an age of explorations isolation, -...

An Age of Explorationsand Isolation, 1400–1800

The 15th and 16th centuries were a time of exploration and

discovery for European nations. Taking advantage of new maritime

knowledge and inventions, European powers undertook sea

expeditions to expand their trade and influence. The map at the

right shows some voyages of exploration of the 1400s. Use the

map to help you answer the questions below.

1. What European power first sent an explorer to India?

2. How did the voyages of Dias and da Gama compare?

3. What Chinese explorer sailed as far as Africa?

Connect History and Geography

1405Zheng He takesfirst voyage.

1419Prince Henry foundsnavigation school.

1494 Spain and Portugal sign Treaty of Tordesillas.

For more information about about the age ofexploration and expansion . . .

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Japan was ruled by the samuraiwarrior class from the 12th centuryuntil 1868. They tried to keep Japanclosed to the Europeans.

Westerners were not the onlyones to sail beyond their bordersduring the 1400s. In 1405, theChinese navigator, Zheng He,shown here, began exploringIndia, Persia, Arabia, and Africafor China.

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I N D I A NO C E A N

A T L A N T I CO C E A N

A T L A N T I CO C E A N

ArabianSea

Mediterranean Sea

CanaryIs.

Madeira

CapeVerde

Is.

Cape ofGood Hope

Amsterdam

Madrid

Seville

Paris

London

Lisbon

Bombay

Nanjing

Calicut

Kilwa

MombasaMalindi

Mogadishu

Mozambique

Sofala

Beijing

Goa

Malacca

Batavia

Ceuta

Cairo

Mecca

Venice

A S I A

A F R I C A

CHINA

ENGLAND

FRANCE

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PORTUGALSPAIN

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Tropic ofCancer

Arctic Circle

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0 1000 Miles

0 1000 KilometersWinkel II Projection

500

500

Dias, 1487 - 1488da Gama, 1497 - 1498Zheng He, 1405 - 1433

1603Tokugawa shoguns rule Japan.

1619Dutch establish tradeheadquarters in Java.

1793Britain seeks tradeopening with China.

Early Explorations, 1400s

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Interact with History

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Claiming new landscould bring glory andprestige to your country.

Would you go?The large hold of your ship could carry back gold, jewels, and othervaluable items found in distant lands.

Raging waves coulddestroy your ship andleave you at the mercyof the sea.

I t is a gray and windy morning in 1430. You are standing ona dock in the European country of Portugal staring out at

the dark and mysterious Atlantic Ocean. You, like most peopleat the time, have no idea what lies beyond the horizon. Nowyou may find out. You have been asked to go on a voyage ofexploration.

You’ve heard all the terrifying stories of sea monsters andshipwrecks. You’ve heard the warnings that the currents alongparts of western Africa are “so terrible that no ship having oncepassed . . . will ever be able to return.” You also have heard thatriches await those who help explore and claim new lands. Now,as the captain calls for you to come aboard, you must decide.

EXAMINING the ISSUES

• What possible rewards might come from exploring the seas for new lands?

• What are the risks involved inembarking on a voyage into the unknown?

Discuss these questions with your class-mates. In your discussion, recall whatyou have learned about the lands beyondEurope and what they have to offer.

As you read about the age ofexploration and isolation, see what goalsprompted Europeans to explore and towhat extent they achieved these goals.

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SETTING THE STAGE By the early 1400s, Europeans were ready to venture beyondtheir borders. As Chapter 17 explained, the Renaissance encouraged, among otherthings, a new spirit of adventure and curiosity. This spirit of adventure—along withseveral other important factors—prompted Europeans to explore the world aroundthem. This chapter and the next one describe how these explorations began a longprocess that would bring together the peoples of many different lands and perma-nently change the world.

Many Factors Encourage ExplorationEuropeans had not been completely isolated from the rest of the world before the 1400s. Beginning around 1100, European crusaders battled Muslims forcontrol of the Holy Lands in Southwest Asia. In 1275, the Italian traderMarco Polo reached the court of Kublai Khan in China. For the mostpart, however, Europeans had neither the interest nor the ability toexplore foreign lands. That changed by the early 1400s. The desire togrow rich and to spread Christianity, coupled with advances in sailingtechnology, spurred an age of European exploration.

Europeans Seek Greater Wealth The desire for new sources of wealth was the main reason for European exploration. Throughoverseas exploration, merchants and traders hoped ultimately to benefitfrom what had become a profitable business in Europe: the trade of spicesand other luxury goods from Asia. The people of Europe had been introducedto these items during the Crusades, the wars fought between Christians andMuslims from 1096 to 1270 (see Chapter 14). After the Crusades ended, Europeans continued to demand such spices as nutmeg, ginger, cinnamon, and pepper—all of which added flavor to the bland foods of Europe. Because demand for these goods was greater than the supply, merchants could charge high prices and thus make great profits.

The Muslims and Italians controlled the trade of goods from East to West. Muslimssold Asian goods to Italian merchants, who controlled trade across the land routesof the Mediterranean region. The Italian merchants resold the items atincreased prices to merchants throughout Europe. Other European traders didnot like this arrangement. Paying such high prices to the Italians severely cutinto their own profits. By the 1400s, European merchants—as well as the newmonarchs of England, Spain, Portugal, and France—sought to bypass theItalian merchants. This meant finding a sea route directly to Asia.

The Spread of Christianity The desire to spread Christianity also fueledEuropean exploration. Aside from leaving Europeans with a taste for spices, theCrusades left feelings of hostility between Christians and Muslims. Europeannations believed that they had a sacred duty not only to continue fighting

Europeans Explore the East

1TERMS & NAMES

• Bartolomeu Dias• Prince Henry• Vasco da Gama• Treaty of

Tordesillas• Dutch East India

CompanyMAIN IDEA

Driven by the desire for wealth andChristian converts, Europeans began an age of exploration.

WHY IT MATTERS NOW

European exploration was an importantstep toward the global interaction thatcharacterizes the world today.

An Age of Exploration and Isolation 463

A. Possible AnswerThe Italians controlledthe trade and chargedthem high prices forthe trade goods.THINK THROUGH HISTORYA. Analyzing IssuesWhy did manyEuropean merchantsdislike the way goodswere traded from East to West?

This globe depictsthe Europeans’view of the worldaround 1492. Europeand Africa, shownhere, were thelands Europeanshad explored mostby that time.

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Muslims, but also to convert non-Christians throughout the world.Europeans hoped to obtain popular goods directly from the peoples of Asia. They

also hoped to Christianize them. Bartolomeu Dias, an early Portuguese explorer,explained his motives: “to serve God and His Majesty, to give light to those who werein darkness and to grow rich as all men desire to do.”

Technological Advances While “God, glory, and gold” were the primary motives for exploration, advances in technology made the voyages of discovery possible. Duringthe 1200s, it would have been nearly impossible for a European sea captain to cross3,000 miles of ocean and return again. The main problem was that European shipscould not sail against the wind. In the 1400s, shipbuilders designed a new vessel—thecaravel. The caravel was sturdier than earlier vessels. In addition, its triangular sailsallowed it to sail effectively against the wind.

Europeans also improved their navigational techniques. To better determine theirlocation on the sea, sailors used the astrolabe, which the Muslims had perfected. Theastrolabe was a brass circle with carefully adjusted rings marked off in degrees. Usingthe rings to sight the stars, a sea captain could tell how far north or south of the equa-tor he was. Explorers were also able to more accurately track their direction by usinga magnetic compass invented by the Chinese.

Portugal Leads the WayThe leader in developing and applying these sailing innovations wasPortugal. Located on the Atlantic Ocean at the southwest corner ofEurope, Portugal first established trading outposts along the westcoast of Africa. Eventually, Portuguese explorers pushed farther eastinto the Indian Ocean.

The Portuguese Explore Africa Portugal took the lead in overseasexploration in part due to strong government support. The nation’smost enthusiastic supporter of exploration was Prince Henry, the sonof Portugal’s king. Henry’s dreams of overseas exploration began in1415 when he helped conquer the Muslim city of Ceuta in NorthAfrica. There, he had his first glimpse of the dazzling wealth that laybeyond Europe. Throughout Ceuta, the Portuguese invaders foundexotic stores filled with pepper, cinnamon, cloves, and other spices. In addition, they encountered large supplies of gold, silver, and jewels.

Henry returned to Portugal determined to reach the source ofthese treasures in the East. The prince also wished to spread theChristian faith. In 1419, Henry founded a navigation school on thesouthwestern coast of Portugal. Map makers, instrument makers,shipbuilders, scientists, and sea captains gathered there to perfecttheir trade.

Within several years, Portuguese ships began creeping down the western coast of Africa. By the time Henry died in 1460, thePortuguese had established a series of trading posts along the shoresof Africa. There, they traded with Africans for such profitable itemsas gold and ivory. Eventually, they traded for African captives to beused as slaves. Having established their presence along Africa’s west-ern coast, Portuguese explorers plotted their next daring move. Theywould find a sea route to Asia.

Portuguese Sailors Reach Asia The Portuguese believed that toreach Asia by sea, they would have to sail around the southern tip ofAfrica. In 1488, Portuguese captain Bartolomeu Dias ventured

THINK THROUGH HISTORYB. SummarizingHow does the phrase,“God, glory, and gold”summarize theEuropeans’ motivesfor exploration?B. Possible AnswerEuropean explorerswanted to spreadChristianity, bringfame and prestige tothemselves and their country, and enrichthemselves.

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Prince Henry1394–1460

For his role in promoting Portu-guese exploration, Prince Henry isoften called Henry the Navigator.Historians paint Henry as a quietand extremely driven man. Soconsumed was he by the quest tofind new lands, that he reportedlyshunned female companionship.

Throughout his life, Henrysupposedly showed little emotion. Itwas said that no one ever saw himlose his temper. When angry withsomeone, Henry allegedly justwaved them from his presence,uttering, “I commend you to God,may you be fortunate.” While someconsidered him to be cold anddistant, others insisted that theprince had a sensitive side. Onewriter claimed that upon learning ofthe death of a friend, Henry weptnonstop for several days.

■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■HISTORY MAKERS

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F E A T U R E T I T L ES C I E N C E T E C H N O L O G Y&

This 16th century Italian compass (with its lid beside it) is typical of those taken by navigators on the greatvoyages of exploration. The compass was invented by the Chinese.


The improvedrudder allowed the caravel to turn more easily.

The large cargo area was capable ofcarrying the numerous suppliesneeded for long voyages.

Analyzing Motives Why did inventors and sailors develop better tools for navigation?

SEE SKILLBUILDER HANDBOOK, PAGE R5

Modern Sailing Investigatewhat types of navigational or othertools modern sailors use. Chooseone tool and write a brief explana-tion of what it does. Be preparedto present your report to the class.

Connect to Today

Connect to History

Here, a naval officer uses a sextant, whichreplaced the astrolabe in measuring theheight of the stars above the horizon.

The triangular sails allowed the caravel to sail effectivelyagainst the wind. With these sails the ship could tack (sail on a zigzag course) more directly into the wind than could a square-rigged ship.

The Tools of ExplorationOut on the open seas, winds easily blew ships off course. With only the sun, moon, and stars to guide them, few sailors willingly ventured beyond the sight ofland. In order to travel to distant parts of the world, European inventors and sailorsexperimented with new tools for navigation and new designs for sailing ships.

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farther down the coast of Africa until he reached the tip. As hearrived, a huge storm rose and battered his fleet for days. When thestorm ended, Dias realized his ships had been blown around the tipto the other side. Dias explored the southeast coast of Africa and thenconsidered sailing to India. However, his crew was exhausted andfood supplies were low. As a result, the captain returned home.

With the tip of Africa finally rounded, the Portuguese continuedpushing east. In 1498, their explorer Vasco da Gama reached theport of Calicut, on the southwestern coast of India. Da Gama and hiscrew were amazed by the spices, the rare silks, and the precious gemsthat filled Calicut’s shops. The Portuguese sailors filled their ships withsuch spices as pepper and cinnamon and returned to Portugal in 1499.The Portuguese gave da Gama a hero’s welcome. His remarkable voy-age of 27,000 miles had given Portugal a direct sea route to India.

Spanish Claims Before da Gama’s historic voyage, as thePortuguese established trading posts along the west coast of Africa,Spain watched with increasing envy. The Spanish monarchs also

desired a direct sea route to Asia.In 1492, an Italian sea captain, Christopher Columbus, convinced Spain to

finance a bold plan: finding a route to Asia by sailing west across the Atlantic Ocean.In October of that year, Columbus reached an island in the Caribbean. His voyagewould open the way for European colonization of the Americas—a process that wouldforever change the world. The immediate impact of Columbus’s voyage, however, wasto increase tensions between Spain and Portugal.

Columbus thought that he had indeed reached Asia. Believing him to be right,Portugal suspected that Columbus had claimed for Spain lands that Portuguese sailorsmight have reached first. The rivalry between Spain and Portugal grew more tense. In 1493, Pope Alexander VI stepped in to keep peace between the two nations. Hesuggested an imaginary dividing line, drawn north to south, through the AtlanticOcean. All lands to the west of the line, known as the Line of Demarcation, would be Spain’s. All lands to the east of the line would belong to Portugal.

Portugal complained that the line gave too much to Spain. So it was moved fartherwest to include parts of modern-day Brazil for the Portuguese. In 1494, Spain andPortugal signed the Treaty of Tordesillas, in which they agreed to honor the line.The era of exploration and colonization was about to begin in earnest.

Trading Empires in the Indian OceanWith da Gama’s voyage, Europeans had finally opened direct sea trade with Asia.They also opened an era of violent conflict in the East. European nations scrambledto establish profitable trading outposts along the shores of South and Southeast Asia.And all the while they battled the region’s inhabitants, as well as each other.

Portugal’s Trading Empire In the years following da Gama’s voyage, Portugal built a bustling trading empire throughout the Indian Ocean. As they moved into the region,they took control of the spice trade from Muslim merchants. In 1509, Portugal extendedits control over the area when it defeated a Muslim fleet off the coast of India.

Portugal strengthened its hold on the region by building a fort at Hormuz in 1514.It established control of the Straits of Hormuz, connecting the Persian Gulf andArabian Sea, and helped stop Muslim traders from reaching India.

In 1510, the Portuguese captured Goa, a port city on India’s west coast. They made it the capital of their trading empire. They then sailed farther east to Indonesia, also known as the East Indies. In 1511, a Portuguese fleet attacked the city of Malacca on the west coast of the Malay peninsula. In capturing the town, the

BackgroundDias named Africa’ssouthern tip the Capeof Storms. However,Portugal’s ruler wasso pleased with theexplorer’s journey,that he renamed it theCape of Good Hope.

THINK THROUGH HISTORYC. Analyzing IssuesHow did the Treaty ofTordesillas ease ten-sions between Spainand Portugal?C. Possible AnswerIt appeased bothnations by grantingthem their own terri-tories to colonize.

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BackgroundIndonesia is the fourthmost populous country in the world.It consists of some13,670 islands, butonly about 7,000 areinhabited.

A Rough Trip

Life aboard a ship during the age ofexploration was no pleasure cruise.With no refrigeration system, foodssuch as fruits, vegetables, andmeats quickly rotted. For nourish-ment, sailors often had to rely on arock-hard, bland-tasting biscuit,known as hardtack.

In addition, swift and brutalpunishment often awaited thosewho broke the ship’s rules. Themost common punishment was withthe “cat-o’-nine-tails,” a whip madeof nine knotted cords (shown here).The sailor was tied down andrepeatedly struck on his bare back.

Daily Life

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London

Paris

Seville

Luanda

Mozambique

Hormuz

Columbo

Delhi

Malacca

Manila

NagasakiKyoto

Beijing

Guangzhou

Batavia

Mombasa

Kilwa

CapeTown

Lisbon

Amsterdam

Macao

MelillaCeuta

A S I A

E U R O P E

A F R I C A

OTTOMANEMPIRE

ANGOLA

SRILANKA MALAYA

JAPAN

CHINA

INDIA

E A S T I N D I E S

MOLUCCAS(SPICE IS.)BORNEO

ENGLAND

NETHERLANDS

SPAINPORTUGAL

MADAGASCAR

PH

ILIP

PIN

ES

JAVA

TIMOR

NEWGUINEA

FORMOSA(TAIWAN)

SUMATRA

Cape of Good Hope

ARABIANPENINSULASt. Louis

Fernando Po

Goree Is.Gambia

Canary Is.

Madeira

Azores

CapeVerde Is.

FRANCE

Bombay

Madras

Calcutta

Pondicherry

Ft. Dauphine

MauritiusBourbon(Réunion)

GoaCalicut

Cochin

Diu Daman

GOLDCOAST

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DutchEnglishFrenchPortugueseSpanish

European nationsand territories

DutchEnglishFrenchPortugueseSpanish

Europeantrading posts

Dias' route,Aug. 1487– Feb.1488Da Gama's route,July 1497–May 1498

Europeans in the East, 1700

Portuguese seized control of the Strait of Malacca. Seizing this waterway gave themcontrol of the Moluccas. These were islands so rich in spices that they became knownas the Spice Islands.

In convincing his crew to attack Malacca, Portuguese sea captain Afonso deAlbuquerque stressed his country’s intense desire to crush the Muslim-Italian domination over Asian trade:

A V O I C E F R O M T H E P A S T. . . If we deprive them [Muslims] of this their ancient market there, there does notremain for them a single port in the whole of these parts, where they can carry on theirtrade in these things. . . . I hold it as very certain that if we take this trade of Malaccaaway out of their hands, Cairo and Mecca are entirely ruined, and to Venice will nospiceries . . . [be] . . . conveyed except that which her merchants go and buy in Portugal.AFONSO DE ALBUQUERQUE, from The Commentaries of the Great Afonso Dalbuquerque

Portugal did indeed break the old trade network from the East—much to thedelight of European consumers. Portuguese merchants brought back goods from Asiaat about a fifth of what they cost when purchased through the Arabs and Italians. As a result, more Europeans could afford these items.

In time, Portugal’s success in Asia attracted the attention of other Europeannations. As early as 1521, a Spanish expedition led by Ferdinand Magellan arrived inthe Philippines. Spain claimed the islands and began settling them in 1565. By theearly 1600s, the rest of Europe had begun descending upon Asia. They were lookingto establish their own trade empires in the East.

Other Nations Drive Out the Portuguese Beginning around 1600, the Englishand Dutch began to challenge Portugal’s dominance over the Indian Ocean trade. TheDutch Republic is also known as the Netherlands. It is a small country situated along

D. Possible AnswerIt brought down theprices of many Asiangoods, so moreEuropeans couldafford them.THINK THROUGH HISTORYD. RecognizingEffects How did theEuropean dominationof the Indian Oceantrade eventuallyimpact Europeansback home?

467

G E O G R A P H Y S K I L L B U I L D E R : Interpreting Maps 1. Place Why would a fort at Hormuz help the Portuguese to stop

trade between Arabia and India?2. Region Where was the Dutch influence the greatest?

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the North Sea in northwestern Europe. Since the early 1500s, Spain had ruled thisarea. In 1581, the people of the region declared their independence from Spain andestablished the Dutch Republic.

In a short time, the Netherlands became a leading sea power. By 1600, the Dutchowned the largest fleet of ships in the world—20,000 vessels. Together, the English andDutch broke Portuguese control of the Asian region. The two nations then battled oneanother for dominance of the area. Each nation had formed an East India Company toestablish and direct trade throughout Asia. These companies had the power to mintmoney, make treaties, and even raise their own armies. The Dutch East IndiaCompany was richer and more powerful than England’s company. As a result, the Dutcheventually drove out the English and established their dominance over the region.

European Trade Outposts In 1619, the Dutch established theirtrading headquarters at Batavia on the island of Java. From there theyexpanded west to conquer several nearby islands. In addition, theDutch seized both the port of Malacca and the valuable Spice Islandsfrom Portugal. Throughout the 1600s, the Netherlands increased itscontrol over the Indian Ocean trade. With so many goods from theEast traveling to the Netherlands, the nation’s capital, Amsterdam,became a leading commercial center. By 1700, the Dutch ruled muchof Indonesia and had trading posts in numerous Asian countries. Theyalso controlled the Cape of Good Hope on the southern tip of Africa.

By this time, however, Britain and France had gained a footholdin the region. Having failed to gain control of the larger area, theEnglish East India Company focused much of its energy on estab-lishing outposts in India. There, the English built up a successfulbusiness trading fine cloth on the European market. In 1664, Francealso entered the Asia trade with its own East India Company. Thecompany struggled at first, as it faced continual attacks by the Dutch.The French company finally established an outpost in India in the1720s. However, it never showed a strong profit.

As the Europeans battled for a share of the profitable IndianOcean trade, their influence in inland Southeast Asia remained

relatively limited. European traders did gain control of numerous port cities through-out the region. However, their influence rarely spread beyond the ports into the coun-tries’ interiors. From 1500 to about 1800—when Europeans began to conquer much ofthe region—the peoples of Asia remained largely unaffected by European contact. Asthe next two sections explain, European traders who sailed farther east to seek richesin China and Japan had even less success in spreading Western culture.

F. Possible AnswerIt did not greatlyaffect them, forEuropean influencedid not spread muchbeyond the port citiesof the East.THINK THROUGH HISTORYF. RecognizingEffects How did thearrival of Europeansaffect the peoples ofthe East in general?

THINK THROUGH HISTORYE. Analyzing IssuesHow were the Dutchable to dominate theIndian Ocean trade?E. Possible AnswerThe Dutch, with thelargest fleet of shipsin the world, were agreat naval power;also the Dutch EastIndia Company wasricher and more pow-erful than England’scompany.

468 Chapter 19

2. TAKING NOTES

Trace the establishment ofPortugal’s trading empire in theIndian Ocean by supplying thesignificant event for each dateshown on the time line below.

Write the lead paragraph for anews story about one of the timeline events.

3. MAKING INFERENCES

What did the Treaty of Tordesillasreveal about Europeans’ attitudestoward non-European lands andpeoples?

THINK ABOUT• the dispute between the

Portuguese and Spanish• how the treaty settled the dispute

4. ANALYZING THEMES

Science and Technology Inwhat ways did Europeans owesome of their sailing technology toother peoples of the world?

THINK ABOUT• the astrolabe• the compass

1. TERMS & NAMES

Identify• Bartolomeu Dias• Prince Henry• Vasco da Gama• Treaty of Tordesillas• Dutch East India

Company

Section Assessment1

The Dutch in South Africa

Since colonizing the Cape of GoodHope, the Dutch have retained apowerful and controversial presencein South Africa. Dutch settlers,known as Boers, continually battledthe British after Great Britain seizedthe region in 1806.

The Boers, who now callthemselves Afrikaners, gained somecontrol in 1924. They beganrestricting the rights of the nation’smostly nonwhite population. In 1948,the Afrikaners took control of thegovernment. They establishedapartheid, a legal system of severediscrimination.

During the 1990s, the govern-ment began repealing its apartheidlaws, as it finally agreed to sharepower with the Africans.

CONNECT to TODAY

1419

1488

1498

1511

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SETTING THE STAGE Europeans made healthy profits in the Indian Ocean trade.Looking for additional sources of wealth, they sought a trading relationship with China.By the time westerners arrived in the 1500s, China had driven out its Mongolrulers and had united under the Ming Dynasty.

The Ming Dynasty By the time the first Portuguese ships dropped anchor off the Chinese coastin 1514, China had become the dominant power in the region under the ruleof the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644). In recognition of China’s power, vassalstates from Korea to Southeast Asia paid their Ming overlords regular tribute,a payment by one nation to another to acknowledge its submission. Chinaexpected the Europeans to do the same. The Ming rulers would not allow out-siders from distant lands to threaten the peace and prosperity they hadbrought to China following the end of Mongol rule.

The Rise of the Ming Hongwu, the son of a peasant, commanded therebel army that drove the Mongols out of China in 1368. That same yearhe became the first emperor of the Ming Dynasty. Hongwu continued torule from the former Yuan capital of Nanjing in the south. He beganreforms designed to restore agricultural lands devastated by war, erase alltraces of the Mongol past, and promote China’s power and prosperity.Hongwu’s agricultural reforms increased rice production and improved irrigation. He also encouraged the introduction of fish farming and the growing of commercial crops, such as cotton and sugar cane.

The first Ming emperor used respected traditions and institutions to bringstability to China. For example, he encouraged a return to Confucian moralstandards. He improved imperial administration by restoring the merit-basedcivil service examination system. Later in his rule, however, when problems began todevelop, Hongwu became a ruthless tyrant. Suspecting plots against his rule everywhere,he conducted purges in which many thousands of government officials were killed.

Hongwu’s death in 1398 led to a power struggle. His son Yonglo (yung•lu) emergedvictorious from this struggle. Yonglo continued many of his father’s policies, althoughhe moved the royal court to Beijing. In addition, Yonglo had a far-ranging curiosityabout the outside world. In 1405—before Europeans began to sail beyond their bor-ders—he launched the first of seven voyages of exploration. All were led by a ChineseMuslim admiral named Zheng He (jung huh).

The Voyages of Zheng He Zheng He’s expeditions were remarkable for their magnitude. Everything about them was large—distances traveled, size of the fleet,and measurements of the ships themselves. The earliest voyages were to SoutheastAsia and India. Later expeditions roamed as far as Arabia and eastern Africa.

Vocabularyvassal states: coun-tries that recognizethe overlordship, ordomination, ofanother country.

BackgroundConfucianismstressed social order,harmony, and goodgovernment througheducation, strongfamily relationships,and respect for elders.

Vocabularypurges: ways of ridding a nation, orpolitical party, of people consideredundesirable.

This blue and whiteporcelain vase,with its finelydetailed pattern, isfrom the MingDynasty. Mingporcelain isconsidered to beone of the culture’smost famousachievements.

China RejectsEuropean Outreach

2TERMS & NAMES

• Ming Dynasty• Hongwu• Yonglo• Zheng He• Manchus• Qing Dynasty• Kangxi

MAIN IDEA

Advances under the Ming and Qingdynasties left China self-contained anduninterested in European contact.

WHY IT MATTERS NOW

China’s independence from the Westcontinues today, even as it forges neweconomic ties with the outside world.

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Yonglo hoped to impress the world with the power and splendor of Ming Chinaand also hoped to expand China’s tribute system. Zheng He’s voyages accomplishedthese goals. From about 40 to 300 ships sailed in each expedition. Among them werefighting ships, storage vessels, and huge “treasure” ships up to 440 feet long. Thefleet’s crews numbered over 27,000 on some voyages. They included sailors, soldiers,carpenters, interpreters, accountants, doctors, and religious leaders. Like some hugefloating city, the fleet sailed from port to port along the Indian Ocean.

Everywhere Zheng He went, he distributed gifts, such as gold, silver, silk, andscented oils, to show Chinese superiority. As a result, more than 16 countries sent tribute to the Ming court. Many envoys traveled to China. Still, Chinese scholar-officialscomplained that these voyages wasted valuable resources. After the seventh voyageended in 1433, there were no more. China withdrew into its self-sufficient isolation.

Ming Relations with Foreign Countries China’s official trade policies in the1500s reflected its isolation. To keep the influence of outsiders to a minimum, onlythe government was to conduct foreign trade, through three coastal ports. In reality,trade flourished up and down the coast. Profit-minded Chinese merchants smuggledcargoes of silk, porcelain, and other valuable goods out of the country into the eagerhands of European merchants. Usually, Europeans paid for their purchases with sil-ver—much of it from mines in the Americas.

Demand for Chinese goods had a ripple effect on the economy. Industries such as silkmaking and ceramics grew rapidly. Manufacturing and commerce increased. However,China did not become highly industrialized for two main reasons. First, the whole idea of

commerce offended China’s Confucian beliefs. Merchants, it was said,made their money “supporting foreigners and robbery.” Second, Chineseeconomic policies traditionally favored agriculture. Taxes on agriculturestayed low. Taxes on manufacturing and trade skyrocketed.

Accompanying European traders into China were Christian missionaries. The missionaries brought Christianity as well as a variety of European inventions, including the clock and the prism.The first missionary to have an impact was an Italian Jesuit, MatteoRicci. He gained special favor at the Ming court through his intelligence and his ability to speak and write Chinese. However,many educated Chinese opposed Christianity.

Vocabularyenvoys: governmentrepresentatives sentto a foreign country.

THINK THROUGH HISTORYA. MakingInferences What doyou think the peopleof other countriesthought about Chinawhen they were vis-ited on one of ZhengHe’s voyages?A. Possible AnswerThat China must bevery powerful to send so many ships, men,and goods on such avoyage and, therefore,they should pay tribute.

The Forbidden City

A stunning monument to China’sisolationism was an extravagantpalace complex at the capital city,Beijing. It was built by emperorYonglo between 1404 and 1420. Thepalace was known as the ForbiddenCity because all commoners andforeigners were forbidden to enterwithout special permission. Insidethe complex’s 35-foot-tall red walls,the emperors of China conductedthe business of state and lived inluxury and isolation.

Only the emperor, his family, andhis court lived in the palace—whichcontained 9,000 rooms. Maintainingsuch a splendid palace city wasexpensive. For example, every daysome 6,000 cooks made meals for10,000 to 15,000 people. In 1949, thepalace complex was converted intoa museum and opened to the public.

SPOTLIGHTON

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The Qing DynastyBy 1600, the Ming had ruled for more than 200 years, and the dynasty was weaken-ing. Its problems grew—ineffective rulers, corrupt officials, and a government out ofmoney. Higher taxes and bad harvests pushed millions of peasants toward starvation.Civil strife and rebellion followed.

Beyond the northeast end of the Great Wall lay Manchuria. In 1644, the Manchus (MAN•chooz), the people of that region,invaded China. The Ming could not repel the invasion, and thedynasty collapsed. The Manchus took over Beijing, and the Manchuleader became China’s new emperor. As the Mongols had done, theManchus took a Chinese name for their dynasty, the Qing (chihng)Dynasty. They would rule China for more than 260 years and bringTaiwan, Chinese Central Asia, Mongolia, and Tibet into China.

China Under the Qing Dynasty Many Chinese resisted rule bythe non-Chinese Manchus. Rebellions flared up periodically fordecades. The Manchus forced Chinese men to wear their hair in apigtail as a sign of submission to their rule. The Manchus, however,slowly earned the people’s respect. They upheld China’s traditionalConfucian beliefs and social structures. They made the country’sfrontiers safe and restored China’s prosperity. Two powerful Manchurulers contributed greatly to the acceptance of the new dynasty.

The first, Kangxi (kahng•shee), became emperor in 1661 andruled for some 60 years. Kangxi reduced government expenses and lowered taxes. A scholar and patron of the arts, Kangxi gained thesupport of Chinese intellectuals by offering them government positions. He also enjoyed the company of the Jesuits at court. Theyinformed him of the latest developments in science, medicine, andmathematics in Europe.

Under Kangxi’s grandson Qian-long (chyahn•lung), who ruledfrom 1736 to 1795, China reached its greatest size and prosperity.An industrious emperor like his grandfather, Qian-long often rose at dawn to work on the problems of the empire. Those problemsincluded armed nomads on its borders, Christian missionaries, andEuropean merchants.

Manchus Continue a Policy of Isolation To the Chinese, theircountry—the Middle Kingdom—had been the cultural center of theuniverse for two thousand years. If foreign states wished to tradewith China, they would have to follow Chinese rules. These includedtrading only at special ports and paying tribute.

The Dutch, masters of the Indian Ocean trade by the time ofQian-long, accepted these restrictions. Their diplomats paid tribute to China’semperor through gifts and by performing the required “kowtow” ritual. This ritual involved their kneeling in front of the emperor and touching their heads to the ground nine times. As a result, the Chinese accepted the Dutch as trading partners. The Dutch returned home with traditional porcelains and silk, as well as China’s highly prized new trade item—tea. By 1800, tea would make up 80 percent of shipments to Europe.

Great Britain also wanted to increase trade with China. However, the British didnot like China’s trade restrictions. In 1793, a British mission led by Lord GeorgeMacartney delivered a letter from King George III to Qian-long. The letter asked fora better trade arrangement, including Chinese acceptance of British manufacturedgoods. Macartney refused to kowtow to the emperor, although he reportedly bowed

THINK THROUGH HISTORYB. SummarizingHow did the Manchusearn the respect ofthe Chinese?B. Possible AnswerThey upheld China’s traditional Confucianbeliefs and socialstructures, secured thecountry’s frontiers, andrestored its prosperity.

BackgroundTea was first known in China around 2700 B.C. as amedicine. It did not become a dailydrink until the thirdcentury A.D.

Kangxi1654–1722

The emperor Kangxi had too muchcuriosity to remain isolated in theForbidden City. To calm the Chinesein areas devastated by the Manchuconquest, Kangxi set out on aseries of “tours.”

On tours I learned about thecommon people’s grievances bytalking with them. . . . I askedpeasants about their officials,looked at their houses, anddiscussed their crops.

In 1696, with Mongolsthreatening the northern border,Kangxi exhibited the kind ofleadership unheard of in later Mingtimes. Instead of waiting in thepalace for news from the front, hepersonally led 80,000 troops tovictory over the Mongols.

■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■HISTORY MAKERS

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on one knee. Qian-long denied Britain’s request. As Qian-long made clear in a letterto the British king, China was self-sufficient:

A V O I C E F R O M T H E P A S T. . . There is nothing we lack, as your principal envoy and others have themselvesobserved. We have never set much store on strange or ingenious objects, nor do weneed any more of your country’s manufactures.QIAN-LONG, from a letter to King George III of Great Britain

In the 1800s, the British, Dutch, and others would attempt to chip away at China’strade restrictions until the empire itself began to crack, as Chapter 28 will describe.

Korea Under the Manchus In 1636, even before they came topower in China, the Manchus conquered nearby Korea and made ita vassal state. As a member of the Chinese tribute system, Korea hadlong existed in China’s shadow. Koreans organized their governmentaccording to Confucian principles. They adopted China’s technology,its culture, and especially its policy of isolation.

When the Manchus established the Qing Dynasty, Korea’s political relationship with China did not change. If anything, it grewstronger. Under the Manchus, Korea was China’s “little brother.”Below the surface, however, Korea did change. The Manchu invasion,combined with a Japanese attack in the 1590s, provoked strong feelings of nationalism in the Korean people. This sentiment wasmost evident in their art. Instead of traditional Chinese subjects,many artists chose to explore popular Korean themes. Painters, for

example, depicted Korean wrestling matches. They painted Korean peasants tendingtheir fields and landscapes of the Korean countryside.

Daily Life in Ming and Qing China The Chinese devotion to agriculture began to pay off during the late Ming and earlyQing dynasties. Greater rice production, along with the general peace and prosperityof the 1600s and 1700s, ushered in a better life for most Chinese. During this period,the population also doubled. It reached more than 300 million in 1800.

THINK THROUGH HISTORYC. MakingInferences Why doyou think the kowtowritual was so impor-tant to the Chineseemperor?C. Possible AnswerIt reaffirmed for himthe Chinese belief thattheir culture was vastlysuperior to others.

North Korea:The Hermit Kingdom

In the 17th and 18th centuries,Korea’s strict isolation from theoutside world caused it to bedescribed as “the hermit kingdom.”In the 1990s, this description canstill be applied to communist NorthKorea. Closed to outsiders, NorthKorea has very little contact withother nations, even South Korea.China is still its only real ally.

CONNECT to TODAY

SKILLBU ILDER : Interpreting Graphs1. By roughly what percentage did China’s population increase between 1650 and 1900?2. How might the growth of population, towns, and culture be related?

This detail from Zhang Zeduan’s painting, Going Up-River at the Qing Ming Festival, reflects the growth of urban life under the Ming and Qing.

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The Growth of Early Modern China

Popu

latio

n (in

mill

ions

)

100

200

300

400

500

190018501800175017001650

A Population Boom

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Family and the Role of Women Most Chinese families farmed the land. Theyfarmed in much the same way as their ancestors had for thousands of years. During theQing Dynasty, irrigation and the use of fertilizer increased. Farmers began to grow newcrops. These crops, such as corn and sweet potatoes, had been brought by the Europeansfrom the Americas. With increased food production, nutrition and diet improved. Suchchanges encouraged families to expand, and a population explosion followed.

These expanded Chinese families favored sons over daughters. Only a son wasallowed to carry on vital religious rituals. A son would raise his own family under hisparents’ roof, assuring aging parents of help with the farming. Because of this, femaleswere not valued, and many female infants were killed as a result. Men dominated thehousehold and their wives, but women did have some significant responsibilities.Besides working in the fields, they supervised the children’s education and managedthe family’s finances. Although most women were forced to remain secluded in theirhomes, some found outside jobs as midwives or textile workers, for example.

Still, women generally suffered as a result of their inferior status in Chinese society. Oneglaring example was the continuation of the traditional practice of foot-binding. One-half totwo-thirds of all Chinese women in this period may have undergone this painful procedure,which left them barely able to walk. The practice continued into the 20th century.

Cultural Developments The culture of early modern China was based mainly ontraditional forms. It was a conservative reaction to changes in Chinese life. Thesechanges included the Manchu conquest, the coming of the Europeans, and thepopulation growth. The great masterpiece of traditional Chinese fictionwas written during this period. Dream of the Red Chamber by CaoZhan examines upper-class Manchu society in the 1700s. It hasbeen praised for the sensitive portrayal of its female characters.

Most artists of the time painted in traditional styles, whichvalued technique over creativity. In pottery, technical skill aswell as experimentation led to the production of high-qual-ity ceramics, including porcelain.

Drama was a popular entertainment, especially in ruralChina, where literacy rates were low. Plays that presentedChinese history and portrayed cultural heroes served twopurposes. They entertained people, and they also helpedunify Chinese society by creating a kind of national culture.

While China was attempting to preserve its traditions andits isolation, another civilization that developed in relative seclu-sion—the Japanese—was in conflict. As you will learn in Section 3,it faced problems caused both by internal power struggles and by thearrival of foreigners.


2. TAKING NOTES

Complete a chart like the onebelow, listing five relevant factsabout each emperor.

Choose one emperor and write aone-paragraph biography usingthe information listed in the chartand text.

3. MAKING DECISIONS

When Qian-long expected LordGeorge Macartney to kowtow,what do you think Macartneyshould have done? Why?

THINK ABOUT• cultural differences• effect on trading • the kowtow ritual• political correctness

4. THEME ACTIVITY

Cultural Interaction Work insmall groups to draw, paint, orsketch a mural of a Zheng Heexpedition. Include the figures,objects, maps, and symbolsnecessary to convey relevantinformation from the text. Use thepictures and maps in this chapterfor additional ideas. Present themural to your class.

1. TERMS & NAMES

Identify• Ming Dynasty• Hongwu• Yonglo• Zheng He• Manchus• Qing Dynasty• Kangxi

Section Assessment2

Under the Mingand Qing, thearts, includingpainting, flourish-ed. This detail,from one of twopaintings entitledOccupations ofthe Court Ladies,shows society’sprivilegedwomen relaxing.

Emperor Relevant FactsHongwuYongloKangxiQian-long

Vocabularymidwives: womenwho are trained toassist expectantmothers in childbirth.

D. Possible AnswerProduced little creativ-ity but provided senseof stability in time ofchange and helped tounify Chinese society.THINK THROUGH HISTORYD. RecognizingEffects What werethe consequences ofthe emphasis on tradi-tion in the culture ofearly modern China?

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SETTING THE STAGE In the 1300s, the unity that had been achieved in Japan in theprevious century broke down. Shoguns, or military leaders, in the north and southfought for power. Although these two rival courts came back together at the end ofthe century, a series of politically weak shoguns let control of the country slip fromtheir grasp.

Strong Leaders Take ControlIn 1467, civil war shattered Japan’s feudal system. The country collapsed into chaos.Centralized rule ended. Power drained away from the shogun to territorial lords inhundreds of separate domains.

Local Lords Rule A violent era of disorder followed. This time in Japanese history,which lasted from 1467 to 1568, is known as the Sengoku, or “Warring States,” period.Powerful samurai seized control of old feudal estates. They offered peasants and others protection in return for their loyalty. These warrior-chieftains, called daimyo

(DYE•mee•oh), became lords in a new kind of Japanese feudalism. Under this system, security came from this group of powerful warlords. The emperor at Kyotobecame a figurehead.

The new Japanese feudalism resembled European feudalism in many ways. Thedaimyo built fortified castles and created small armies of samurai on horses. Laterthey added foot soldiers with muskets (guns) to their ranks. Rival daimyo oftenfought each other for territory. This led to endless disorder throughout the land.

New Leaders Restore Order A number of ambitious daimyo hoped togather enough power to take control of the entire country. One of them, thebrutal and ambitious Oda Nobunaga (oh•dah noh•boo•nah•gah), defeatedhis rivals and seized the imperial capital Kyoto in 1568.

Following his own motto, “Rule the empire by force,” Nobunaga soughtto eliminate his remaining enemies. These included rival daimyo as well aswealthy Buddhist monasteries aligned with them. In 1575, Nobunaga’s3,000 musketeers crushed an enemy force of samurai cavalry. This was thefirst time firearms had been used effectively in battle in Japan. However,Nobunaga was not able to unify Japan. He committed seppuku, the ritualsuicide of a samurai, in 1582, when one of his own generals turned on him.

Nobunaga’s best general, Toyotomi Hideyoshi (toh•you•toh•meehee•deh•yoh•shee), continued his fallen leader’s mission. Hideyoshi set out to destroy the daimyos that remained hostile. By 1590, by

combining brute force with shrewd political alliances, he controlled mostof the country. Hideyoshi did not stop with Japan. With the idea of eventuallyconquering China, he invaded Korea in 1592 and began a long campaignagainst the Koreans and their Ming Chinese allies. When Hideyoshi died in1598, his troops withdrew from Korea.

Vocabularydomains: the landsbelonging to a singlelord.

Vocabularyfigurehead: a personholding a position ofseeming leadershipbut having no realpower.

Vocabularymusketeers: soldiersarmed with muskets.

Japan LimitsWestern Contacts

3TERMS & NAMES

• daimyo• Oda Nobunaga• Toyotomi

Hideyoshi• Tokugawa

Shogunate• kabuki• haikuMAIN IDEA

The Tokugawa regime unified Japanand began a 200-year period of isolation,autocracy, and economic growth.

WHY IT MATTERS NOW

Even now, Japan continues to limit andcontrol dealings with foreigners,especially in the area of trade.

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This samurai armorconsists of leatherand iron plates. Itwas made in 1714for the Lord ofAkita, a region innorthwest Japan.

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Tokugawa Shogunate Unites JapanOne of Hideyoshi’s strongest daimyo allies,Tokugawa Ieyasu (toh•koo•gah•wahee•yeh•yah•soo), completed the unification ofJapan. In 1600, Ieyasu defeated his rivals atthe Battle of Sekigahara. His victory earnedhim the loyalty of daimyo throughout Japan.Three years later, Ieyasu became the sole ruler,or shogun. He then moved Japan’s capital tohis power base at Edo, a small fishing villagethat would later become the city of Tokyo.

Japan was unified, but the daimyo still governed at the local level. To keep them fromrebelling, Ieyasu required that they spendevery other year in the capital. Even whenthey returned to their lands, they had to leavetheir families behind as hostages in Edo.Through this “alternate attendance policy” andother restrictions, Ieyasu tamed the daimyo.This was a major step toward restoring central-ized government to Japan. As a result, the ruleof law overcame the rule of the sword.

Ieyasu founded the Tokugawa Shogunate,which would continue until 1867. On hisdeathbed in 1616, Ieyasu advised his son andsuccessor, Hidetada, “Take care of the people.Strive to be virtuous. Never neglect to protectthe country.” Most of the Tokugawa shogunsfollowed that advice, and their rule brought a welcome stability to Japan.

Tokugawa Society and CultureJapan enjoyed more than two centuries of stability, prosperity, and isolation under theTokugawa shoguns. The farming community produced more food, and the populationrose. Still, the vast majority of peasants, weighed down by heavy taxes, led lives filledwith misery. The people who prospered in Tokugawa society were the merchant classand the rich. However, everyone, rich and poor alike, benefited from a flowering ofJapanese culture during this era.

Social History In Japan, as in China, Confucian values influenced ideas about society. According to Confucius, the ideal society depended on agriculture, not urban commerce. Farmers, not merchants, made ideal citizens. In the real world of Tokugawa Japan, however, peasant farmers bore the main tax burden and facedmore difficulties than any other class. Many of them abandoned farm life and headedfor the expanding towns and cities. There they mixed with samurai, artisans, and merchants—the other main classes of Tokugawa society.

By the mid-1700s, Japan began to shift from a rural to an urban society. Edo hadgrown by that time from a small town in 1600 to perhaps the largest city in the world.Its population was more than one million. The rise of large commercial centersincreased employment opportunities for women. Women found jobs in entertainment,textile manufacturing, and publishing. Still, the typical Japanese woman led a shelteredand restricted life as a peasant wife. She worked in the fields, managed the household,cared for the children, and obeyed her husband without question.

Culture Under the Tokugawa Shogunate Traditional culture continued to thrive.Samurai attended ceremonial noh dramas based on tragic themes. They read tales of

A. PossibleAnswers Familiesheld hostage, finan-cial burden maintain-ing two residences,time wasted movingback and forth.

THINK THROUGH HISTORYA. DrawingConclusions Howwould the “alternateattendance policy”restrict the daimyo?

Vocabularyshogunate: theadministration or ruleof a shogun.

Japanese Society

EmperorHeld highest rank in societybut had no political power

DaimyoLarge landowners

ShogunActual ruler

Samurai WarriorsLoyal to Daimyo and Shogun

PeasantsFour-fifths of the population

Craftspeoplesuch as artistsand blacksmiths

MerchantsLow status but gradually gained influence

Artisans

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ancient warriors and their courage in battle. In their homes, they hungpaintings that showed scenes from classical literature.

Such traditional entertainment faced competition in the cities from newstyles of drama, art, and literature. Townspeople attended kabuki theater.

These were dramas in which actors in elaborate costumes, using music,dance, and mime, performed skits about modern urban life. The paintings they

enjoyed were often woodblock prints showing sophisticated city life.Townspeople read popular stories about self-made merchants or the hardships

of life. This new type of urban fiction was created by the novelist Saikaku. Thepeople also read haiku (HI•koo), poetry which does not express ideas, but presents images. For example, Matsuo Basho, the greatest of all the Japanesehaiku poets, wrote just before his death in 1694:

A V O I C E F R O M T H E P A S TOn a journey, ailing—My dreams roam aboutOver a withered moor.MATSUO BASHO, from Matsuo Basho

Contact Between Europe and JapanEuropeans began coming to Japan in the 16th century, during a time of severe disorder. At first, the Japanese were curious about these newcomers. They welcomedthe traders and missionaries, who introduced fascinating new technologies and ideas.Within a century, the aggressive Europeans had worn out their welcome.

Portuguese Sailors and Technology Reach Japan The Japanese first encoun-tered Europeans in 1543, when shipwrecked Portuguese sailors washed up on theshores of southern Japan. Portuguese merchants soon followed. They hoped to involvethemselves in Japan’s trade with China and Southeast Asia. The Portuguese broughtclocks, eyeglasses, tobacco, firearms, and other unfamiliar items from Europe.Japanese merchants, eager to expand their markets, were happy to receive the newcomers and their goods.

The daimyo, too, welcomed the strangers. They were particularlyinterested in the Portuguese muskets and cannons. One warlord listened intently to a Japanese observer’s description of a musket:

A V O I C E F R O M T H E P A S TIn their hands they carried something two or three feet long, straighton the outside with a passage inside, and made of a heavy substance.. . . This thing with one blow can smash a mountain of silver and a wallof iron. If one sought to do mischief in another man’s domain and hewas touched by it, he would lose his life instantly.ANONYMOUS JAPANESE WRITER, quoted in Sources of Japanese Tradition (1958)

Firearms forever changed the time-honored tradition of theJapanese warrior, whose principal weapon had been the sword. Manysamurai, who retained the sword as their principal weapon, wouldlose their lives to musket fire in future combat. The cannon also hada huge impact on Japan. Daimyo had to build fortified castles towithstand the destructive force of cannonballs. The castles attractedmerchants, artisans, and others to surrounding lands. Many of theselands grew into the towns and cities of modern Japan.

Christian Missionaries in Japan In 1549, Christian missionariesbegan arriving in Japan. The Japanese accepted the missionaries inpart because they associated them with the muskets and other

THINK THROUGH HISTORYB. AnalyzingMotives Why didEuropeans want to open trade with Japan?B. Possible AnswerThey hoped to involvethemselves in Japan’strade network.

BackgroundMen play all roles in noh and kabukidramas.

BackgroundHaiku is a 5-7-5-sylla-ble, 3-line verse.

476 Chapter 19

Kabuki theatermakes use ofextravagantcostumes, mask-like makeup, andexaggeratedpostures andgestures. Thiscontemporary photoshows a dancercostumed as a lion.

Tabi ni yandeYume wa Kareno oKakemeguruMATSUO BASHO, in Japanese

Introduction of Firearms

Europeans introduced firearms toJapan in the mid-1500s, when everydaimyo sought an advantage overhis rivals. Imagine the warlords’surprise when they first saw a leadpellet explode from a musket! Thenimagine their eagerness to ownfirearms when they realized themusket’s killing power.

Japanese gunsmiths set to workcopying the European musket. Some30 years later, they had masteredthe technology. However, soldiersstill had trouble firing the gun, anddaimyos didn’t know how to usetheir musketeers effectively.Nobunaga’s victory in 1575 provedthat those problems could be solvedand led to daimyos arming theirtroops with muskets.

SPOTLIGHTON

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European goods that they wanted. The religious orders of Jesuits, Franciscans, andDominicans came to convert the Japanese. Francis Xavier, a Jesuit, led the first mission to Japan and baptized about a hundred converts. Missionaries convertedabout 300,000 Japanese to Christianity by the year 1600.

The success of the missionaries upset Tokugawa Ieyasu. He found aspects of theChristian invasion troublesome. Missionaries, actively seeking converts, scorned traditional Japanese beliefs and sometimes involved themselves inlocal politics. At first, Ieyasu did not take any action. He feared driv-ing off the Portuguese, English, Spanish, and Dutch traders whospurred Japan’s economy. By 1612, however, the shogun had cometo fear religious uprisings more. He banned Christianity and focusedon ridding his country of all Christians.

Repression of Christianity continued off and on for the next twodecades. In 1637, the issue came to a head. An uprising in southernJapan of some 30,000 peasants, led by dissatisfied samurai, shook theTokugawa regime. Because so many of the rebels were Christian, theshogun decided that Christianity was at the root of the rebellion.After that, the shoguns ruthlessly persecuted Christians. All Japanesewere forced to demonstrate faithfulness to some branch ofBuddhism. These policies eventually eliminated Christianity in Japan.

The Closed Country Policy The persecution of Christians waspart of an attempt to control foreign ideas. When Europeans firstarrived, no central authority existed to contain them. The strongleaders who later took power did not like the introduction ofEuropean ideas and ways, but they valued European trade. As timepassed, the Tokugawa shoguns realized that they could safelyexclude both the missionaries and the merchants. By 1639, they hadsealed Japan’s borders and instituted a “closed country policy.”

One port, Nagasaki, remained open to foreign traders. However, only Dutch andChinese merchants were allowed into the port. Since the Tokugawa shoguns controlledNagasaki, they now had a monopoly on foreign trade, which continued to be profitable.

For more than 200 years, Japan remained basically closed to Europeans. Japanwould continue to develop as a self-sufficient country, free from European attemptsto colonize or to establish their presence.

The Europeans had met with much resistance in their efforts to open the East totrade. Expansion to the West in the Americas, as you will learn in Chapter 20, wouldprove much more successful.

THINK THROUGH HISTORYC. Comparing Howwas the treatment ofEuropeans different inJapan and China?How was it similar?C. PossibleAnswers TheJapanese were morereceptive at first toEuropean contact thanthe Chinese were;however, both coun-tries eventuallyrebuffed Europeaninfluences and enteredan age of isolation.

2. TAKING NOTES

Japan was unified by a succession of daimyos. Using a chart like the one below, show theaccomplishments of each.

3. FORMING AN OPINION

Do you think Japan’s closedcountry policy effectively keptWestern ideas and customs out of Japan?

THINK ABOUT• the attitude toward European

presence• reaction to past restrictions on

Christianity and trade• the role of Nagasaki

4. THEME ACTIVITY

Cultural Interaction Rereadabout the role of women in China on page 473 and about the role ofwomen in Japan on page 475.What are the similarities and thedifferences between the two?Create a Venn diagram tocompare and contrast them.

1. TERMS & NAMES

Identify• daimyo• Oda Nobunaga• Toyotomi Hideyoshi• Tokugawa Shogunate• kabuki• haiku

Section Assessment3

Zen Buddhism

The form of Buddhism that had thegreatest impact on Japaneseculture was Zen Buddhism. Itespecially influenced the samurai.

Zen Buddhists sought spiritualenlightenment through meditation.Strict discipline of mind and bodywas the Zen path to wisdom. Zenmonks would sit rigidly for hours. If they showed signs of losingconcentration, a Zen master might shout at them or hit themwith a stick.

Some masters helped disciplesfree themselves from ordinary waysof thinking by asking them riddles,such as “When both hands areclapped, they make a sound. Whatis the sound of one hand clapping?”

SPOTLIGHTON

Daimyo Accomplishments

Nobunaga

Hideyoshi

Ieyasu

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19Chapter Assessment

REVIEW QUESTIONS

SECTION 1 (pages 463–468)

Europeans Explore the East 11. What factors helped spur European exploration?

12. What role did Portugal’s Prince Henry play in overseas exploration?

13. What was the significance of Bartolomeu Dias’s voyage? Vasco da Gama’s?

14. Why were the Dutch so successful in establishing a trading empire in the Indian Ocean?


China Rejects European Outreach15. Why didn’t China undergo widespread industrialization?

16. Name two technological advancements the missionaries brought to China.

17. List five reasons why the Ming Dynasty fell to civil disorder.


Japan Limits Western Contacts18. Why was the period between 1467 and 1568 called the Age

of the Warring States?

19. What was the difference between the Confucian ideal of society and the real society of Japan?

20. Briefly describe the new drama, literature, and art found in Japanese cities.

TERMS & NAMESBriefly explain the importance of the following to European exploration and the growth of China and Japan.

Interact with History

On page 462, you decided whetheror not to go on a voyage of explo-ration. Now that you have read thechapter, reevaluate your decision. Ifyou decided to go, did what youread reaffirm your decision? Whyor why not? If you chose not to go,explain what your feelings are now.Discuss your answers within asmall group.

1. Bartolomeu Dias

2. Vasco da Gama

3. Treaty of Tordesillas

4. Dutch East IndiaCompany

5. Ming Dynasty

6. Manchus

7. Qing Dynasty

8. Oda Nobunaga

9. Toyotomi Hideyoshi

10. Tokugawa Shogunate

478 Chapter 19

Visual Summary

An Age of Exploration and IsolationISOLATION

• China abandons its voyages ofexploration in 1433.

• Beginning in the 1500s, theChinese severely restrict tradewith foreigners.

• Japan outlaws Christianity in1612 and drives out Christianmissionaries.

• Beginning in the mid 1600s, the Japanese institute a“closed country policy” andremain isolated from Europefor 200 years.

EXPLORATION

• In 1405, Zheng He of Chinalaunches voyages of explorationto southeast Asia, India, Arabia,and eastern Africa.

• Beginning in the early 1500s, thePortuguese establish tradingoutposts throughout Asia andgain control of the spice trade.

• The Dutch drive out thePortuguese by the early 1600sand establish their own tradingempire in the East.

• Europeans sail farther east toChina and Japan in search ofmore trade; both nationsultimately reject Europeanadvances.

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CHAPTER ACTIVITIES1. LIVING HISTORY: Unit Portfolio Project

Your Unit Portfolio project focuses on theways in which different cultures interact (see page 387). For Chapter 19, youmight use one of the following ideas.

• Imagine you are the Jesuit missionary, Matteo Ricci. Write a letter homedescribing your impressions of Chinese rule and culture.

• Draft a reply for King George III to the letter written by China’s emperor,Qianlong, on page 472. Convince the emperor to open China byexplaining the benefits of economic and cultural interaction.

• Imagine you are a Malaccan newspaper editor. Write an editorial about thearrival of Europeans, as well as their motives for being there.

2. CONNECT TO TODAY: Cooperative Learning

The primary force behind overseas exploration waseconomic, as Europeans sailed beyond their borders in search of new sourcesof wealth. Today the West retains strong economic ties with Asia. In recentyears, maintaining those ties with China has been a hotly debated topic inthe United States.

Work with a small team and prepare to debate another team over the issueof U.S. trade with China.

Using the Internet, magazines, and other library sources, research theissues involved in the debate over U.S. trade with China.

• After being assigned one or the other position on the issue, work togetherto gather information that supports your side’s position.

• In front of the class, debate a group that has taken the opposite position.

3. INTERPRETING A TIME LINE

Reexamine the unit time line on pages 386–387. Convert the Chapter 19time line into a cartoon strip that conveys the same information.

CRITICAL THINKING1. SAILING INNOVATIONS

Of all thetechnological advances that helped prompt Europeanexploration, which do you think was the the mostimportant? Why?

2. EMPERORS OF THE FORBIDDEN CITY

How might an emperor’s attitude toward living in theForbidden City affect his leadership? Consider howhe might view his country, its people, and the outsideworld. Also think about the role of leaders and thevalues you think they should hold.

3. MISSIONARIES IN JAPAN

Create a time line to trace the events that led toJapan’s expulsion of European Christians.

4. ANALYZING PRIMARY SOURCES

Emperor Kangxi invited Christian missionaries to hiscourt, where they shared ideas about science,religion, government, and trade. In the followingpersonal account, Kangxi reflects on what he haslearned from the Europeans.

A V O I C E F R O M T H E P A S TBut I was careful not to refer to theseWesterners as “Great Officials,” and correctedGovernor Liu Yin-shu when he referred to theJesuits Regis and Fridelli . . . as if they werehonored imperial commissioners. For eventhough some of the Western methods are dif-ferent from our own, and may even be animprovement, there is little about them that isnew. The principles of mathematics all derivefrom the Book of Changes, and the Westernmethods are Chinese in origin: this algebra—“A-erh-chu-pa-erh”—springs from an Easternword. And though it was indeed theWesterners who showed us something ourancient calendar experts did not know—namelyhow to calculate the angles of the northernpole—this but shows the truth of what Chu Hsiarrived at through his investigation of things:the earth is like the yolk within an egg.KANGXI, quoted in Emperor of China: Self-Portrait of K’Ang-Hsi

• What do you think is Kangxi’s attitude towardWesterners?

• Do you think Kangxi is a true scholar?

FOCUS ON GEOGRAPHY

This map, produced by the German cartographer Henricus Martellus inabout 1490, is believed to be the first world map to incorporate thediscoveries made by Bartolomeu Dias.

• Where is Europe on the map?

• What is the continent in the lower left corner of the map?

Connect to History Obtain a modern-day world map and compare itwith this one. How do you rate Martellus’s assumptions of how theworld to the east of Africa looked?

THEME CULTURAL INTERACTION

THEME ECONOMICS

THEME SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

DateEvent

CLASSZONE .COMTEST PRACTICEAdditional Test Practice,

pp. S1–S33

478-479-0419ca 10/11/02 4:14 PM Page 479

http://www.classzone.com/books/wh_sh/oltp_map_select.cfm

an age of explorations isolation, -...

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