirs.
And then we ate
near river. After
that we took
pictures as
remembrance.
(1)that (2)^ (3)a
unforgettable
(4)moment and
happy(5)^
1) Capitalization
2) Add a word
3) Article
4) Word order
5) punctuation
1) Not capitalizing
first letter of
paragraph “that”.
2) Adding a word
“was”.
3) Incorrect article
“a unforgettable”.
4) Incorrect word
order “that a
1) Communication
Strategy.
2) Interlingual
Transfer
3) Intralingual
Transfer
4) Interlingual
Transfer
5) Communication
That was an
unforgettable and
happy moment.
15
unforgettable
moment and
happy”
5) Not having
punctuation in the
end of sentence.
Strategy.
Table 4.8
Student 6
Identification Classification
of Error Explanation Sources of Error Reconstruction
(1)20 (2)june
2012, (3)I and my
family went to
Bogor-(4)ragunan
zoo. (5)we
(6)went (7)with
my (8)family car.
1) Word order
2) Capitalization
3) Word order
4) Capitalization
5) Capitalization
6) Word choice
7) Word choice
8) Omit a word
1) Incorrect word
order “20 june
2012”.
2) Not capitalizing
proper noun
“june”.
3) Incorrect word
order “I and my
family”.
4) Not capitalizing
proper noun
“ragunan”.
5) Not capitalizing
the first letter in
sentence “we”.
6) Inappropriate
word choice
“went”.
7) Incorrect word
choice “with”.
8) Omitting a word
“family”.
1) Interlingual
Transfer.
2) Communication
Strategy.
3) Interlingual
Transfer
4) Communication
Strategy.
5) Communication
Strategy.
6) Interlingual
Transfer
7) Interlingual
Transfer
8) Interlingual
Transfer
On June, 20
2012, My family
and I went to
Bogor-Ragunan
zoo. We got it by
car.
(1)after we
arrived at the zoo,
first we walked
down to the
elephant cage. I
(2)see many
(3)elephant with
their own
activities(4), then
we looked at
(5)Lion cage, I
(6)see a lion
(7)have a sleep,
1) Capitalization
2) Verb tense
3) Singular-
plural
4) Run-on
sentence
5) Capitalization
6) Verb tense
7) Word choice
8) Verb tense
9) Run-on
sentence
10) Word form
1) Not capitalizing
the first letter of
paragraph “after”.
2) Incorrect verb of
past tense “see”.
3) Not having
plural noun
“many elephant”.
4) The sentence
runs on caused
without
punctuation.
5) Incorrect
1) Communication
Strategy
2) Interlingul
Transfer
3) Interlingual
Transfer
4) Communication
Strategy
5) Communication
Strategy
6) Interlingual
Transfer
7) Intralingual
After we
arrived at the zoo,
first we walked
down to the
elephant cage. I
saw many
elephants with
their own
activities. Then we
looked at lion
cage, I saw a lion
was sleeping and
another lion was
16
and another lion
(8)have eat, (9)
(10)the guide,
name (11)mr.
(12)bayu (13)^
read us the
information of the
lion. (14)after that
we walked down
to (15)the another
animal cage(16),
(17)after we (18)^
tired we (19)came
to home
(20)again(21)^
11) Capitalizati
on
12) Capitalizati
on
13) Add a word
14) Capitalizati
on
15) Article
16) Run-on
sentence
17) Word choice
18) Add a word
19) word choice
20) Omit a word
21) punctuation
capitalizing letter
“at Lion cage”.
6) Incorrect verb of
past tense “see”.
7) Incorrect word
choice “have a
sleep”.
8) Incorrect verb of
past tense “have
eat”.
9) The sentence
runs on caused
without
punctuation.
10) Incorrect word
form “the guide,
name mr. bayu”.
11) Not capitalizing
proper noun “mr.
bayu”.
12) Not capitalizing
proper noun “mr.
bayu”.
13) Adding a word
“who”.
14) Not capitalizing
first letter of
sentence “after”.
15) Incorrect article
“the”.
16) The sentence
runs on caused
without
punctuation.
17) Incorrect word
choice “after”.
18) Adding a word
“were”.
19) Inappropriate
word choice
“came”.
20) Omitting a word
“again”.
21) Not having
punctuation in the
end of sentence.
Transfer
8) Intralingual
Transfer
9) Communication
Strategy
10) Interlingual
Transfer
11) Communication
Strategy
12) Communication
Strategy
13) Interlingual
Transfer
14) Communication
Strategy
15) Intralingual
Transfer
16) Communication
Strategy
17) Communication
Strategy
18) Interlingual
Transfer
19) Interlingual
Transfer
20) Interlingual
Transfer
21) Communication
Strategy
eating. The guide’s
name was Mr.
bayu who read us
the information of
the lion. After that,
we walked down
to another animal
cage. When we
were tired, we
went home.
17
Table 4.9
Student 7
Identification Classification
of Error Explanation Sources of Error Reconstruction
On
(1)sunday(2)^ 1st
(3)^ June, (4)I
and my family went (5)To
Ragunan by car.
(6)we (7)were go
at half past six(8)^
my father drove
(9)The car and my
mother sat in front
seat (10)^
(11)mean while
(12)I and my
sister sat at the
back (13)sedt. I
(14)am very
happy. We always
sang along the
way. We arrived in
(15)ragunan at
07.00
o’clock(16)^
1) Capitalization
2) Punctuation
3) Add a word
4) Word order
5) Capitalization
6) Capitalization
7) Verb tense
8) Run-on
sentence.
9) Capitalization
10) Run-on
sentence.
11) Spelling
12) Word order
13) Spelling
14) Verb tense
15) Capitalizati
on
16) punctuation
1) Not capitalizing
proper noun
“sunday”.
2) Not having
punctuation after
proper noun
“sunday 1st”.
3) Adding a word
“of”.
4) Incorrect word
form “I and my
family”.
5) Incorrect
capitalizing letter
“went To
ragunan”.
6) Not capitalizing
the first letter of
sentence “we”.
7) Incorrect verb of
past tense “were
go”.
8) The sentence
runs on caused
without
punctuation.
9) Incorrect
capitalizing letter
“drove The car”.
10) The sentence
runs on caused
without
punctuation.
11) Incorrect
spacing word
“mean while”.
12) Incorrect word
order “I and my
sister”.
13) Misspelling
“sedt”.
14) Incorrect verb
of past tense “am”
1) Communication
Strategy.
2) Interlingual
Transfer
3) Interlingual
Transfer
4) Interlingual
Transfer
5) Communication
Strategy.
6) Communication
Strategy.
7) Intralingual
Transfer
8) Communication
Strategy.
9) Communication
Strategy.
10) Communication
Strategy.
11) Communication
Strategy.
12) Interlingual
Transfer
13) Communication
Strategy.
14) Intralingual
Transfer
15) Communication
Strategy.
16) Communication
Strategy.
On Sunday, 1st
of June, my family
and I went to
Ragunan by car.
We went at half
past six. My father
drove the car and
my mother sat in
front seat,
meanwhile my
sister and I sat at
the back seat. I
was very happy.
We always sang
along the way. We
arrived in Ragunan
at 07.00 o’clock.
18
15) Not capitalizing
proper noun
“ragunan”.
16) Not having
punctuation in the
end of sentence.
After we
arrived, we
(1)Take a (2)briak
for (3)the
minutes. After
that, (4)We went
(5)To have a look
around (6)the
(7)ragunan
zoo(8)^
1) Capitalization
2) Spelling
3) Word choice
4) Capitalization
5) Capitalization
6) Article
7) Capitalization
8) punctuation
1) Incorrect
capitalizing letter
“we Take”.
2) Misspelling
“briak”.
3) Incorrect word
choice “the
minutes”.
4) Incorrect
capitalizing letter
“after that, We
went”.
5) Incorrect
capitalizing letter
“after that, We
went To have”.
6) It’s incorrect to
put article in
proper noun “the
ragunan”.
7) Not capitalizing
proper noun
“ragunan”.
8) Not having
punctuation in the
end of sentence.
1) Communication
Strategy
2) Communication
Strategy
3) Intralingual
Transfer
4) Communication
Strategy
5) Intralingual
Transfer
6) Intralingual
Transfer
7) Communication
Strategy
8) Communication
Strategy
After we arrived,
we took a break for
a minute. After
that, we went to
have a look around
Ragunan zoo.
First, we
(1)Looked (2)The
(3)Elephants.
(4)it’is the big
animal, and we
looked around
again(5)this (6)is
very funny and
unforgettable
moment in my
life(7)^
We all were
happy.
1) Capitalization
2) Capitalization
3) Capitalization
4) Verb tense
5) Run-on
sentence
6) Verb tense
7) punctuation
1) Incorrect
capitalizing letter
“we Looked”.
2) Incorrect
capitalizing letter
“we Looked The”.
3) Incorrect
capitalizing letter
“we Looked The
Elephant”.
4) Incorrect verb of
past tense “it’is”.
5) The sentence
runs on caused
without
punctuation.
1) Communication
Strategy.
2) Communication
Strategy.
3) Communication
Strategy
4) Intralingual
Transfer
5) Communication
Strategy
6) Interlingual
Transfer
7) Communication
Strategy.
First, we looked
the elephants.
Those were the big
animal, and we
looked around
again. This was
very funny and
unforgettable
moment in my life.
We all were
happy.
19
6) Incorrect verb of
past tense “is”.
7) Not having
punctuation in the
end of sentence.
Table 4.10
Student 8
Identification Classification
of Error Explanation Sources of Error Reconstruction
(1)my (2)best
(3)friend
(4)ainun (5)is
my best friend,(6)
he (7)is cool;(8)
excellent and
diligent(9)^ he and
I first (10)meat
(11)kidergarten
and we
(12)become great
friends. (13)he
(14)is kind, jolly
and helpful(15)we
(16)are classmates
again this year and
we (17)go to
school together
each morning(18)^
1) Capitalization
2) Capitalization
3) Capitalization
4) Capitalization
5) Verb tense
6) Run-on
sentence
7) Verb tense
8) Punctuation
9) Run-on
sentence
10) Spelling
11) Spelling
12) Verb tense
13) Capitalizati
on
14) Verb tense
15) Run-on
sentence
16) Verb tense
17) Verb tense
18) Run-on
sentence
1) Not capitalizing
each first letter of
words in the title
“my”.
2) Not capitalizing
each first letter of
words in the title
“best”.
3) Not capitalizing
each first letter of
words in the title
“friend”.
4) Not capitalizing
the first letter of
paragraph “ainun”
5) Incorrect verb of
past tense “is”.
6) The sentence
runs on caused
without
punctuation.
7) Incorrect verb of
past tense “is”.
8) Incorrect
punctuation.
9) The sentence
runs on caused
without
punctuation.
10) Misspelling
“meat”.
11) Misspelling
“kidergarten”.
12) Incorrect verb
of past tense
“become”.
1) Communication
Strategy
2) Communication
Strategy
3) Communication
Strategy
4) Communication
Strategy
5) Interlingual
Transfer
6) Communication
Strategy
7) Interlingual
Transfer
8) Communication
Strategy
9) Communication
Strategy
10) Communication
Strategy
11) Communication
Strategy
12) Interlingual
Transfer
13) Communication
Strategy
14) Interlingual
Transfer
15) Communication
Strategy
16) Interlingual
Transfer
17) Interlingual
Transfer
18) Communication
Strategy
My Best Fried
Ainun was my
best friend. He was
cool, excellent and
diligent. He and I
first met in
kindergarten and
we became great
friends. He was
kind, jolly and
helpful. We were
classmates again
this year and we
went to school
together each
morning.
20
13) Not capitalizing
the first letter of
sentence.
14) Incorrect verb
of past tense “is”.
15) The sentence
runs on caused
without
punctuation.
16) Incorrect verb
of past tense “are”
17) Incorrect verb
of past tense “go”.
18) Not having
punctuation in the
end of sentence.
(1)ainun
(2)(3)Likes to joke
and (4)play
games(5)^he
(6)lives far (7)^
my house(8)^ in
the (9)evenings,
we (10)ussually
(11)meet at my
house(12)^ we
(13)sit in the
garden and read
story book(14)^ he
(15)is good (16)^
mathematics
homework (17)^so
whatever I
(18)find
difficulties in my
mathematics
homework I would
ask (19)his to help
me (20)^
(21)some times
when my parents
(22)go out in the
evening(23)^ he
(24)comes
(25)over to
(26)keep (27)me
(28)company and
we (29)watch
1) Capitalization
2) Capitalization
3) Verb tense
4) Verb tense
5) Run-on
sentence
6) Verb tense
7) Add a word
8) Run-on
sentence
9) Singular-
Plural
10) Spelling
11) Spelling
12) Run-on
sentence
13) Verb tense
14) Run-on
sentence
15) Verb tense
16) Add a word
17) Run-on
sentence
18) Verb tense
19) Word choice
20) Run-on
sentence
21) Spelling
22) Verb tense
23) Run-on
sentence
24) Verb tense
1) Not capitalizing
the first letter of
paragraph “ainun”
2) Incorrect
capitalizing
“Like”.
3) Incorrect verb
of past tense
“Likes”
4) Incorrect verb
of past tense
“play”.
5) The sentence
runs on caused
without
punctuation.
6) Incorrect verb
of past tense
“lives”.
7) Adding a word
“from”.
8) The sentence
runs on caused
without
punctuation.
9) Uncountable is
without plural.
10) Misspelling
“ussually”.
11) Misspelling
“meet”.
12) The sentence
1) Communication
Strategy
2) Communication
Strategy
3) Communication
Strategy
4) Interlingual
Transfer
5) Intralingual
Transfer
6) Communication
Strategy
7) Communication
Strategy
8) Communication
Strategy
9) Communication
Strategy
10) Communication
Strategy
11) Interlingual
Transfer
12) Interlingual
Transfer
13) Interlingual
Transfer
14) Communication
Strategy
15) Interlingual
Transfer
16) Interlingual
Transfer
Ainun liked
to joke and played
games. He lived
far from my house.
In the evening, we
usually met at my
house. We sat in
the garden and
read story book.
He was good in
mathematics
homework, so
whatever I found
difficulties in my
mathematics
homework, I
would ask him to
help me.
Sometimes when
my parents went
out in the evening.
He came to
company me and
we watched TV
together, that’s
why I didn’t not
feel lonely.
21
(30)tv
together(31)^
(32)that^ (33)way
I (34)do not feel
lonely(35)^
25) Omit a word
26) Omit a word
27) Word order
28) Spelling
29) Verb tense
30) Capitalizati
on
31) Run-on
sentence
32) Add a word
33) Word choice
34) Verb tense
35) Punctuation
runs on caused
without
punctuation.
13) Incorrect verb
of past tense “sit”
14) The sentence
runs on caused
without
punctuation.
15) Incorrect verb
of past tense “is”.
16) Adding a word
“in”.
17) The sentence
runs on caused
without
punctuation.
18) Incorrect verb
of past tense
“find”.
19) Incorrect word
choice “his”.
20) The sentence
runs on caused
without
punctuation.
21) Misspelling
caused by space
“some times”.
22) Incorrect verb
of past tense “go”.
23) The sentence
runs on caused
without
punctuation.
24) Incorrect verb
of past tense
“comes”.
25) Omitting a word
“over”.
26) Omitting a word
“keep”.
27) Incorrect word
order “keep me
company”.
28) Misspelling
“company”.
29) Incorrect verb
17) Communication
Strategy
18) Interlingual
Transfer
19) Intralingual
Transfer
20) Communication
Strategy
21) Communication
Strategy
22) Interlingual
Transfer
23) Communication
Strategy
24) Interlingual
Transfer
25) Intralingual
Transfer
26) Intralingual
Transfer
27) Intralingual
Transfer
28) Communication
Strategy
29) Interlingual
Transfer
30) Communication
Strategy
31) Communication
Strategy
32) Intralingual
Transfer
33) Communication
Strategy
34) Interlingual
Transfer
35) Communication
Strategy
22
of past tense
“watch”.
30) Not capitalizing
“tv”.
31) The sentence
runs on caused
without
punctuation.
32) Adding a word
“that’s”.
33) Incorrect word
choice “way”.
34) Incorrect verb
of past tense “do”.
35) Not having
punctuation in the
end of sentence.
I hope (1)ainun
and I will be in the
same class next
year(2)^ and I
hope (3)ainun and
I (4)to be friends
forever(5)^
1) Capitalization
2) Punctuation
3) Word choice
4) Word choice
5) Punctuation
1) Not capitalizing
proper noun
“ainun”.
2) The sentence
should be
punctuated.
3) Inappropriate
word choice
“ainun and I”.
4) Incorrect word
choice “to”.
5) Not having
punctuation in the
end of sentence.
1) Communication
Strategy
2) Communication
Strategy
3) Interlingual
Transfer
4) Interlingual
Transfer
5) Communication
Strategy
I hope Ainun and
I will be in the
same class next
year, and I hope
we will be friend
forever.
Table 4.11
Student 9
Identification Classification
of Error Explanation Sources of Error Reconstruction
(1)Once upon
a time (2)^ family
and I (3)leave to
Villa, (4)Family I
(5)^ in Yonder
(6)To spend
(7)(8)The (9)along
one day and one
night(10)^(11) the
following day
1) Word choice
2) Add a word
3) Word choice
4) Word choice
5) Add a word
6) Capitalization
7) Capitalization
8) Article
9) Word choice
10) Add a word
1) Inappropriate
word choice “once
upon a time”.
2) Adding a word
“my”.
3) Inappropriate
word choice
“leave”
4) Inappropriate
word choice
1) Intralingual
Transfer
2) Interlingual
Transfer
3) Communication
Strategy
4) Communication
Strategy
5) Interlingual
Transfer
One day, my
family and I went
to Villa, we were
in Yonder to spend
one day and one
night holiday. The
following day we
went to certain
place again, that
was Ancol. In
23
(12)family I
(13)leave to
certain place
again(14)^ that is
(15)ancol (16)dan
(17)there
(18)^family (19)^
I (20)Swimming
after (21)that
(22)Swimming
(23) family I
(24)to Eat
(25)after that
(26)to Eat
(27)family I
(28)To Go
Home(29)^
11) Run-on
sentence
12) Word choice
13) Word choice
14) Run-on
sentence
15) Capitalizati
on
16) Spelling
17) Word choice
18) Add a word
19) Add a word
20) Word form
21) Omit a word
22) Capitalizati
on
23) Word choice
24) Word form
25) Word choice
26) Omit a word
27) Word choice
28) Word form
29) punctuation
“family I”.
5) Adding a word
“were”.
6) Incorrect
capitalizing letter
“To”.
7) Incorrect
capitalizing letter
“The”.
8) Incorrect placing
article “The along”
9) Inappropriate
word choice
“along”.
10) Adding a word
“holiday”.
11) The sentence
runs on caused
without
punctuation.
12) Inappropriate
word choice
“family I”.
13) Inappropriate
word choice
“leave”
14) The sentence
runs on caused
without
punctuation.
15) Not capitalizing
proper noun
“ancol”.
16) Misspelling
“dan”.
17) Inappropriate
word choice
“there”.
18) Adding a word
“my”.
19) Adding a word
“and”.
20) Incorrect word
form “swimming”.
21) Omitting a word
“that”.
22) Incorrect
capitalizing letter
6) Communication
Strategy
7) Communication
Strategy
8) Intralingual
Transfer
9) Interlingual
Transfer
10) Interlingual
Transfer
11) Communication
Strategy
12) Interlingual
Transfer
13) Interlingual
Transfer
14) Communication
Strategy
15) Communication
Strategy
16) Interlingual
Transfer
17) Interlingual
Transfer
18) Communication
Strategy
19) Communication
Strategy
20) Intralingual
Trnasfer
21) Interlingual
Transfer
22) Communication
Strategy
23) Interlingual
Transfer
24) Intralingual
Transfer
25) Interlingual
Transfer
26) Intralingual
Transfer
27) Interlingual
Transfer
28) Intralingual
Transfer
29) Communication
Stratgey
Ancol my family
and I swam, after
swimming we had
lunch together and
then we went
home.
24
“Swimming”.
23) Inappropriate
word choice
“Family I”
24) Incorrect word
form “to eat”.
25) Inappropriate
word choice “after
that”.
26) Omitting a word
“to eat”.
27) Inappropriate
word choice
“family I”.
28) Incorrect word
form “to go”.
29) Not having
punctuation in the
end of sentence.
Table 4.12
Student 10
Identification Classification
of Error Explanation Sources of Error Reconstruction
Climb Mountain
One day,
(1)ever my age
five year, my
family (2)to go
village in
yogyakarta, I
(3)There (4)To
use bus,(5)
(6)finish (7)there
I (8)(9)to
investigate (10)Goods
(11)who I (12)To
bring, and it
(13)appears my
bag (14)who
(15)contain blouse
and my trousers
(16)Leave, I
(17)direct (18)To
1) Word choice
2) Word form
3) Capitalization
4) Word form
5) Punctuation
6) Word choice
7) Word choice
8) Word choice
9) Word form
10) Capitalizati
on
11) Word choice
12) Word form
13) Omit a word
14) Word choice
15) Verb tense
16) Verb tense
17) Word choice
18) Word form
19) Omit a word
20) Omit a word
21) Spelling
1) Incorrect word
choice “ever my
age five year”.
2) Incorrect word
form “to go”.
3) Incorrect
capitalizing word
“There”.
4) Incorrect word
form “to use”.
5) Incorrect
punctuation. It
should be period.
6) Incorrect word
choice “finish”
that should be
“When I arrived”.
7) Inappropriate
word choice
“there” that
should be “in bus
station”.
1) Interlingual
Transfer
2) Intralingual
Transfer
3) Interlingual
Transfer
4) Intralingual
Transfer
5) Communication
Strategy
6) Interlingual
Transfer
7) Interlingual
Transfer
8) Communication
Strategy
9) Intralingual
Transfer
10) Communication
Strategy
11) Intralingual
Transfer
Climb Mountain
One day, when I
was five years old,
my family went to
village in
Jogjakarta, I got
there by bus. When
I arrived in bus
station, I checked
the goods that I
brought, and my
bag which
contained blouse
and my trousers
was left. Soon I
went home to take
my bag and came
back to the bus
station. Fortunately
I didn’t miss the
bus and I directly
25
go home,
(19)finish (20)To
go home (21)tag
my bag,(22)^ I
(23)direct
(24)(25)to depart
again (26)^,(27)
(28)advantage
(29)only (30)no be
left (31)^bus, and
I (32)direct
(33)^in the bus.
22) Add a word
23) Omit a word
24) Word form
25) Word choice
26) Add a word
27) Punctuation
28) Word choice
29) Omit a word
30) Word form
31) Add a word
32) Word form
33) Add a word
8) Inappropriate
word choice “to
investigate”.
9) Incorrect word
form that it should
be verb of past
tense.
10) Incorrect
capitalizing letter
“Goods”.
11) Incorrect word
choice “who”.
12) Incorrect word
form “to bring”.
13) Omitting a word
“appears”.
14) Incorrect word
choice “who”.
15) Incorrect verb
of past tense
“contain”.
16) Incorrect verb
of past tense
“leave”.
17) Inappropriate
word choice
“direct”.
18) Incorrect word
form “to go
home”.
19) Omitting a word
“finish”.
20) Omitting a word
“to go home”.
21) Misspelling
“tag”.
22) Adding a word
“and”.
23) Omitting a word
“direct”.
24) Incorrect word
form “to depart”.
25) Inappropriate
word choice “to
depart”.
26) Adding a word
“the bus station”.
27) Incorrect
12) Intralingual
Transfer
13) Communication
Strategy
14) Intralingual
Transfer
15) Interlingual
Transfer
16) Interlingual
Transfer
17) Interlingual
Transfer
18) Intralingual
Transfer
19) Interlingual
Transfer
20) Intralingual
Transfer
21) Communication
Strategy
22) Communication
Strategy
23) Interlingual
Transfer
24) Intralingual
Transfer
25) Interlingual
Transfer
26) Communication
Strategy
27) Communication
Strategy
28) Interlingual
Transfer
29) Communication
strategy
30) Communication
Strategy
31) Interlingual
Transfer
32) Interlingual
Transfer
33) Interlingual
Transfer
got on the bus.
26
punctuation. It
should be period.
28) Inappropriate
word choice
“advantage”.
29) Omitting a word
“only”.
30) Incorrect word
form “no be left”.
31) Adding a word
“the”.
32) Incorrect word
form “direct”.
33) Adding a word
“got on”.
(1)(2)Fiftheen
o’clock (3)^
(4)than, I
(5)finished To in
village and I
(6)direct (7)go to
(8)home my
grand mother,(9)
(10)finish
(11)shack hand
with my
(12)grand
mother, I
(13)direct asked
(14)my grand
mother (15)to
give eat a cow,
for I (16)^ afraid.
(17)^ I (18)cry for
(19)^ (20)^
(21)sick
(22)arraid.
1) Spelling
2) Word choice
3) Add a word
4) Omit a word
5) Word choice
6) Word form
7) Verb tense
8) Word order
9) Punctuation
10) Word choice
11) Word form
12) Spelling
13) Word form
14) Word choice
15) Word choice
16) Add a word
17) Add a word
18) Verb tense
19) Add a word
20) Add a word
21) Word choice
22) Spelling
1) Misspelling
“fiftheen”.
2) Incorrect word
choice “fiftheen”.
3) Adding a word
“p.m.”.
4) Omitting a word
“than”.
5) Incorrect word
choice “finished
to”.
6) Incorrect word
form “direct”.
7) Incorrect verb of
past tense “go”.
8) Incorrect word
order “home my
grand mother”.
9) The punctuation
should be period.
10) Incorrect word
choice “finish”.
11) Incorrect word
form “shack
hand”.
12) Misspelling
caused space
“grand mother”.
13) Incorrect word
choice “direct”.
14) Inappropriate
word choice “my
grand mother”.
1) Communication
Strategy
2) Context of
Learning
3) Context of
Learning
4) Communication
Strategy
5) Interlingual
Transfer
6) Intralingual
Transfer
7) Interlingual
Transfer
8) Communication
Strategy
9) Communication
Strategy
10) Interlingual
Transfer
11) Intralingual
Transfer
12) Communication
Strategy
13) Intralingual
Transfer
14) Communication
Strategy
15) Interlingual
Transfer
16) Interlingual
Transfer
17) Communication
At 3 o’clock
p.m., I arrived in
village and I
directly went to
my grandmother’s
home. After
shaking hand with
my grandmother,
directly I asked her
to feed a cow, for I
was afraid. And
then I cried for I
was very afraid.
27
15) Inappropriate
word choice “to
give eat”.
16) Adding a word
“was”.
17) Adding a word
“and then”.
18) Incorrect verb
of past tense “cry”
19) Adding a word
“I”.
20) Adding a word
“was”.
21) Incorrect word
choice “sick”.
22) Misspelling
“arraid”.
Strategy
18) Interlingual
Transfer
19) Interlingual
Transfer
20) Interlingual
Transfer
21) Communication
Strategy
22) Communication
Strategy
Table 4.13
Student 11
Identification Classification
of Error
Explanation Sources of Error Reconstruction
When I was
walking (1)hom
from school
yesterday, I saw an
accident. A car hit
a (2)motorcyle
from behind.
(3)the driver
(4)cold not control
his car because he
drove fast(5)^
1) Spelling
2) Spelling
3) Capitalization
4) Spelling
5) Punctuation
1) Misspelling
“hom”.
2) Misspelling
“motorcyle”.
3) Not capitalizing
the first letter of
sentence “the”.
4) Misspelling
“cold”
5) Not having
punctuation in the
end of sentence.
1) Communication
Strategy
2) Communication
Strategy
3) Communication
Strategy
4) Communication
Strategy
5) Communication
Strategy
When I was
walking home
from school
yesterday, I saw an
accident. A car hit
a motorcycle from
behind. The driver
could not control
his car because he
drove fast.
(1)the car didn’t
stop after the
(2)acident. (3)it
even ran faster and
disappeared. (4)the
(5)trafic was
(6)hot so busy.
(7)no one (8)come
to help him. (9)he
was hurt seriously.
I was so scared at
that time.
1) Capitalization
2) Spelling
3) Capitalization
4) Capitalization
5) Spelling
6) Word choice
7) Capitalization
8) Verb tense
9) Capitalization
1) Not capitalizing
the first letter of
paragraph “the”.
2) Misspelling
“acident”.
3) Not capitalizing
the first letter of
sentence “it”.
4) Not capitalizing
the first letter of
sentence “the”.
5) Misspelling
1) Communication
Strategy.
2) Communication
Strategy.
3) Communication
Strategy.
4) Communication
Strategy.
5) Communication
Strategy.
6) Communication
Strategy.
The car didn’t
stop after the
accident. It even
ran faster and
disappeared. The
traffic was not so
busy. No one came
to help him. He
was hurt seriously.
I was so scared at
that time.
28
“trafic”.
6) Incorrect word
choice “hot”.
7) Not capitalizing
the first letter of
sentence “no”.
8) Incorrect verb of
past tense “come”
9) Not capitalizing
the first letter of
sentence “he”.
7) Communication
Strategy.
8) Interlingual
Transfer.
9) Communication
Strategy.
(1)then I called
the police and tried
to help the victim,
not long after that
the police came.
(2)the police
(3)asket me
several
(4)qustions. I told
the police what
(5)happen.
1) Capitalization
2) Capitalization
3) Spelling
4) Spelling
5) Verb tense
1) Not capitalizing
the first letter of
paragraph “after”.
2) Not capitalizing
the first letter of
sentence “the”.
3) Misspelling
“asket”.
4) Misspelling
“qustions”.
5) Incorrect verb of
past tense
“happen”.
1) Communication
strategy.
2) Communication
strategy.
3) Communication
strategy.
4) Communication
strategy.
5) Interlingual
Transfer.
Then I called
the police and tried
to help the victim,
not long after that
the police came.
The police asked
me several
questions. I told
the police what
happened.
(1)after that I
went home
because it was
already dark(2)^
(3)it was really
tragic(4)^
1) Capitalization
2) Punctuation
3) Capitalization
4) Punctuation
1) Not capitalizing
the first letter of
paragraph “after”.
2) Not having
punctuation in the
end of sentence.
3) Not capitalizing
the first letter of
paragraph “it”.
4) Not having
punctuation in the
end of sentence.
1) Communication
Strategy
2) Communication
Strategy
3) Communication
Strategy
4) Communication
Strategy
After that I went
home because it
was already dark.
It was really
tragic.
Table 4.14
Student 12
Identification Classification
of Error Explanation Sources of Error Reconstruction
16 March 2012
Dear Chiella,
Last week was a
holiday. I visited
1) Word choice
2) Word choice
1) Inappropriate
word choice
“family”.
2) Incorrect word
choice “She”.
1) Context of
Learning.
2) Communication
Strategy
16 March 2012
Dear Chiella,
Last week was a
holiday. I visited
29
my (1)family.
(2)She lived in
Bogor. I stayed
there for two days.
my relative. They
lived in Bogor. I
stayed there for
two days.
On Saturday my
mother and I went
to (1)the Istana
Bogor. I took a
picture of the lake.
Then I bought
(2)some
(3)Rabbit. I
enjoyed it very
much.
1) Article
2) Singular-
plural
3) Capitalization
1) Incorrect placing
article in proper
noun “the Istana
Bogor”.
2) Not having
plural noun “some
Rabit”.
3) Incorrect
capitalizing letter
“some Rabit”.
1) Intralingual
Transfer
2) Interlingual
Transfer
3) Communication
Strategy.
On Saturday my
mother and I went
to Istana Bogor. I
took a picture of
the lake. Then I
bought some
rabbits. I enjoyed it
very much.
On Sunday, I
went to (1)Park
Flower with my
father. (2)She and
I took it by car.
(3)after (4)to in
(5)^ (6)Park
Flower (7)(8)me
and my father (9)^ picture
(10)in near
(11)flower orchid.
Though I was
tired, it was fun.
Diana
1) Word order
2) Word choice
3) Word choice
4) Omit a word
5) Add a word
6) Word order
7) Word choice
8) Word order
9) Add a word
10) Omit a word
11) Word order
1) Incorrect word
order “Park
Flower”.
2) Incorrect word
choice for
pronoun of father
“She”.
3) Inappropriate
word order “after”
4) Omitting a word
“to”
5) Adding a word
“we arrived”.
6) Incorrect word
order “Park
Flower”.
7) Incorrect word
choice of pronoun
“me”.
8) Incorrect word
order “me and my
father”.
9) Adding a word
“took”.
10) Omitting a word
“in”.
11) Incorrect word
order “flower
orchid”.
1) Interlingual
Transfer
2) Communication
Strategy
3) Interlingual
Transfer
4) Interlingual
Transfer
5) Interlingual
Transfer
6) Interlingual
Transfer
7) Intralingual
Transfer
8) Interlingual
Transfer
9) Interlingual
Transfer
10) Interlingual
Transfer
11) Interlingual
Transfer
On Sunday, I
went to Flower
Park with my
father. He and I
took it by car.
When we arrived
in the Flower Park,
my father and I
took picture near
orchid flower.
Though I was
tired, it was fun.
Diana
30
Table 4.15
Student 13
Identification Classification
of Error Explanation Sources of Error Reconstruction
18 March 2012
Dear Pramesti,
Last week was a
holiday. I visited
my (1)family.
(2)She lived (3)in
a water park. I
stayed for three
days.
1) Word choice
2) Word choice
3) Meaning not
clear
1) Inappropriate
word choice
“family”.
2) Incorrect word
choice “she”.
3) The sentence
doesn’t have clear
meaning.
1) Interlingual
Transfer
2) Communication
Strategy
3) Interlingual
Transfer
18 March 2012
Dear Pramesti,
Last week was
a holiday. I visited
my relative. They
lived near water
park. I stayed for
three days.
On Sunday my
father and I went
to the
(1)waterpark. I
(2)took a
swimming of the
water. Then I
(3)bough some
various foods. I
enjoyed it very
much.
1) Spelling
2) Word choice
3) Spelling
1) Misspelling
caused without
space “waterpark”
2) Inappropriate
word choice “took
a swimming of
the water”.
3) Misspelling
“bough”.
1) Interlingual
Transfer
2) Intralingual
Transfer
3) Communication
Strategy
On Sunday my
father and I went
to the water park. I
swam in the water.
Then I bought
some various
foods. I enjoyed it
very much.
On Monday I
went (1)^ Puncak
with my parents.
(2)He and I took it
by car. (3)the
scenery was very
interesting along
winding road.
After we felt
(4)satified then we
went home.
1) Add a word
2) Word choice
3) Capitalization
4) Spelling
1) Adding a word
“to”.
2) Incorrect word
choice of parents
“he”.
3) Not capitalizing
the first letter of
sentence “the”.
4) Misspelling
“satified”.
1) Interlingual
Transfer
2) Communication
Strategy
3) Communication
Strategy
4) Communication
Strategy
On Monday I
went to Puncak
with my parents.
They and I took it
by car. The
scenery was very
interesting along
winding road.
After we felt
satisfied then we
went home.
On Tuesday I
stayed at home. I
helped my
grandma. I
watered her garden
and washed the
plates and glasses.
After that I
cleaned the floor.
On (1)wednesday I
went home.
1) Capitalization
2) Spelling
1) Not capitalizing
proper noun
“wednesday”.
2) Misspelling
“thought”.
1) Communication
Strategy
2) Communication
Strategy
On Tuesday I
stayed at home. I
helped my
grandma. I
watered her garden
and washed the
plates and glasses.
After that I
cleaned the floor.
On Wednesday I
went home.
31
(2)Thought I
was tired, it was
fun.
With love
Mutiara
Though I was
tired, it was fun.
With love
Mutiara
Table 4.16
Student 14
Identification Classification
of Error Explanation Sources of Error Reconstruction
Vacation to the
(1)beach
Last year, I
(2)went on holiday
(3)to (4)the Pasir
Putih beach.
(5)I’m on vacation
with my cousins
and my parents. I
(6)went to use the
car. On the way, I
saw beautiful
scenery,(7) I
(8)play in (9)tendo
DS with my
cousin. Suddenly
the car (10)^ out
of gasoline and
(11)stop in the
parking area Pasir
Putih beach.
1) Capitalization
2) Word choice
3) Word choice
4) Article
5) Verb tense
6) Word choice
7) Punctuation
8) Verb tense
9) Capitalization
10) Add a word
11) Verb tense
1) Not capitalizing
the first letter of
word in title
“beach”.
2) Inappropriate
word choice
“went”.
3) Inappropriate
word choice “to”.
4) Incorrect placing
article in proper
noun “Pasir Putih
beach”.
5) Incorrect verb of
past tense “I’m”.
6) Inappropriate
word choice
“went to use”.
7) Incorrect
punctuation that it
should be period.
8) Incorrect verb of
past tense “play”.
9) Not capitalizing
proper noun
“tendo”.
10) Adding a word
“was”.
11) Incorrect verb
of past tense
“stop”.
1) Communication
Strategy
2) Intralingual
Transfer
3) Intralingual
Transfer
4) Intralingual
Transfer
5) Interlingual
Transfer
6) Interlingual
Transfer
7) Communication
Strategy
8) Interlingual
Transfer
9) Communication
Strategy
10) Interlingual
Transfer
11) Interlingual
Transfer
Vacation to the
Beach
Last year, I
was on holiday in
Pasir Putih beach.
I was on vacation
with my cousins
and my parents. I
took it by the car.
On the way, I saw
beautiful scenery. I
played in Tendo
DS with my
cousin. Suddenly
the car was out of
gasoline and
stopped in the
parking area Pasir
Putih beach.
In Pasir Putih
beach, I
(1)playing sand
1) Word form
2) Verb tense
3) Singular-
1) Incorrect word
form “playing”.
2) Incorrect verb of
1) Intralingual
Transfer
2) Interlingual
In Pasir Putih
beach, I played
sand house,
32
house, surfing, and
swimming.
Suddenly, I
(2)have
(3)cramps in my
foot.
plural past tense “have”.
3) The word is not a
singular noun
“cramps”.
Transfer
3) Intralingual
Transfer
surfing, and
swimming.
Suddenly, I had
cramp in my foot.
Table4.17
Student 15
Identification Classification
of Error Explanation Sources of Error Reconstruction
When I was
walking home
from school
yesterday. I saw an
accident. A car hit
a car from behind.
The driver could
not (1)controls
(2)is car because
he drove fast.
1) Verb tense
2) Word choice
1) Incorrect verb of
past tense
“controls”.
2) Incorrect word
choice “is”.
1) Intralingual
Transfer
2) Communication
Strategy
When I was
walking home
from school
yesterday. I saw an
accident. A car hit
a car from behind.
The driver could
not control his car
because he drove
fast.
The car didn’t
stop the accident.
(1)it even ran
faster and
disappeared. (2)the
traffic was not so
busy. (3)no (4)^
(5)come to help
him. (6)we (7)has
hurt seriously. I
was so scared at
that time. Then I
called the police
and tried to help
the victim. (8)not
long after that the
police came.
(9)the police asked
me several
(10)quaestions. I
told the police
what (11)happen.
1) Capitalization
2) Capitalization
3) Capitalization
4) Add a word
5) Verb tense
6) Word choice
7) Verb tense
8) Capitalization
9) Capitalization
10) Spelling
11) Verb tense
1) Not capitalizing
the first letter of
sentence “it”.
2) Not capitalizing
the first letter of
sentence “the”.
3) Not capitalizing
the first letter of
sentence “no”.
4) Adding a word
“one”.
5) Incorrect verb of
past tense
“come”.
6) Incorrect word
choice “we”.
7) Incorrect verb of
past tense “has
hurt”.
8) Not capitalizing
the first letter of
sentence “not”.
9) Not capitalizing
the first letter of
sentence “the”.
1) Communication
Strategy
2) Communication
Strategy
3) Communication
Strategy
4) Communication
Strategy
5) Interlingual
Transfer
6) Communication
Strategy
7) Intralingual
Transfer
8) Communication
Strategy
9) Communication
Strategy
10) Communication
Strategy
11) Interlingual
Transfer
The car didn’t
stop the accident.
It even ran faster
and disappeared.
The traffic was not
so busy. No one
came to help him.
He was hurt
seriously. I was so
scared at that time.
Then I called the
police and tried to
help the victim.
Not long after that
the police came.
The police asked
me several
questions. I told
the police what
happened.
33
10) Misspelling
“quaestions”.
11) Incorrect verb
of past tense
“happen”.
After that I
went home
because it was
already dark(1)^
(2)it was really
tragic(3)^
1) Punctuation
2) Capitalization
3) Punctuation
1) The sentence
must be
punctuated.
2) Not capitalizing
the first letter of
paragraph.
3) The sentence
must be
punctuated.
1) Communication
Strategy
2) Communication
Strategy
3) Communication
Strategy
After that I
went home
because it was
already dark.
It was really
tragic.
Table 4.18
Student 16
Identification Classification
of Error Explanation Sources of Error Reconstruction
On Thursday 24th
December, last
week was a
holiday. I visited
my grandmother.
She lived in
Cimahi. I stayed
there for three
days.
On Sunday my
grandma and I
went to (1)the
Tangkuban Prahu.
I took a picture of
the lake. Then I
bought some
souvenirs. I
enjoyed it very
much.
1) Article 1) Incorrect placing
article “the
Tangkuban
Prahu”.
1) Intralingual
Transfer
On Thursday 24th
December, last
week was a
holiday. I visited
my grandmother.
She lived in
Cimahi. I stayed
there for three
days.
On Sunday my
grandma and I
went to Tangkuban
Prahu. I took a
picture of the lake.
Then I bought
some souvenirs. I
enjoyed it very
much.
34
On (1)monday I
went to Puncak
with my uncle. He
and I took it by
bus. The scenery
was very
interesting along
winding road.
After we felt
satisfied, then we
went home.
1) Capitalization 1) Not capitalizing
proper noun
“monday”.
1) Communication
Strategy
On Monday I
went to Puncak
with my uncle. He
and I took it by
bus. The scenery
was very
interesting along
winding road.
After we felt
satisfied, then we
went home.
On Tuesday I
stayed at home. I
helped my
grandma. I
watered her garden
and washed the
plates and glass.
After that I
cleaned the floor.
On Thursday I
went to
Yogyakarta with
my family. I
(1)take it by bus.
1) Verb tense 1) Incorrect verb
tense “take”.
1) Interlingual
Transfer
On Tuesday I
stayed at home. I
helped my
grandma. I
watered her garden
and washed the
plates and glass.
After that I
cleaned the floor.
On Thursday I
went to
Yogyakarta with
my family. I took
it by bus.
On Friday I
went to Kebun
Raya (1)Bogos
with my sister.
Though I was
tired, it was fun.
(2)I and
(3)^family (4)^
(5)so (6)very-very
happy.
1) Spelling
2) Word order
3) Add a word
4) Add a word
5) Omit a word
6) Word choice
1) Misspelling
“Bogos”.
2) Incorrect word
order “I and
family”.
3) Adding a word
“my”.
4) Adding a word
“were”.
5) Omitting a word
“so”.
6) Inappropriate
word choice
“very-very”.
1) Communication
Strategy
2) Interlingual
Transfer
3) Interlingual
Transfer
4) Interlingual
Transfer
5) Intralingual
Transfer
6) Interlingual
Transfer
On Friday I
went to Kebun
Raya Bogor with
my sister.
Though I was
tired, it was fun.
My family and I
were very happy.
35
Table 4.19
Student 17
Identification Classification
of Error Explanation Sources of Error Reconstruction
16 (1)march 2012
Dear Dewi,
Last week was
a holiday. I visited
my grandmother.
She lived in Jogja.
I stayed there for
three days.
1) Capitalization 1) Not capitalizing
proper noun
“march”.
1) Communication
Strategy
16 March 2012
Dear Dewi,
Last week was
a holiday. I visited
my grandmother.
She lived in Jogja.
I stayed there for
three days.
On Sunday my
(1)grand ma and I
went to (2)the
(3)borobudur. I
took a picture of
the lake. Then I
bought some
souvenirs. I
enjoyed it very
much.
1) Spelling
2) Article
3) Capitalization
1) Misspelling
caused without
space “grand ma”.
2) Incorrect placing
article in proper
noun “the
borobudur”.
3) Not capitalizing
proper noun
“borobudur”.
1) Communication
Strategy
2) Intralingual
Transfer
3) Communication
Strategy
On Sunday my
grandma and I
went to
Borobudur. I took
a picture of the
lake. Then I
bought some
souvenirs. I
enjoyed it very
much.
On
(1)monday I went
to (2)malioboro
with my uncle.
(3)he and I took it
by bus. (4)the
scenery was very
interesting along
winding road.
After we felt
satisfied then we
went home.
1) Capitalization
2) Capitalization
3) Capitalization
4) Capitalization
1) Not capitalizing
proper noun
“monday”.
2) Not capitalizing
proper noun
“malioboro”.
3) Not capitalizing
the first letter of
sentence “he”.
4) Not capitalizing
the first letter of
sentence “the”.
1) Communication
Strategy
2) Communication
Strategy
3) Communication
Strategy
4) Communication
Strategy
On Monday I
went to Malioboro
with my uncle. He
and I took it by
bus. The scenery
was very
interesting along
winding road.
After we felt
satisfied then we
went home.
On (1)tuesday
I stayed at home. I
helped my
grandma. I
watered her garden
and washed the
plates and glasses.
(2)after that I
cleaned the floor.
On (3)wednesday I
went home.
1) Capitalization
2) Capitalization
3) Capitalization
1) Not capitalizing
proper noun
“tuesday”.
2) Not capitalizing
the first letter of
sentence “after”.
3) Not capitalizing
proper noun
“wednesday”.
1) Communication
Strategy
2) Communication
Strategy
3) Communication
Strategy
On Tuesday I
stayed at home. I
helped my
grandma. I
watered her garden
and washed the
plates and glasses.
After that I
cleaned the floor.
On Wednesday I
went home.
36
Though I was
tired. It was fun.
With love
Anis
Though I was
tired. It was fun.
With love
Anis
Table 4.20
Student 18
Identification Classification
of Error Explanation Sources of Error Reconstruction
(1)CAMPING
(2)Late last
year in a week,
my friends and I
went (3)^
camping. We
reached the
camping ground
after we walked
for about one and
(4)a half hour
from the parking
lot. We built the
camp next to a
small river. It was
getting darker and
colder, so we built
(5)a fire camp.
1) Capitalization
2) Word order
3) Add a word
4) Article
5) Word order
1) Not capitalizing
all of letters of
title “CAMPING”
2) Incorrect word
order “Late last
year in a week”.
3) Adding a word
“to”.
4) Incorrect placing
article “a half
hour”.
5) Incorrect word
order “a fire
camp”.
1) Communication
Strategy
2) Interlingual
Transfer
3) Interlingual
Transfer
4) Intralingual
Transfer
5) Interlingual
Transfer
Camping
A week in late
last year, my
friends and I went
to camping. We
reached the
camping ground
after we walked
for about one and
half hour from the
parking lot. We
built the camp next
to a small river. It
was getting darker
and colder, so we
built a camp fire.
The next day,
we spent our time
observing
plantation and
insects while the
girls were
preparing meals.
In the afternoon
we went to the
river and caught
some fish for
supper. At night,
we held (1)a fire
camp night. (2)we
sang, danced, read
poetry, played
magic, tricks, and
1) Word order
2) Capitalization
3) Add a word
1) Incorrect word
order “a fire
camp”.
2) Not capitalizing
the first letter of
sentence “we”.
3) Adding a word
“up”.
1) Interlingual
Transfer
2) Communication
Strategy
3) Communication
Strategy
The next day,
we spent our time
observing
plantation and
insects while the
girls were
preparing meals.
In the afternoon
we went to the
river and caught
some fish for
supper. At night,
we held a camp
fire night. We
sang, danced, read
poetry, played
magic, tricks, and
37
even some of us
performed a
standing (3)^
comedy.
On Monday, we
packed our bags
and got ready to go
home.
even some of us
performed a
standing up
comedy.
On Monday, we
packed our bags
and got ready to go
home.
Table 4.21
Student 19
Identification Classification
of Error Explanation Sources of Error Reconstruction
A (1)TOUR
(2)TO (3)THE
(4)BOTANICAL
(5)GARDENS
On (6)week
23(7)th
(8)^ July,
(9)I and (10)^
family went to the
Botanical Gardens.
We walked down
(11)^ got on the
bus.
1) Capitalization
2) Capitalization
3) Capitalization
4) Capitalization
5) Capitalization
6) Omit a word
7) Word choice
8) Add a word
9) Word from
10) Add a word
11) Add a word
1) Not capitalizing
all of the letters of
title “TOUR”.
2) Not capitalizing
all of the letters of
title “TO”.
3) Not capitalizing
all of the letters of
title “THE”.
4) Not capitalizing
all of the letters of
title
“BOTANICAL”.
5) Not capitalizing
all of the letters of
title “GARDENS”
6) Omitting a word
“week”.
7) Incorrect word
choice “23th
”.
8) Adding a word
“of”.
9) Incorrect word
form “I and
family”.
10) Adding a word
“my”.
11) Adding a word
“and”.
1) Communication
Strategy
2) Communication
Strategy
3) Communication
Strategy
4) Communication
Strategy
5) Communication
Strategy
6) Interlingual
Transfer
7) Intralingual
Transfer
8) Interlingual
Transfer
9) Interlingual
Transfer
10) Interlingual
Transfer
11) Communication
Strategy
A Tour to the
Botanical Gardens
On 23rd
of July,
my family and I
went to the
Botanical Gardens.
We walked down
and got on the bus.
After we
arrived at the
1) Word choice
2) Word order
1) Inappropriate
word choice
1) Interlingual
Transfer
After we
arrived at the
38
gardens, we
(1)went to have a
look around. First
we went to the
tulip farm. Then
we looked (2)at
old the lovely
plants. After that
we (3)went for
lunch and break.
3) Word choice
“went to have a
look around”.
2) Incorrect word
order “at old the
lovely plants”.
3) Incorrect word
choice “went for
lunch and break”.
2) Interlingual
Transfer
3) Interlingual
Transfer
gardens, we looked
around. First we
went to the tulip
farm. Then we
looked at the
lovely old plants.
After that we had
lunch and break.
(1)Next we (2)^
lunch and break.
We (3)went a look
the rose, orchid,
jasmine, etc.
(4)then we got
(5)into the bus and
returned to home.
We all were
happy.
1) Word choice
2) Add a word
3) Word choice
4) Capitalization
5) Word choice
1) Incorrect word
choice “Next”.
2) Adding a word
“had”.
3) Inappropriate
word choice
“went a look”.
4) Not capitalizing
the first letter of
sentence “then”.
5) Inappropriate
word choice
“into”.
1) Communication
Strategy
2) Interlingual
Transfer
3) Interlingual
Transfer
4) Communication
Strategy
5) Intralingual
Transfer
After we had
lunch and break.
We looked the
rose, orchid,
jasmine, etc. Then
we got on the bus
and returned to
home.
We all were
happy.
Table 4.22
Student 20
Identification Classification
of Error Explanation Sources of Error Reconstruction
My Best
(1)FRiend
Windy (2)^
(3)is my best
friend in school
(4)is a (5)fair
pretty girl with
(6)dinpled
(7)chcers. She and
I (8)firs met at
(9)kinder garten
and we became
great friends,(10)^
she (11)she (12)is
kind(13)^ jolly
and helpful. We
(14)are classmates
1) Capitalization
2) Add a word
3) Verb tense
4) Verb tense
5) Word order
6) Spelling
7) Spelling
8) Spelling
9) Spelling
10) Punctuation
11) Omit a word
12) Verb tense
13) Punctuation
14) Verb tense
15) Spelling
16) Verb tense
17) Verb tense
18) Verb tense
1) Capitalizing
incorrect letter
“FRiend”.
2) Adding a word
“who”
3) Incorrect verb of
past tense “is”.
4) Incorrect verb of
past tense “is”.
5) Incorrect word
order “fair pretty
girl”.
6) Misspelling
“dinpled”.
7) Misspelling
“chcers”.
8) Misspelling
“firs”.
1) Communication
Strategy
2) Context of
Learning
3) Interlingual
Transfer
4) Interlingual
Transfer
5) Interlingual
Transfer
6) Communication
Strategy
7) Communication
Strategy
8) Communication
Strategy
9) Communication
Strategy
My Best Friend
Windy who was
my best friend in
school was a pretty
fair girl with
dimpled in cheeks.
She and I first met
at kindergarten and
we became great
friends. She was
kind, jolly and
helpful. We were
classmates again
this year and we
went to school
together each
morning. Windy
39
again this (15)yer
and we (16)go to
school together
each morning.
Windy (17)likes to
joke and (18)play
games (19)joke
and play games.
She (20)lives
(21)ner my
(22)hous (23)in
the evenings.
19) Omit a word
20) Verb tense
21) Spelling
22) Spelling
23) Incomplete
sentence
9) Misspelling
“kinder garten”.
10) Incorrect
punctuation that it
should be period.
11) Omitting a word
“she”.
12) Incorrect verb
of past tense “is”.
13) The word must
be punctuated.
14) Incorrect verb
of past tense
“are”.
15) Misspelling
“yer”.
16) Incorrect verb
of past tense “go”.
17) Incorrect verb
of past tense
“likes”.
18) Incorrect verb
of past tense
“played”.
19) Omitting a
word.
20) Incorrect verb
of past tense
“lives”.
21) Misspelling
“ner”.
22) Misspelling
“hous”.
23) The sentence is
incomplete.
10) Communication
Strategy
11) Communication
Strategy
12) Interlingual
Transfer
13) Communication
Strategy
14) Interlingual
Transfer
15) Communication
Strategy
16) Interlingual
Transfer
17) Interlingual
Transfer
18) Interlingual
Transfer
19) Communication
Strategy
20) Interlingual
Transfer
21) Communication
Strategy
22) Communication
Strategy
23) Communication
Strategy
liked to joke and
played games. She
lived near my
house.
We usually
(1)Windy (2)likes
(3)to nous we sit
in the garden and
(4)rea story
(5)boks. She (6)is
(7)god so
whenever I (8)find
(9)difficulities
(10)in my
mathematics
(11)^(12)^ Best
friend.
1) Omit a word
2) Verb tense
3) Meaning not
clear
4) Spelling
5) Spelling
6) Verb tense
7) Word choice
8) Verb tense
9) Spelling
10) Meaning not
clear
11) Add a word
1) Omitting a word
“Windy”.
2) Incorrect verb of
past tense “likes”.
3) The sentence has
unclear meaning.
4) Misspelling
“rea”.
5) Misspelling
“boks”.
6) Incorrect verb of
past tense “is”.
7) Misspelling
1) Communication
Strategy
2) Interlingual
Transfer
3) Communication
Strategy
4) Communication
Strategy
5) Communication
Strategy
6) Interlingual
Transfer
7) Communication
We usually
liked to sit in the
garden and read
story books. She
was smart, so
whenever I found
difficulties in my
Mathematics she
could help me. She
was my best
friend.
40
12) Add a word “god”.
8) Incorrect verb of
past tense “find”.
9) Misspelling
“difficulities”.
10) The sentence
has unclear
meaning.
11) Adding a word
“she could help
me”.
12) Adding a word
“she was my”.
Strategy
8) Interlingual
Transfer
9) Communication
Strategy
10) Communication
Strategy
11) Communication
Strategy
12) Communication
Strategy
Table 4.23
Student 21
Identification Classification
of Error Explanation Sources of Error Reconstruction
A (1)TOUR
(2)TO (3)THE
(4)ZOO
On (5)week
28th
(6)^ October,
(7)I and (8)^
family (9)wen to
the zoo. We
walked down and
got on the bus.
1) Capitalization
2) Capitalization
3) Capitalization
4) Capitalization
5) Omit a word
6) Add a word
7) Word order
8) Add a word
9) Verb tense
1) Incorrect
capitalizing all of
the letters
“TOUR”.
2) Incorrect
capitalizing all of
the letters “TO”.
3) Incorrect
capitalizing all of
the letters “THE”.
4) Incorrect
capitalizing all of
the letters “ZOO”.
5) Omitting a word
“week”.
6) Adding a word
“of”.
7) Incorrect word
order “I and
family”.
8) Adding a word
“my”.
9) Incorrect verb of
past tense “wen”.
1) Communication
Strategy
2) Communication
Strategy
3) Communication
Strategy
4) Communication
Strategy
5) Interlingual
Transfer
6) Interlingual
Transfer
7) Interlingual
Transfer
8) Interlingual
Transfer
9) Communication
Strategy
A Tour to the Zoo
On 28th
of
October, my
family and I went
to the zoo. We
walked down and
got on the bus.
After we
arrived at the zoo.
We went to have a
look around. First
1) Add a word
2) Word form
3) Word choice
4) Word choice
1) Adding a word
“stable”.
2) Incorrect word
form “to have eat”
1) Communication
Strategy
2) Interlingual
Transfer
After we
arrived at the zoo.
We went to have a
look around. First
41
we went to the
giraffe (2)^ and
we (3)to have eat
pea and we (4)to
pictures with the
giraffe. After that
(5)we went for
lunch and break.
3) Incorrect word
choice “to
pictures”.
4) Incorrect word
choice “we went
for lunch and
break”.
3) Interlingual
Transfer
4) Interlingual
Transfer
we went to the
giraffe stable and
we ate pea and we
took pictures with
the giraffe. After
that we had lunch
and break.
(1)Next we
(2)^ lunch and
break, we (3)went
a look the
(4)(5)Tiger,
(6)(7)Elephant,
(8)(9)Snake,
(10)(11)Bird, etc.
Soon after we had
finished. We went
back outside.
(12)The we got
(13)into the bus
and returned to
home.
We all were
happy.
1) Word choice
2) Add a word
3) Word choice
4) Capitalization
5) Singular-
Plural
6) Capitalization
7) Singular-
Plural
8) Capitalization
9) Singular-
Plural
10) Capitalizati
on
11) Singular-
Plural
12) Spelling
13) Word choice
1) Inappropriate
word choice
“Next”.
2) Adding a word
“had”.
3) Incorrect word
choice “went a
look”.
4) Incorrect
capitalizing letter
“Tiger”.
5) The word
“Tiger” should be
plural noun.
6) Incorrect
capitalizing letter
“Elephant”.
7) The word
“Elephant” should
be plural noun.
8) Incorrect
capitalizing letter
“Snake”.
9) The word
“Snake” should
be plural noun.
10) Incorrect
capitalizing letter
“Bird”.
11) The word
“Bird” should be
plural noun.
12) Misspelling
“The”.
13) Incorrect word
choice “into”.
1) Interlingual
Transfer
2) Interlingual
Transfer
3) Interlingual
Transfer
4) Communication
Strategy
5) Context of
Learning
6) Communication
Strategy
7) Context of
Learning
8) Communication
Strategy
9) Context of
Learning
10) Communication
Strategy
11) Context of
Learning
12) Communication
Strategy
13) Intralingual
Transfer
After we had
lunch and break,
we looked the
tiger, elephant,
snake, bird, etc.
Soon after we had
finished. We went
back outside. Then
we got on the bus
and returned to
home.
We all were
happy.
42
Table 4.24
Student 22
Identification Classification
of Error Explanation Sources of Error Reconstruction
Holiday (1)To
Waterfall
At the time of
last holiday, I went
to my (2)grand
mother’s house
with my family.
Arriving there we
continued to rest
and the next
(3)day morning
we went to the
recreation area
(4)^ (5)(6)is a
very beautiful
waterfall(7)^
1) Capitalization
2) Spelling
3) Word order
4) Add a word
5) Verb tense
6) Word choice
7) Punctuation
1) Incorrect
capitalizing letter
“To”.
2) Misspelling
caused spacing
“grand mother’s
house”.
3) Incorrect word
order “day
morning”.
4) Adding a word
“which”.
5) The word must
past tense.
6) Incorrect word
choice “is”.
7) The end of
sentence must be
punctuated by
period.
1) Communication
Strategy
2) Communication
Strategy
3) Interlingual
Transfer
4) Context of
Learning
5) Interlingual
Transfer
6) Context of
Learning
7) Communication
Strategy
Holiday to
Waterfall
At the time of
last holiday, I went
to my
grandmother’s
house with my
family. Arriving
there we continued
to rest and the next
morning day we
went to the
recreation area
which had a very
beautiful waterfall.
To get there we
(1)run into trouble
because the
visitors (2)are
very crowded(3)^
so we were stuck
(4)in traffic (5)^
long enough(6)^
1) Verb tense
2) Verb tense
3) Punctuation
4) Word form
5) Add a word
6) Punctuation
1) Incorrect verb of
past tense “run
into”.
2) Incorrect verb of
past tense “are”.
3) The word need to
be punctuated by
comma.
4) Inappropriate
word form “in
traffic long
enough”.
5) Adding a word
“jam”.
6) The end of
sentence must be
punctuated by
period.
1) Interlingual
Transfer
2) Interlingual
Transfer
3) Communication
Strategy
4) Interlingual
Transfer
5) Interlingual
Transfer
6) Communication
Strategy
To get there
we ran into trouble
because the
visitors were very
crowded, so we
were stuck long
enough in traffic
jam.
(1)After
arriving at our
destination
(2)instantly
transfrom and
1) Word choice
2) Meaning not
clear
3) Word choice
4) Spelling
1) Inappropriate
word choice
“after arriving”.
2) The sentence
doesn’t have clear
1) Interlingual
Transfer
2) Communication
Strategy
3) Interlingual
When we
arrived at our
destination,
directly I looked
for a place to put
43
find a place to set
cross lengged and
put our luggage.
Then I changed
clothes to bathe
(3)under the
waterfall (4)splast.
meaning
“instantly
transfrom and
find a place to set
cross lengged”.
3) Inappropriate
word choice
“under”.
4) Misspelling
“spalst”.
Transfer
4) Communication
Strategy
our luggage. Then
I changed clothes
to bathe in the
waterfall splash.
The scenery
(1)is very
beautiful. So that
we (2)use to take
pictures with my
family (3)^
finished (4)^
bathing and taking
pictures. (5)I and
my family (6)^
(7)over (8)luch
(9)break.
1) Verb tense
2) Verb tense
3) Add a word
4) Word form
5) Word order
6) Add a word
7) Omit a word
8) Spelling
9) Word order
1) Incorrect verb
tense “is”.
2) Incorrect verb
tense “use”.
3) Adding a word
“after”.
4) Incorrect word
form “bathing”.
5) Incorrect word
order “I and my
family”.
6) Adding a word
“had”.
7) Omitting a word
“over”.
8) Misspelling
“luch”.
9) Incorrect word
order “luch
break”.
1) Interlingual
Transfer
2) Interlingual
Transfer
3) Communication
Strategy
4) Communication
Strategy
5) Interlingual
Transfer
6) Communication
Strategy
7) Interlingual
Transfer
8) Communication
Strategy
9) Communication
Strategy
The scenery
was very beautiful.
So that we used to
take pictures with
my family after
finished taking a
bath and taking
pictures. My
family and I had
break for lunch.
(1)and at its
end we had to
congestion again.
After several hours
(2)On (3)The
road(4)^ we
(5)finaly arrived at
my grandmother’s
house.
1) Word choice
2) Capitalization
3) Capitalization
4) Run-on
sentence
5) Spelling
1) Incorrect word
choice “and at its
end we had to
congestion”.
2) Incorrect
capitalizing letter
“On”.
3) Incorrect
capitalizing letter
“The”.
4) The sentence
runs on caused
without
punctuation.
5) Misspelling
“finaly”.
1) Communication
Strategy
2) Communication
Strategy
3) Communication
Strategy
4) Communication
Strategy
5) Communication
Strategy
On the way
going home, we
got traffic jam
again. After
several hours,
finally we arrived
at my
grandmother’s
house.
(1)my holiday
experience was
1) Capitalization
2) Article
1) Not capitalizing
the first letter of
1) Communication
Strategy
My holiday
experience was
44
very pleasant, and
(2)a (3)wist (4)to
be able to repeat (5)in again.
3) Spelling
4) Word choice
5) Omit a word
paragraph “my”.
2) Incorrect placing
article “a wist”.
3) Misspelling
“wist”.
4) Inappropriate
word choice “to
be able to repeat
in again”.
5) Omitting a word
“in”.
2) Intralingual
Transfer
3) Communication
Strategy
4) Context of
Learning
5) Intralingual
Transfer
very pleasant, and
I wish I can come
again.
Table 4.25
Student 23
Identification Classification
of Error Explanation Sources of Error Reconstruction
A (1)tour to the
(2)botanical
Gardens
On Sunday
23th
(3) (4)^
January, (5)I and
seven students went to the
(6)botanical
Gardens. (7)we
walked down and
got on the bus.
1) Capitalization
2) Capitalization
3) Word choice
4) Add a word
5) Word order
6) Capitalization
7) Capitalization
1) The first letter of
title must be
capitalized “tour”.
2) The first letter of
title must be
capitalized
“botanical”.
3) Incorrect ordinal
number “23th
”.
4) Adding a word
“of”.
5) Incorrect word
order “I and seven
students”.
6) The first letter of
proper noun must
be capitalized
“botanical”.
7) The first letter of
proper noun must
be capitalized
“garden”.
1) Communication
Strategy
2) Communication
Strategy
3) Intralingual
Transfer
4) Interlingual
Transfer
5) Interlingual
Transfer
6) Communication
Strategy
7) Communication
Strategy
A Tour to the
Botanical Gardens
On Sunday 23rd
of January, Seven
students and I
went to the
Botanical Gardens.
We walked down
and got on the bus.
After we arrived
at the gardens, we
walked down to
the (1)education
Centre. We went
to have a look
around. First we
went to the orchid
1) Capitalization
2) Capitalization
3) Spelling
4) Capitalization
5) Capitalization
6) Capitalization
1) The first letter
of proper noun
must be
capitalized
“education”.
2) The first letter of
proper noun must
be capitalized
1) Communication
Strategy
2) Communication
Strategy
3) Communication
Strategy
4) Communication
Strategy
After we arrived
at the gardens, we
walked down to
the Education
Centre. We went to
have a look
around. First we
went to the orchid
45
farm and (2)mrs.
Lisa read us some
of the information.
Then we looked at
(3)alt the lovely
plants. (4)after that
we went down to a
little spot in the
(5)botanical
(6)gardens and had
morning tea.
“mrs.”
3) Misspelling “alt”
4) The first letter of
sentence must be
capitalized “after”
5) The first letter of
proper noun must
be capitalized
“botanical”.
6) The first letter of
proper noun must
be capitalized
“garden”.
5) Communication
Strategy
6) Communication
Strategy
farm and Mrs. Lisa
read us some of the
information. Then
we looked at all
the lovely plants.
After that we went
down to a little
spot in the
Botanical Gardens
and had morning
tea.
(1)next we took
some pictures and
then we went back
to the (2)education
(3)centre to have
lunch. (4)after that
we went (5)to for a
walk.
1) Capitalization
2) Capitalization
3) Capitalization
4) Capitalization
5) Omit a word
1) The first letter of
sentence must be
capitalized “next”
2) The first letter of
proper noun must
be capitalized
“education”.
3) The first letter of
proper noun must
be capitalized
“centre”.
4) The first letter of
sentence must be
capitalized “after”
5) Omitting a word
“to”.
1) Communication
Strategy
2) Communication
Strategy
3) Communication
Strategy
4) Communication
Strategy
5) Interlingaul
Transfer
Next we took
some pictures and
then we went back
to the Education
Centre to have
lunch. After that
we went for a
walk.
Soon after we
had finished.
(1)we went back
outside. Then we
got (2)into the bus
and returned to
school.
We all were
happy.
1) Capitalization
2) Word choice
1) The first letter of
sentence must be
capitalized “we”.
2) Incorrect word
choice “into”.
1) Communication
Strategy
2) Intralingul
Transfer
Soon after we
had finished. We
went back outside.
Then we got on the
bus and returned to
school.
We all were
happy.
46
Table 4.26
Student 24
Identification Classification
of Error Explanation Sources of Error Reconstruction
15 October 2010
(1)dear Zidan(2)^
(3)last week
was a holiday(4)^
I visited my
(5)grand
mather(6)^ she
lived in
(7)bogor(8)^ I
stayed there for
(9)^ days.
1) Capitalization
2) Punctuation
3) Capitalization
4) Run-on
sentence
5) Spelling
6) Run-on
sentence
7) Capitalization
8) Run-on
sentence
9) Add a word
1) The letter “dear”
must be
capitalized.
2) The word should
be punctuated by
comma.
3) The first letter of
paragraph “last”
must be
capitalized.
4) The sentence
runs on caused
without
punctuation.
5) Misspelling
caused by spacing
“grand mather”.
6) The sentence
runs on caused
without
punctuation.
7) The first letter of
proper noun
“bogor” must be
capitalized.
8) The sentence
runs on caused
without
punctuation.
9) Adding a word
“some”.
1) Communication
Strategy
2) Communication
Strategy
3) Communication
Strategy
4) Communication
Strategy
5) Communication
Strategy
6) Communication
Strategy
7) Communication
Strategy
8) Communication
Strategy
9) Interlingual
Transfer
15 October 2010
Dear Zidan,
Last week was
a holiday. I visited
my grandmother.
She lived in Bogor.
I stayed there for
some days.
(1)on Sunday
my grandma and I
went to (2)the
Cibodas(3)I took a
(4)pictur of the
lake (5)then I
bought some
souvenirs. I
enjoyed it very
much.
1) Capitalization
2) Article
3) Run-on
sentence
4) Spelling
5) Run-on
sentence
1) The first letter of
paragraph must be
capitalized “on”.
2) Incorrect placing
article in proper
noun “the
Cibodas”.
3) The sentence
runs on caused
without
punctuation.
4) Misspelling
1) Communication
Strategy
2) Intralingual
Transfer
3) Communication
Strategy
4) Communication
Strategy
5) Communication
Strategy
On Sunday my
grandma and I
went to Cibodas. I
took a picture of
the lake. Then I
bought some
souvenirs. I
enjoyed it very
much.
47
“pictur”.
5) The sentence
runs on caused
without
punctuation.
On Monday I
went to (1)puncak
with my best
friend. (2)he and
(3)^ took it by bus.
(4)the scenery was
very interesting
along winding
(5)Road.
(6)after we felt
satisfied, then we
went home(7)^
1) Capitalization
2) Capitalization
3) Add a word
4) Capitalization
5) Capitalization
6) Capitalization
7) Punctuation
1) The first letter of
proper noun must
be capitalized
“puncak”.
2) The first letter of
sentence must be
capitalized “he”.
3) Adding a word
“I”.
4) The first letter of
sentence must be
capitalized “the”.
5) Incorrect
capitalizing letter
“winding Road”.
6) The first letter of
sentence must be
capitalized “after”
7) The end of
sentence must be
punctuated by
period.
1) Communication
Strategy
2) Communication
Strategy
3) Communication
Strategy
4) Communication
Strategy
5) Communication
Strategy
6) Communication
Strategy
7) Communication
Strategy
On Monday I
went to Puncak
with my best
friend. He and I
took it by bus. The
scenery was very
interesting along
winding road.
After we felt
satisfied, then we
went home.
On (1)tuesday I
stayed at home. I
helped my
grandma(2)I
watered her garden
and washed the
plates and
glasses(3)^
1) Capitalization
2) Run-on
sentence
3) Punctuation
1) The first letter of
proper noun must
be capitalized
“tuesday”.
2) The sentence
runs on caused
without
punctuation.
3) The end of
sentence must be
punctuated by
period.
1) Communication
Strategy
2) Communication
Strategy
3) Communication
Strategy
On Tuesday I
stayed at home. I
helped my
grandma. I
watered her garden
and washed the
plates and glasses.
(1)after that I
cleaned the floor.
(2)on
(3)wednesday I
went home (4)^
(5)though I was
tired (6)^ it was
fun (7)^
1) Capitalization
2) Capitalization
3) Capitalization
4) Punctuation
5) Capitalization
6) Run-on
sentence
7) Punctuation
8) Capitalization
1) The first letter of
paragraph must be
capitalized “after”
2) The first letter of
sentence must be
capitalized “on”.
3) The first letter of
proper noun must
be capitalized
1) Communication
Strategy
2) Communication
Strategy
3) Communication
Strategy
4) Communication
Strategy
5) Communication
After that I
cleaned the floor.
On Wednesday I
went home.
Though I was
tired, it was fun.
With love
Your friend
48
(8)with love
(9)(10)my friend
9) Capitalization
10) Word choice
“wednesday”.
4) The end of
sentence must be
punctuated by
period.
5) The first letter of
paragraph must be
capitalized
“though”.
6) The sentence
runs on caused
without
punctuation.
7) The end of
sentence must be
punctuated by
period.
8) The first letter of
word should be
capitalized “with”
9) The first letter of
word should be
capitalized “my
friend”.
10) Incorrect word
choice “my
friend”.
Strategy
6) Communication
Strategy
7) Communication
Strategy
8) Communication
Strategy
9) Communication
Strategy
10) Intralingual
Transfer
Table 4.27
Student 25
Identification Classification
of Error Explanation Sources of Error Reconstruction
(1)To (2)(3)home
(4)grandmother
(5)on Saturday
31th
(6) (7)^
(8)Desember, (9)I
and (10)^ family
went to (11)home
grandmother. We
walked down and I
(12)go (13)on
(14)the individual
car.
1) Word choice
2) Word order
3) Capitalization
4) Capitalization
5) Capitalization
6) Word choice
7) Add a word
8) Spelling
9) Word order
10) Add a word
11) Word order
12) Word choice
13) Word choice
14) Word choice
1) Incorrect word
choice “To”.
2) Incorrect word
order “home
grandmother”.
3) The first letter of
word in title must
be capitalized
“Home”.
4) The first letter of
word in title must
be capitalized
“Grandmother”.
5) The first letter of
1) Interlingual
Transfer
2) Interlingual
Transfer
3) Communication
Strategy
4) Communication
Strategy
5) Communication
Strategy
6) Intralingual
Transfer
7) Interlingual
Transfer
Visiting
Grandmother’s
Home
On Saturday
31st of December,
my family and I
went to
grandmother’s
home. We walked
down and I got on
my car.
49
paragraph must be
capitalized “on”.
6) Incorrect word
choice “31th
”.
7) Adding a word
“of”.
8) Misspelling
“Desember”.
9) Incorrect word
order “I and
family”.
10) Adding a word
“my”.
11) Incorrect word
order “home
grandmother”.
12) Inappropriate
word choice “go”.
13) Inappropriate
word choice “on”
14) Inappropriate
word choice “the
individual car”.
8) Interlingual
Transfer
9) Interlingual
Transfer
10) Interlingual
Transfer
11) Interlingual
Transfer
12) Interlingual
Transfer
13) Intralingual
Transfer
14) Interlingual
Transfer
After we arrived
at the gardens, we
walked down to
the (1)livestock
cow. (2)we looked
at all the lovely
plants with
beautiful and
(3)air fresh (4)^
(5)soun (6)after
morning (7)days
we (8)had drink
(9)tea warm.
1) Word order
2) Capitalization
3) Word order
4) Run-on
sentence
5) Spelling
6) Word choice
7) Omit a word
8) Verb tense
9) Word order
1) Incorrect word
order “livestock
cow”.
2) The first letter of
sentence must be
capitalized “we”.
3) Incorrect word
order “air fresh”.
4) The sentence
runs on caused
without
punctuation.
5) Misspelling
“soun”.
6) Incorrect word
choice “after”.
7) Omitting a word
“days”.
8) Incorrect verb
tense “had drink”.
9) Incorrect word
order “tea warm”.
1) Interlingual
Transfer
2) Communication
Strategy
3) Interlingual
Transfer
4) Communication
Strategy
5) Communication
Strategy
6) Communication
Strategy
7) Communication
Strategy
8) Intralingual
Transfer
9) Interlingual
Transfer
After we arrived
at the gardens, we
walked down to
the cow livestock.
We looked at all
the lovely plants
with beautiful and
fresh air. Soon, in
the morning we
drank warm tea.
(1)next we took
(2)(3)some
picture beautiful
1) Capitalization
2) Singular-
plural
1) The first letter of
paragraph must be
capitalized “next”
1) Communication
strategy
2) Interlingual
Next we took
some beautiful
pictures. After
50
(4)so we went
back to the
(5)cattie cow.
(6)we all (7)^
(8)wery happy.
3) Word order
4) Word choice
5) Word order
6) Capitalization
7) Add a word
8) Spelling
2) The noun word
must be plural
noun “some
picture”.
3) Incorrect word
order “some
picture beautiful”.
4) Inappropriate
word choice “so”.
5) Incorrect word
order “cattie cow”
6) The first letter of
paragraph must be
capitalized “we”.
7) Adding a word
“were”.
8) Misspelling
“wery”.
Transfer
3) Interlingual
Transfer
4) Communication
Strategy
5) Interlingual
Transfer
6) Communication
Strategy
7) Interlingual
Transfer
8) Communication
Strategy
that, we went back
to the cow cattie.
We all were
very happy.
Table 4.28
Student 26
Identification Classification
of Error Explanation Sources of Error Reconstruction
10 November 2013
Dear Elsa(1)^
Last week was a
holiday. I visited
my grandmother.
She lived in
Bandung. I stayed
(2)three for (3)one
days.
1) Punctuation
2) Spelling
3) Word choice
1) The word should
be punctuated by
comma.
2) Misspelling
“three”.
3) Incorrect word
choice “one
days”.
1) Communication
Strategy
2) Communication
Strategy
3) Communication
Strategy
10 November 2013
Dear Elsa,
Last week was a
holiday. I visited
my grandmother.
She lived in
Bandung. I stayed
there for some
days.
On Sunday my
grandma and I
went to the
Gedung Sate,(1) I
took a picture of
the lake. Then I
bought some
(2)sovenirs. I
enjoyed it very
much.
1) Punctuation
2) Spelling
1) Inappropriate
punctuation. It
should be
punctuated by
period.
2) Misspelling
“sovenirs”.
1) Communication
Strategy
2) Communication
Strategy
On Sunday my
grandma and I
went to the
Gedung Sate. I
took a picture of
the lake. Then I
bought some
souvenirs. I
enjoyed it very
much.
On Monday I
went to TMII with
my Sister. She and
1) Incomplete
sentence
1) The sentence is
incomplete.
1) Communication
Strategy
On Monday I
went to TMII with
my Sister. She and
51
I took it by car.
The scenery was
very interesting
along winding
road. (1)After we
felt satisfied.
On Tuesday I
stayed at home. I
helped my
grandma. I
watered her garden
and washed the
plates and glasses.
After that I
cleaned the floor,
on Wednesday I
went home.
Though I was
tired, it was fun.
With love
Novi
I took it by car.
The scenery was
very interesting
along winding
road. We were
satisfied.
On Tuesday I
stayed at home. I
helped my
grandma. I
watered her garden
and washed the
plates and glasses.
After that I
cleaned the floor,
on Wednesday I
went home.
Though I was
tired, it was fun.
With love
Novi
Table 4.29
Student 27
Identification Classification
of Error Explanation Sources of Error Reconstruction
05 September 2012
Dear Venna(1)^
(2)on (3)sunday
28th
(4)^
(5)Desember, (6)I
and (7)^family
went to (8)the
Bogor. (9)we
walked down and
got on the car.
1) Punctuation
2) Capitalization
3) Capitalization
4) Add a word
5) Spelling
6) Word form
7) Add a word
8) Article
9) Capitalization
1) The word should
be punctuated by
comma.
2) The first letter of
paragraph must be
capitalized “on”.
3) The first letter of
proper noun must
be capitalized
“sunday”.
4) Adding a word
“of”.
5) Misspelling
“Desember”.
6) Incorrect word
order “I and
family”.
1) Communication
Strategy
2) Communication
Strategy
3) Communication
Strategy
4) Interlingual
Transfer
5) Interlingual
Transfer
6) Interlingual
Transfer
7) Communication
Strategy
8) Intralingual
Transfer
9) Communication
05 September 2012
Dear Venna,
On Sunday 28th
of December, my
family and I went
to Bogor. We
walked down and
got on the car.
52
7) Adding a word
“my”.
8) Incorrect placing
article in proper
noun “the Bogor”.
9) The first letter of
sentence must be
capitalized “we”.
Strategy
After we arrived
at (1)bogor. (2)we
walked down to
(3)the Bogor.
(4)we went to have
a look around.
First we went to
the (5)water
(6)kingdom.
1) Capitalization
2) Capitalization
3) Article
4) Capitalization
5) Capitalization
6) Capitalization
1) The first letter of
proper noun must
be capitalized
“bogor”.
2) The first letter of
sentence must be
capitalized “we”.
3) Incorrect placing
article in proper
noun “the Bogor”.
4) Te first letter of
sentence must be
capitalized “we”.
5) The first letter of
proper noun must
be capitalized
“water”.
6) The first letter of
proper noun must
be capitalized
“kingdom”.
1) Communication
Strategy
2) Communication
Strategy
3) Intralingual
Transfer
4) Communication
Strategy
5) Communication
Strategy
6) Communication
Strategy
After we arrived
at Bogor. We
walked down to
Bogor. We went to
have a look
around. First we
went to the Water
Kingdom.
(1)Next we
(2)have a look
around, (3)I (4)am
and (5)^sister
(6)go to swimming
and playing slide.
(7)Next
swimming and
playing slide we
went back to the
(8)water
(9)kingdom to
have lunch.
1) Word choice
2) Verb tense
3) Word form
4) Omit a word
5) Add a word
6) Verb tense
7) Word choice
8) Capitalization
9) Capitalization
1) Inappropriate
word choice
“Next”.
2) Incorrect verb
tense “have”.
3) Incorrect word
form “I and
sister”.
4) Omitting a word
“am”.
5) Adding a word
“my”.
6) Incorrect verb
tense “go”.
7) Inappropriate
word choice
“Next”.
8) The first letter of
proper noun
1) Interlingual
Transfer
2) Interlingual
Transfer
3) Interlingual
Transfer
4) Intralingual
Transfer
5) Communication
Strategy
6) Interlingual
Transfer
7) Interlingual
Transfer
8) Communication
Strategy
9) Communication
Strategy
After we had a
look around, my
sister and I went to
swimming and
playing slide.
After swimming
and playing slide,
we went back to
the Water
Kingdom to have
lunch.
53
should be
capitalized
“water”.
9) The first letter of
proper noun
should be
capitalized
“kingdom”.
Soon after we
had finished.
(1)we went back
outside. Then we
got (2)into the car
and returned to
home.
1) Capitalization
2) Word choice
1) The first letter of
sentence must be
capitalized.
2) Incorrect word
choice “into”.
1) Communication
Strategy
2) Intralingual
Transfer
Soon after we
had finished. We
went back outside.
Then we got in the
car and returned to
home.
Table 4.30
Student 28
Identification Classification
of Error Explanation Sources of Error Reconstruction
A (1)TOUR
(2)TO (3)THE
(4)BOTANICAL
(5)GARDENS
On Thursday
24th
(6)^ April,
(7)I and six
students went to
the Botanical
Gardens. (8)we
walked down and
got on the bus.
1) Capitalization
2) Capitalization
3) Capitalization
4) Capitalization
5) Capitalization
6) Add a word
7) Word form
8) Capitalization
1) Incorrect
capitalizing all of
the letters of title
“TOUR”.
2) Incorrect
capitalizing all of
the letters of title
“TO”
3) Incorrect
capitalizing all of
the letters of title
“THE”
4) Incorrect
capitalizing all of
the letters of title
“BOTANICAL”.
5) Incorrect
capitalizing all of
the letters of title
“GARDENS”.
6) Adding a word
“of”.
7) Incorrect word
order “I and six
students”.
8) The first letter of
1) Communication
Strategy
2) Communication
Strategy
3) Communication
Strategy
4) Communication
Strategy
5) Communication
Strategy
6) Interlingual
Transfer
7) Interlingual
Transfer
8) Communication
Strategy
A Tour to the
Botanical Gardens
On Thursday
24th
of April, six
students and I
went to the
Botanical Gardens.
we walked down
and got on the bus.
54
sentence must be
capitalized “we”.
After we arrived
at the gardens, we
walked down to
the Education
Centre. We went
to have a look
around. First we
went to the orchid
farm and Mrs. Lisa
read us some of
the information.
Then we looked at
(1)alt the lovely
plants. After that
we went down to a
little spot in the
Botanical Gardens
and had morning
tea.
1) Spelling 1) Misspelling
“alt”.
1) Communication
Strategy
After we arrived
at the gardens, we
walked down to
the Education
Centre. We went to
have a look
around. First we
went to the orchid
farm and Mrs. Lisa
read us some of the
information. Then
we looked at all
the lovely plants.
After that we went
down to a little
spot in the
Botanical Gardens
and had morning
tea.
Next we took
some pictures and
then we went back
to the Education
Centre to have
lunch. After that
we went (1)to for
a walk.
We all were
(3)Happy(4)^
1) Omit a word
2) Capitalization
3) Punctuation
1) Omitting a word
“to”.
2) Incorrect
capitalizing letter
“Happy”.
3) The end of
sentence need to
be punctuated by
period.
1) Intralingual
Transfer
2) Communication
Strategy
3) Communication
Strategy
Next we took
some pictures and
then we went back
to the Education
Centre to have
lunch. After that
we went for
walking.
We all were
happy.
Table 4.31
Student 29
Identification Classification
of Error Explanation Sources of Error Reconstruction
(1)on
(2)sunday 27th
(3)^ April, (4)I
and my family went to Ragunan
by car. We
(5)were go a half
past six. (6)my
father drove the
1) Capitalization
2) Capitalization
3) Add a word
4) Word form
5) Verb tense
6) Capitalization
7) Run-on
sentence
8) Spelling
1) The first letter of
paragraph must be
capitalized “on”.
2) The first letter of
proper noun must
be capitalized
“sunday”.
3) Adding a word
“of”.
1) Communication
Strategy
2) Communication
Strategy
3) Interlingual
Transfer
4) Interlingual
Transfer
5) Intralingual
On Sunday 27th
of April, my
family and I went
to Ragunan by car.
We went half past
six. My father
drove the car and
my mother sat in
the front seat,
55
car and my mother
sat in the front
seat(7)^ (8)mean
while (9)I and my
sister sat at the
back seat. I
(10)am very
(11)Happy. We
always sang along
the way. We
arrived in Ragunan
at 07.00 o’clock.
9) Word form
10) Verb tense
11) Capitalizati
on
4) Incorrect word
order “I and my
family”.
5) Incorrect verb
“were go”.
6) The first letter of
sentence must be
capitalized “my”.
7) The sentence
runs on caused
without
punctuation.
8) Misspelling
caused by sapcing
“mean while”.
9) Incorrect word
order “I and my
sister”.
10) Incorrect verb
tense “am”.
11) Incorrect
capitalizing letter
“Happy”.
Transfer
6) Communication
Strategy
7) Communication
Strategy
8) Communication
Strategy
9) Interlingual
Transfer
10) Interlingual
Transfer
11) Communication
Strategy
meanwhile my
sister and I sat in
the back seat. I
was very happy.
We always sang
along the way. We
arrived in Ragunan
at 07.00 o’clock.
After we
arrived, we
(1)take (2)a break
for (3)(4)The
(5)minutes. After
that, we went to
have a look around
(6)the Ragunan
zoo. First, we
looked the
elephants.
(7)It’(8)is the big
animal, and we
looked around
again. (9)this
(10)is very funny
and (11)unforget
table (12)momen
in my life.
(13)we all were
happy.
1) Verb tense
2) Article
3) Capitalization
4) Article
5) Word choice
6) Article
7) Word choice
8) Verb tense
9) Capitalization
10) Verb tense
11) Spelling
12) Spelling
13) Capitalizati
on
1) Incorrect verb
tense “take”.
2) Incorrect placing
article in
uncountable noun
“a break”.
3) Incorrect
capitalizing letter
“The”.
4) Incorrect article
“The”.
5) Incorrect word
choice “minutes”.
6) Incorrect placing
article in proper
noun “the
Ragunan”.
7) Incorrect word
choice “It”.
8) Incorrect verb
tense “is”.
9) The first letter of
sentence must be
capitalized “this”.
10) Incorrect verb
1) Interlingual
Transfer
2) Intralingual
Transfer
3) Communication
Strategy
4) Intralingual
Transfer
5) Intralingual
Transfer
6) Intralingual
Transfer
7) Intralingual
Transfer
8) Interlingual
Transfer
9) Communication
Strategy
10) Interlingual
Transfer
11) Communication
Strategy
12) Communication
Strategy
13) Communication
After we arrived,
we took break for a
minute. After that,
we went to have a
look around
Ragunan zoo.
First, we looked
the elephants.
Those were the big
animal and we
looked around
again. This was
very funny and
unforgettable
moment in my life.
We all were
happy.
56
tense “is”.
11) Misspelling
caused by spacing
“unforget table”.
12) Misspelling
“momen”.
13) The first letter
of sentence must
be capitalized
“we”.
Strategy
Table 4.32
Student 30
Identification Classification
of Error Explanation Sources of Error Reconstruction
A (1)TOUR (2)TO
(3)CIBODAS
(4)on
Sunday(5)^ 9th
(6)^ (7)(8)maret,
(9)I and my
family went to
(10)the
(11)cibodas.
(12)we walked
down and got on
the bus.
1) Capitalization
2) Capitalization
3) Capitalization
4) Capitalization
5) Punctuation
6) Add a word
7) Capitalization
8) Spelling
9) Word order
10) Article
11) Capitalizati
on
12) Capitalizati
on
1) Incorrect
capitalizing letter
“TOUR”.
2) Incorrect
capitalizing letter
“TO”.
3) Incorrect
capitalizing letter
“CIBODAS”.
4) The first letter of
paragraph must be
capitalized “on”.
5) The word need
be punctuated by
comma.
6) Adding a word
“of”.
7) The first letter of
proper noun must
be capitalized
“maret”.
8) Misspelling
“maret”.
9) Incorrect word
order “I and my
family”.
10) Incorrect
placing article
“the cibodas”.
11) The first letter
1) Communication
Strategy
2) Communication
Strategy
3) Communication
Strategy
4) Communication
Strategy
5) Communication
Strategy
6) Interlingual
Transfer
7) Communication
Strategy
8) Communication
Strategy
9) Interlingual
Transfer
10) Intralingual
Transfer
11) Communication
Strategy
12) Communication
Strategy
A Tour to Cibodas
On Sunday, 9th
of March, my
family and I went
to Cibodas. We
walked down and
got on the bus.
57
of proper noun
must be
capitalized
“cibodas”.
12) The first letter
of sentence must
be capitalized
“we”.
(1)after (2)I
and my family (3)I arrived at
(4)the (5)cibodas.
(6)we (7)past
pause under the
trees and (8)^
(9)luch. (10)and
my mother read us
some of the
information.
1) Capitalization
2) Word order
3) Omit a word
4) Article
5) Capitalization
6) Capitalization
7) Meaning not
clear
8) Add a word
9) Spelling
10) Capitalizati
on
1) The first letter of
paragraph must be
capitalized “after”
2) Incorrect word
order “I and my
family”.
3) Omitting a word
“I”.
4) Incorrect placing
article “the
cibodas”.
5) The first letter of
proper noun must
be capitalized
“cibodas”.
6) The first letter of
sentence must be
capitalized “we”.
7) The sentence has
unclear meaning
“past pause”.
8) Adding a word
“had”.
9) Misspelling
“luch”.
10) The first letter
of sentence must
be capitalized
“and”.
1) Communication
Strategy
2) Interlingual
Transfer
3) Communication
Strategy
4) Intralingual
Transfer
5) Communication
Strategy
6) Communication
Strategy
7) Communication
Strategy
8) Interlingual
Transfer
9) Communication
Strategy
10) Communication
Strategy
After my family
and I arrived at
Cibodas. We
stopped under the
trees and had
lunch. And my
mother read us
some of the
information.
Next we (1)go
(2)^ (3)swimming.
We looked at all
the lovely flowers
and animals (4)^
as orchid(5),
rabbit(6),
butterfly(7),
(8)And we took
some pictures.
1) Verb tense
2) Add a word
3) Word form
4) Omit a word
5) Singular-
plural
6) Singular-
plural
7) Singular-
plural
8) Capitalization
1) Incorrect verb
tens e “go”.
2) Adding a word
“to”.
3) Incorrect word
form
“swimming”.
4) Adding a word
“such”.
5) The word should
be plural noun
1) Interlingual
Transfer
2) Interlingual
Transfer
3) Intralingual
Transfer
4) Communication
Strategy
5) Context of
Learning
6) Context of
Next we went to
swim. We looked
at all the lovely
flowers and
animals such as
orchids, rabbits,
butterflies, and we
took some
pictures.
58
“orchid”.
6) The word should
be plural noun
“rabbit”.
7) The word should
be plural noun
“butterfly”.
8) Incorrect
capitalizing letter
“And”.
Learning
7) Context of
Learning
8) Communication
Strategy
Next we (1)go
(2)^ buy
souvenirs,(3)I
(4)buy bag, ring,
cap, apple,
pineapple, (5)^
pear. After (6)^
some souvenirs
(7)^ we went (8)to
for a walk and
(9)how much to
meet new friend
she is Lisa name.
1) Verb tense
2) Add a word
3) Punctuation
4) Verb tense
5) Add a word
6) Add a word
7) Run-on
sentence
8) Omit a word
9) Meaning not
clear
1) Incorrect verb
tense “go”.
2) Adding a word
“to”.
3) Incorrect
punctuation.
4) Incorrect verb
tense “buy”.
5) Adding a word
“and”.
6) Adding a word
“buying”.
7) The sentence
runs on caused
without
punctuation.
8) Omitting a word
“to”.
9) The meaning of
sentence doesn’t
clear.
1) Interlingual
Transfer
2) Interlingual
Transfer
3) Communication
Strategy
4) Interlingual
Transfer
5) Communication
Strategy
6) Communication
Strategy
7) Communication
Strategy
8) Intralingual
Transfer
9) Communication
Strategy
Next we went to
buy souvenirs. I
bought bag, ring,
cap, apple,
pineapple, and
pear. After buying
some souvenirs,
we went for a walk
and we met many
people, I had a
new friend, her
name was Lisa.
(1)Sone after
we had finished
(2)walk and (3)to
look for souvenirs,
we (4)want back
(5)^ the bus. And
we (6)to come
back to Jakarta.
We all were
happy.
1) Spelling
2) Word form
3) Word form
4) Spelling
5) Add a word
6) Word form
1) Misspelling
“Sone”.
2) Incorrect word
form “walk”.
3) Incorrect word
form “to look for”
4) Misspelling
“want”.
5) Adding a word
“to”.
6) Incorrect word
form “to come”.
1) Communication
Strategy
2) Intralingual
Transfer
3) Intralingual
Transfer
4) Communication
Strategy
5) Interlingual
Transfer
6) Intralingual
Transfer
Soon after we
had finished
walking and
looking for
souvenirs, we went
back to the bus.
And we came back
to Jakarta.
We All were
happy.