an aesthetics of self: moral remaking and cypriot education

7/28/2019 An Aesthetics of Self: Moral Remaking and Cypriot Education

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Society for Comparative Studies in Society and History

An Aesthetics of Self: Moral Remaking and Cypriot EducationAuthor(s): Rebecca BryantSource: Comparative Studies in Society and History, Vol. 43, No. 3 (Jul., 2001), pp. 583-614Published by: Cambridge University PressStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2696682 .

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AnAestheticsf Self:MoralRemakingndCypriot ducationREBECCA BRYANTBogaziCiUniversityThisessaybegins rom questionhat s often sked npractice utrarelyntheory: hat s the elationshipetweenhegoodcitizen ndthegoodmanorwoman? hisproblem asa particularoncern fancientheoristsfthe o-lis,forwhom tmade ittleense oconsider he oodsof he ersonpart romthegoodsofthe ommunity.considerhe uestion ere n the ontext fna-tionalism,hich asvariouslyeendescribeds a modern orm freligion,fcommunity,fbelief ystemnd ocialtie.Under ll suchdescriptions,hena-tion-in all of tsmaginedreadthnd cope-demandsour acrificeshroughthe nstitutionshat epresentt.We sacrificen thename f an ultimateood,ofwhichwe believeourowngoodsto be a part.tis possible, hen,hat hesamequestionhat nimatedhinkersf the olis may lsohelpus to under-stand he riumphf thenation-state.ndeed, arguehere hat t s ourfailureadequatelyo theorizehe thical imensionsf nationalismhat asmaskedfrom s the nstitutionalources fnationalism'successes.1This essay s particularlyoncerned ith ducation, hichs ubiquitouslycited s themainmotor fnationalismnd the ource fpatrioticllegiance.Myinterestn educations twofold,rising oth rom concernwith duca-Thispaper sbasedon researchndwritingupportedythe ocial ScienceResearch ouncil n-ternationalredissertationellowship; heUnited tatesnstitutefPeace Jenningsandolph el-lowship; heDepartmentfEducationulbright-Haysissertationellowship;he nstituteor n-ternationalxchange/Unitedtates nformationgency ulbrightellowship; heUniversityfChicagoCouncilforAdvanced tudiesnPeace and nternationalooperation ummer ravelGrant;he nstitutefTurkishtudies issertation riting rant; he awyer eminar nReligion,Law, nd he onstructionf dentitiesellowship,undedy heMellon oundation;ndTheJohnD. andCatherine.MacArthuroundationrogramn Peace and nternationalooperation e-search ndWritingrantor ndividuals. wish o thankll ofthesenstitutionsor heir eneroussupport. arlier ersions f thispaperwerepresentedt theSpencer oundation/UniversityfChicagoworkshop,DirectionsntheAnthropologyfEducation,nAfricandElsewhere"nMay1998; attheWatson nstituteor nternationaltudies t BrownUniversitynApril1999;and ntheCyprus ociologicalAssociationecond nnualmeetingnApril 000. receivedmany elp-ful ommentsuring hose resentations,specially rom ypriotolleagues. pecial gratitudesdueJohn omaroff,horead nd ommentedn earlier ersions fthe aper; iannis apadakis,who edme toclarifyome mportantoints; nd HaldunGiilalp,whoprovided ritical eadingsof ater ersionsf he aper hat elpedmetorefinehe rgument.amparticularlyratefulothetwoCSSH reviewers hochallengedme torevise he ssay ndwhose xtensiveommentstim-ulated significantethinkingndrestructuringfthe rgument.0010-4175/01/583-614 9.50 C) 2001 SocietyforComparative tudy fSociety ndHistory

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584 REBECCA BRYANTtion's ole ntheCypriotonflicthat asbeen hemain ocus fmy esearch,andfrom nagging issatisfactionith ducation'sreatmentt thehands fthosewho-overtly rcovertly-describetprimarilys a form felitist ro-paganda. ndeed,ntheneatlyonstructedtory oldmost amously yAnder-son 1993) and Gellner1983; 1987), "high ulture"-particularlyromotedthroughniversal ducation-isdisseminatedo themasses nd gives hemway o hink f hemselvesifferently.nthis tory,ducationasily lideswithexperience,ropaganda ith atriotism,ymbolwith ensation.t appears,nfact,hat ducation's ask s transparent,nd this espite ommon nowledgethat eachinghildren pledge fallegiance oesnotmake hemwillingmar-tyrs.Thisvision, want o arguehere, s one thats culturallyituatednd s soentangled ith urmost ntimatendunspokenssumptionshat ven n ourscholarship e havedifficultyheorizingutside ts frame.t also embodiescontradictionshatwerarelycknowledges such. or xample, ellner'she-sis that he mergencef ndustrialocieties roduces ertain ecessaryut-comesrests ponthe laim hatmodern,ndustrialocieties re sustainedymass,homogeneous,nterchangeableystemsf education. his s a very p-pealing hesis hat s neverthelessontradictedyourknowledgehat racticesof ducation iffer ithinhenation-stateyclass,region,ndgender,t east.So,the ssumptionhathenation-stateuilds pon he nonymousndividual,thenational veryman,sdirectlyontradictedy, or xample,he normousbodyof work hat iscusses endernd thenation e.g.,Anthias ndYuval-Davis 1992; Chatterjee993;Jayawardena986; Kandiyoti 991).This s notonly differencefthe deal and the eal, r oftheoryndpractice-itrepre-sents distinctailuref our heories feducation o take nto ccount hehi-erarchiesnddifferencesncompassed ythenation,nd still oexplain du-cation's oundationalolefornationalism.hisfailure esults,want oarguehere, rom form fpractical ationalityhat iews ducation unctionally,sa motor fprogressndsource fgain.

Hence, offer ere counter-descriptionf education's ork hat ttemptstotake nto ccount oth hehierarchicalaturefeducation ndthe galitari-anaspirationsfnationalitizenship.attemptotake hese nto ccount yde-scribingnalternative,uasi-Aristotelianorm fpractical ationalitynwhicheducationreates ersons hooccupy nd mbody ulturallypecifictatuses.Inmakinghis rgument,also attempto draw utthe ontinuitieshat inkprenationalistducationo tsnationalistorms.usethe aseofCyprus, hereeducationlayed central ole hroughouthe wentiethenturyn disseminat-ing somewould ay ncreating)he thnic ationalismshat avedivided heisland. ominatednd nfluencedy he rredentistationalismsfGreece ndTurkey, yprus f this enturyas experiencedntercommunalonflict ndmistrusthat ltimatelyesultedn1974 na Greek oupd'etat, Turkishmil-itaryntervention,ndthedivision f the sland nto woethnicallyomoge-



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586 REBECCA BRYANTthosegoods were obe realized y ndividuals. oucault n his aterwritingswas drawn o a similardea,which e called n "aestheticsfexistence"madepossible y the careofthe elf."nFoucault's ision, he areofthe elf hathe believes haracterizedncientifewas a conscious trivingy freemen ofulfillheir thical esponsibilitiesndto embody heir irtuesn an ethos hatfor freeman wasevidentn his clothing,ppearance,ait,nthe almwithwhichhe responded oevery vent, nd so on" (Foucault1997:286). n hiswork, oucault mphasizedheconscious trivingmong ncientGreeks ofashion ndmold heirives nto omethinghat epresentedhe eautiful,ndhence hegood.I want o use a similaroncept n analyzing he ormsf selfhood hat avedividedGreekndTurkish ypriots,nd he ole f ducationncreatinghosedifferences.utwhile oucault mphasizes he areofthe elf s a practice fdeliberationnd choice, he aestheticsf self"that wish oemploy ere sintendedo convey formf udgementhat inks beinggood" with beinggood at."4Certainlyn theAristotelian odel, orms f excellence rvirtuewerenextricablyinked o one's telos, rend.Hence, osaythat ne s a goodfarmers to saythat neis knowledgeable,uccessful,ndpossessed f thequalitiesnecessary orproductive arming.r when, or xample,MichaelHerzfeld iscusses hemannern whichCretan hepherdsespise omeonewho s "just man" nd triveo be "goodatbeingmen" Herzfeld 984),hisanalysisalls tomindOdysseus' eturnoPenelope ndhisclever hallengeohis wife's uitors.t s not nough o be a man; thas to be donewith inesse,with tyle.5Moreover,ne'sselfhas to be fashionednthepublicgazefor hevery imple eason hat umansre, nAristotelianerms,reaturesf the o-lis whose elos s always nly elevant ithin heframeworkf a communitythat an udge.Virtuenthis ense ecomes hemeans orealize he xcellences,which rethemselvesoodandbeautiful.In contrasto Foucault, also emphasize ere hehierarchyfgoodsem-ployed t both he ndividualndthe ommunalevels.Charles aylor otesthat he ncients erenot oncerned ith xistenceerse butwith hepursuitof"higher"ctivities.notherwords, heywerenot oncerned ithwhat ay-lorcalls"ordinaryife"butwith betterife. While nthe raditionalthicswhichame ousfromhe ncients,"aysTaylor,thisordinaryife]hadmere-ly nfra-structuralignificanceitwasthefirstermnAristotle's uoof ends:'life nd thegood ife' . . In traditionalthics, rdinaryife s overshadowedby what re dentifieds higherctivities-contemplation,or ome, he iti-zen ife, or thers"Taylor 985:155).While twasnecessaryopracticemod-erationn one'seating,rinking,nddaily ctivities,irtue adtobe related othe dea ofa telos.Hence,while t wasnecessarynd virtuousopursue xcellencen theful-fillmentfone'sowntelos-even if hat nlymeant orealize ne'smanhoodinstyle-theteli hemselves aybe seen as hierarchicallyrganizednrela-



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MORAL REMAKING AND CYPRIOT EDUCATION 587tionshipo communal oods.So, I wish o argue, ducated ersonsn Cypruswere lso leaders otbecause f simple dvantageutbecause heywere eenas embodimentsfgoods lready aluedbythe ommunity.hiswas the asebecause n Cyprus,iteracyndeducation adalwayshad the ocial mplica-tions f a "tradition."oth heOrthodoxndMuslim ommunitiesf Cypruswere literate"ommunitiesnthe ensedefinedy Goody ndothersGoody1977;1987;Goody ndWatt 963;Ong 1967).Tobecome fullyiterate us-limOttomanmeant hat ne earned ot nlyTurkishut lso Arabic ndPer-sian-the languages ftheKoran ndofpoetry.nd obecome fullyiterateGreek rthodox eant hatne earned he anguagesfSocrates,f heBible,andofByzantium.hus, choolmastersndotheriterateseceivedtatus,ef-erence,nd admirationotbecauseof simple iteracy-not ecausethey admasteredomemagical ower fwords butbecause hey adbeen nductedinto he ong ntellectualistoriesfwhich ach communityasproud.The ritualpacesofchurchrmosque ndschool, ndthepersons fpriestor mam nd schoolmaster,eceived qualvenerationndwereoften,nfact,the ame.Justs a dilapidatedhapelwas sacred, o a dank, ramped illageschoolhouse asa venerableite f earning.6imilarly,ducationmaintainedits sacrality,ven as itbecame ncreasinglyecularized. ntil he ndof thenineteenthentury,lementaryducation as a necessaryart fbecomingfullmemberf he eligiousommunity,omeonewho ould ngagen ts itesandrecite ts exts. aradoxically,he ncreasingecularizationfeducationnfactedto more ehementttemptsorepresentducations a sacred art fcommunityeproduction.venby thebeginningf this entury,he rchbish-op protectedducation rom ritishmeddlingwith heproclaimed oal ofmaintainingt as thenationalpace for he rainingfGreek itizens Mara-theftis992;Myrianthopoulos946;Persianis 978).Hence,while necannot eny hatducation orts wn akewashighlyal-uedbyCypriots,rthat ducated ersonsbtainedignificantmountsf cul-tural apital," want o argue ere hat he thnicxperiencefeducation asconsiderably ore han hat: hat hroughducation nebecamemorefullywhat newas, n ethnic erms. ecoming "true"Greek r a "true" ttoman(and ater "true" urk)wassomethingchievedhroughducation. s wewillsee, ven nprimordialistescriptionsf thnicdentitiesnCyprus,hosewereidentitiesf high" ivilization,ultivation,nd hereforeducation.ndeed,nCyprusnbothanguagest scommon osay hat nereceived n educationnorder o"become person"Greek, a ghinei nthropos; urkish,nsanol-mak).Educatedpersons,hen,were notonlyendowedwith omethinghatcouldbeconvertednto tatus;heywere,nexperientialact, etterepresen-tativesftheir ommunityndbetterersonshan heir neducatedeers.Inprenationalisterms,he undamentaloodness feducation as inextri-cably ntertwinedith herolesthat ducated ersons layed: n the Greekcommunityrimarilyspriestsndprofessionals,nd ntheOttomanurkish



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588 REBECCA BRYANTcommunityrimarilys imams,udges, ndmembersf he ulinglass. nna-tionalisterms,hat oodnesswasdiffused.uccinctly,nemight aythat th-nic dealswere lso idealsof civilizationndcivility;hose dealsofciviliza-tion ndcivilityequiredducation, hichwouldmake ne a better reek ra better urk. herefore,y modus onens, o become betterepresentativeofone'sethnic roup hroughducation as tobecome better erson.Inoutliningnalternativeision f ducation'success, his ssaydraws wosets fcontrasts.he firstontrastsbetween ritisholonial ndCypriotn-derstandingsfthe ask feducation,nwhich heBritishnderstandingfahundredears go s closest o ourunderstandingoday. hen, olonial dmin-istratorsn Cyprus aw educations a form f propagandandwarned hatteachers ere roublemakershowould tir p discontent.ypriots,nthe th-erhand, truggledor neducationhat hey elievedwould hape ndmoldthem s betterorts fpersons. hesecond ontrasthat then raws betweenChristianndMuslim-or Greek ndTurkish-formsfeducationn Cyprusandthe onsequencesfthose ormsfeducationor ersonhoodndmorali-ty nthe wo ommunities.attempto show hat ducation as, ndeed, eena divisive orcenthe sland, ut hatnordero understandhe rue ources feducation's ivisiveness,e must etbeyondhe endencyo seeeducationspropaganda,tendencyo reminiscentfBritisholonial dministratorsntheisland.Along heway, wish lso to argue hat he mploymentfthepracticala-tionalityfa capitalist odernityakes tdifficultowfor s torecaptured-ucation's thical etterment.ence, n historianftheOttomanmpiremaylook atthe ducationf theOttomanureaucracyndsee in t only form fgain, rgettinghead.He orshemay ee it nthatwaybecause ducation o-day susefulnthatense-as a pragmaticorm f dvance rgain.Bettermenttodaymeans cumulativerocess-acquiring seful nowledge,rknowingmore. his s, tobe sure, far ry rom nethics hatinks ettermentf theselfwith thical oodsvaluedbythe ommunity.nd t s this, also argue,thatmakes t odifficultor s tounderstandingowone canbeboth oodandgoodat the oleofcitizen.CULTURE AND CANTIn a cornerfthemain quare fNicosia,Cyprus' apital, commemorativebust erchesn an onicpedestal,round hichounge axi riversippingof-fee ndtwirlingrayereads. n themiddayight,hewhite lare nthemar-bleobscureshe eatures,ut ne can still iscernhe trongoreheadndvo-luminousmustaches.ewknow hathe ust'smodel,NikolaosKatalanos, asone ofthemost owerfulndpuzzling iguresnmodern ypriot istory.helifesize usthardly oes ustice oa manwhowas a captivatingrator, ene-trating riter,ndtireless ationalist,oth ulturedndcharismatic,oyalistandpopulist. o historyndicateshat e evermarried, ethis manhoodwas



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MORAL REMAKING AND CYPRIOT EDUCATION 589unquestionedyfollowers ho ccepted iscompleteevotiono the auseofenosis, r unionof the slandwithGreece.7He had arrivednCyprus s ateacherf heNicosiagymnasiumndhadbeendismissedornsubordination.8He remainedor lmosthirtyears s a ournalist,gitator,ndpolitician,ndwhen isvisawasrevoked ndhefinallyeturnedoAthens,edistributedall-ing ards eading,N. Katalanos: rofessor-Journalist-Firstolitical xilefrom yprus11April 921)."9Katalanoswas one of a smallgroup f Greekmenwhobegan rrivingnCyprusn he atenineteenthentury ithhe xplicitim f ultivatingGreekidentityn Greek-speakingypriots. heaim wasto realize heGreatdea (iMeghali dhea)-the dream f ncorporatingnto heGreek tate ll Greek-speaking rthodoxhristiansn whatwere een s historicallyreekands.10Later, urkish ationalistsouldbegin rrivingn the 1930swith he im ofteachinghe eformsfAtatiirk11nd of nstructinguslimCypriotsn whatit meant o be a Turk.12Thiswas madeeasier nCyprus ecausethe choolsthere-whetheralledChristiannd Muslim rGreek ndTurkish-have l-waysbeenseparated.heywere eparatedn theOttomaneriod,n theperi-odofBritish ule,n the eriod f ndependence,ndofcourse emainonow.Katalanosndteachersikehimwere ccorded reat ignificanceyBritishadministrators,hofeared he se ofeducationorwhat heyalled national-istpropaganda"nthe sland.ndeed,t s all too asy o seeKatalanos s an n-fluentialdeologue epresentativefthat ntellectuallass so often lamed ordiffusinghomogenized,ationalistighculture. atalanoswas certainlysomethingfa rabble-rouser13ndprobably bitofa thug,14uthe almostsingle-handedlyaised losetoa thousand olunteers-mostlyoung oys-tobe sent ffn1897tothewar nCrete,I5nddespite is mmigranttatus ewas electednumerousimes ndbyhandymarginsothe egislativeouncil.Infact, ispopularityndicates hathewords espoke ndwrote esonatedwithGreekCypriotsftheperiod,whorecognizednhisarticulationf theirculturetruthhat as alreadyeingived. his ouldnot resentgreateron-trastoBritishdministrators'ssessmentsfthe propagandizing"nd"trou-blemaking"oleofmen ikeKatalanos.Administratorsereparticularlyon-cerned boutHellenicpropaganda,nd theBritish irector f educationsuggesteds early s 1881thatexceedingaremust e takenopreventhe mployments mastersn ny choolss-sistedy heGovt.f oliticalgents homighthinkt heirutyo tirp n he eartsof he therwiseontentednd oyal illagers,hosespirationsndongingshichavebeen o oftenhownobe unreasonablendhopeless,ndwhichanproduceootherresulthan iscontentnd nhappiness.16Indeed,wheneveronfrontedith discontent"r"agitation,"ritish dmin-istratorsn the slandprimarilylamed n elitegroup f nationalistgitators,particularlyn theGreek ommunity,hose ttemptso rouse he patriotic"sentimentsftheirompatriotsccasionally roducedesults.



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590 REBECCA BRYANTSimilarlyontradictoryeportsfpopularityndpropaganda,frhetoricndrabble-rousing,anbe foundmongstypriots,swell.For xample, former

teacher hom interviewedecalled nestoryf such gitationhatwaspartof hehistorical emoryfhisvillage.He saidthat uring ischildhoodnthe1910sand1920stheMuslims ndChristiansnhis villagegot long ogetherwithoutny roblems,ndherecalled arious uotidianormsf onsiderationand ooperation.evertheless,edescribedne ncidenthat adoccurrede-forehisbirth n which omeof thehousesofMuslims n thevillagewereburned, ndsomeMuslimsmayhavebeen killed.But this, e says,was anextraordinaryncidentausedbya "very amous rator" hocameto thevil-lage"cryingboutMother reece!Mother reece!' '7 Despitewhathe sawas the xceptional aturef that ncident, henhe began eachingn the ate1920s n a villagenotfar rom ishome,he reportedhat hevillagersskedhim n a kindway"to pleasementionothe hildrenbout ncient reece.""And usedtodo that," e recalled, andtheywerevery, ery hrilledndproud."From uch xamplest should e clear hat propaganda,"othneducationandbyeducated ersons,snot nexplanationut problem.nCyprus,du-catedpersonswere xpectedobe nationalistpokesmennd eaders reciselybecause hey ere ducated, hile ducation as expectedobenationalistre-cisely ecause twasa communityffair.hese recircularitieshat annot eresolved yan understandingfeducationhat eesit onlywithinheframe-work fhierarchiesfpower. histendencyoesback at east oDurkheim'slaterworks n thenation-state,hich adheralded ormalducations the it-ualpar excellence or he ocializationf theyouthn whathe called"moralculture"esp.1956;1973).And n the1970s nd 1980s,new pproachesothesubject escribedn a Marxist rGramscianmodethemannern which heybelieved ducationoreproducedeologyrhegemony.uch tudies ave eenmodernducations the esultfthempositionfpower nd tsmechanisms,either s a productf the deologywithin hich tate tructuresreproduced(Foucault 979)oras the eproductiveodeof classconsciousnessThomp-son1963).Willis1981)made he irsttepnthe irectionf henowwidely sed cul-tural roduction"heory henhe demonstratedheways n whichworking-class"lads"participatedn thereproductionfworking-classonsciousness.AndBourdieu esp. 1967)has attemptedodemonstratehe orrespondencesbetweenearned atternsfthought"cognitivetyles") ndotherocialpat-terns. s I want otryoshowhere, owever,eitherourdieu's symbolici-olence" esp.BourdieundPasseron 990)normore ecentttemptsounder-stand ducations "culturalroduction"Apple1982;Foley1990;LevinsonandHolland1996;Willis1981) fully apture heprocesses t work n theCypriotase.Forherewehave neducationhatsexplicitlyeproductive,ndinwhich ypriots ere committedo themaintenancendreproductionf n



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MORAL REMAKING AND CYPRIOT EDUCATION 591ontologicalrder"Foucault 986:89).EducationnCyprus as a formf elf-conscious elf-remaking,ndto seeeducationn thiswaymeans o see it as aform f cultivationhosegoalsare already ne'sown.Hence, t smore se-ful oconsider ot he ormsfcontestation,ut he easonswhy ertainigns,symbols,nd udgementshatmay e poorly econciled ithived ife renev-ertheless ot ontested.8Indeed, ypriotndBritish erceptionsf ducation's ork nthe ervice fnationalismifferedn their undamentalpproacho thenature feducation.So, while heBritish irectorfeducation ould argue hat exceeding aremust e taken opreventhe mployments masters"f ny politicalgents"whomighttir p discontent,hosewritingnd peakingrom ithinheGreekCypriotommunityaw that political ropaganda"s aninstructionn Hel-lenicculture. ne newspaper eportrom he ameyear ssertedn an exas-perated one hat:We have writtenndprovenmany imesnlong-windedrticles hat heres no suchthings Greek ropagandanCyprus. heCypriots, reeks norigin,anguage, eli-gion, alues ndtraditionaveno needofteachers,s they ecome nthusiastichen-ever tconcerns hemagnificencef theirMother-nativeand tis Mitr6s-Patrfdhoston).19WhatwasportrayedyBritish dministratorss dangerous reek ropagandathat oulddisturbhe eaceof he slandwas describedy iterate reek ypri-ot spokesmens a culturalnheritancehat idnotneed obetaught.There re wo lementsfthis roblem hatwillconcern s here. hefirstssomethinghatswidely ssumednstudies fnationalismndwas ndeed s-sumed yBritisholonial dministratorstthe ime: amely,hat ertainormsof nstructionn anguagendhistory ere form fnationalistndoctrinationthat ould ead to discontent. ewillreturno thisater, ecause believe hatthiswasnot he ase,or at east hattwasnot he ase in the ense hat olo-nial dministratorselievedt obe. Foronthe urface,necouldfind ittle if-ferenceetween his ndwhatwasdescribed o me from heTurkish ational-istperiod. ccordingo one formereacher,urkishypriotchoolchildrenfthe1940swere aughtbout theAssyrian urks,heHittiteurks,hePersianTurks."Manyoftheglories f MiddleEastern nd even worldhistory ereclaimed orTurkish ncestors. uthe could describe hisformelaughingly,while orGreek ypriotsuchhistories-ereno aughingmatter.his san m-portantifferencehat believe akes sto theheart fthe ulturalreach hatI want ltimatelyo describe.The secondproblem,ndtheone that want o addressnow, s that hisdisagreementver o-called ropaganda as usually xpressedn terms fef-fectiveedagogy. ationalistropaganda asnot nly angerous,twas ped-agogically seless.Certainly,hebest-intentionedolonial dministratorsx-pressed t nthese erms,rguinghat hey idnotwant oseebrightypriotmindswasted n the arochial onsense fnationalism.nthis ense, he rob-



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592 REBECCA BRYANTlemofnationalistropagandan the chools ouldbe assimilatedo the argerproblemfpedagogyn Cyprus.norder ully ounderstandhis roblem, emust eep n mind hatmbedded ithinotionsfeffectiveedagogyreun-derstandingsfpersonhood-bothfwhowe are ndofwhowe want omakeorbecome.Hence, he roblem fnationalistropaganda asonly nepart fthe arger roblemf the ypes fpersonswhowerebeing reatedn Cypriotschools.Theproblemo which refers thefollowing:hroughoutheBritish olo-nial period, dministratorsepeatedlyemarkedhatCypriotducationwasoverlycademic ndpracticallyseless. n 1884, he irstnspectorf schoolscomplained,or nstance,hathildrenn thevillage choolswere earningn-cientGreek rammarhile earningothingfthe anguage hathey ctuallyspoke. imilarly, uslim upils ecited extsnArabic ndPersian utdidnotstudy urkish,heir ativeongue,ntil econdarychool-and only fractionof hemmade t hat ar. nd he ommissionerf he arnaka istrictemarkedinthe ameperiod hat fewdays arlier ehadfoundina largehillvillageclass,whollygnorantf the lements f hygiener rural conomy,atteringdetails rom hehistoryfHyksos nd ofSicyon.Naturally,heir treets erefilthy,nd heirmodes f ultivationre-historic."20illage offeehousesilledwith nemployedecondary-schoolraduates ho passedtheir aysreadingnewspapersnddebatingolitics.21ndeed, y1934 one newspaperalledforthe abolition f the "gangrenef educationalismnd urbanism," hich tclaimedwas destroyingatherhanmprovinghe conomy fthe sland.22ofar,hismighte assimilatedothe dea of nationalistropaganda."uttherewere ther bservationsegardingducation hat rerelevantere.When wo"educationalxperts"-J.W.Talbot nd C. F. Cape-arrivedin the sland n1912, hey bserved,or nstance,hatntheMuslim chools,it s as muchsthenspectorsando, ven n he etterchools,o uggesthathe hil-dren hould etrainedorelymore pon heirwn ommonense nd essonmerelearningy ote,hatheyhouldetaughtoread ookswith ome nderstandingftheirontents,nd oexpressheirwn houghtsithair eadiness,othnspeakingand nwritingTalbotndCape1913:30).Althoughraisingfthe ttemptstreformntheOrthodoxchools, ery im-ilar omments ere pplied othem,s well:Too ittletresseems obe aid ntraininghe hildrenromhe arliesttageode-scribeheirwn deas nd xperiencentheirwnwords. nthe therand,he ro-grammeives nduerominenceo ranscriptionnd ther echanicalxercises,alu-able noughn heir ay rovidedheyrenotmployed,stheyooftenrewhereheteacher asseveral lasses omanage,merelys themost onvenient eans fkeepingthe hildrenutofmischiefibid., 2).ThetransformationfCypriotducationnto system hich roducedhink-ing, easoning,xpressingndividuals as one which reoccupiedolonial d-ministratorshroughoutheBritisheriod.



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MORAL REMAKING AND CYPRIOT EDUCATION 593Furthermore,hese experts" bservedhen strange niformityfpracticebetween he ommunitieshat ave ittle ttentionotheyoungesthildren,hooftenanguishedn the owest rades or everal ears.n fact, hey oundhatfiftyercentf Muslim tudentsndforty-threeercent fChristiantudentswerenthe owest lass ibid., 3).Their ecommendationor olvinghe rob-lemwastohire choolmistressesor heyoungesttudents,incewomenwerefittedby heir ature"o carefor mall hildren.utthroughoutheir eportrather ifferentroblemonsistentlymerged: amely,hat oth ommunitieswere oncerned ith he inishedroductfelementarychooling ndplacedlittle alueon "a sound eneralducation"ibid., 1).Theynoted, or nstance,hat eaders f theMuslim ommunityadsug-gested ddingmoremumtazselect, istinguished)lasses tothe lementaryschools or hildrenetween welvendfifteenears f ge.Theywanted heseadditionallasses chieflys a means f eachingurkishoyswhen hey rowup tokeep heir wn ccountsnthe arm r nbusiness,rtoperformhevar-iousclerical uties evolving pontheMukhtars."or this, albot ndCapethought,hat he oys eally eededwas agroundingnTurkishnd rithmetic.Whatwas actuallyaughtnthemuimtazlasses,however, as "an ambitiousprogrammef tudies,mainlyinguisticnd mbracingrench, nglish, reek,

Arabic, ndPersian" ibid.).While hey ada more ositive iewoftheGreekelementarychools' Analyticalrogramme,"hey everthelessoted hattwas highlymbitiousnd hattheresa dangerf ducationalealoutrunningdiscretion,nd ttemptingo chieve tonce, llthats requirednevery ranchofeducation efore ecuringhat hefoundationsre well aid na sound le-mentarychool ystem"ibid.).Thisbrief eport rovides markernthe ducational istoryf the sland.Thepurelyeligious oranic choolshadbythis ime eenreplaced ya sec-ular urriculum,ftenaughtn classrooms etachedrom hevillagemosque.Andthe llilodhidha'ktika-orelf-teaching-methodf theGreek chools,basedon theBritishystem nalyzed yFoucault 1979),hadpreviouslyon-centratednreading, riting,rithmetic,ndhistory.henew Analyticalro-gramme"eplaced his, rescribingseries f essons na varietyfsubjects,includingeography,atural istory,nddrawing. ore mportantlyhan heirinfluences,owever, astheway hat hese ystems ere doptednthe sland.For nstance,oth ducationalystemseglectedheyoungestupils,whoof-ten emainedor wo rthree earsn the owest lass. nstead, hey ocused nolder upils n a frustratinglyntransigentesistanceo Britishttemptso ex-plain othem he fundaments"feducationponwhich ne couldbuild.ThisBritishnsistenceponthecorrectnessfdeveloping child'smindemerged,f ourse, rom long ine fEnlightenmentndpost-Enlightenmentepistemologyhat,tartingrom tabularasa,attemptedoperfectuman ea-sonbyperfectinguman evelopment.heproblemfnaturendthe roblemofknowledge ere een s inextricable,ndfor hat ery easonmost hiloso-



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594 REBECCA BRYANTphers ftheperiod oncernedhemselvestsomepointntheir areerswithprescriptivereatisen education.Man can only ecomemanbyeducation,"Kantnoted. He is merely hat ducationmakes f him" 1960:6).Andonefinds philosophicalinkbetween ousseau'sEmile andtheFrench evolu-tionarymphasis ponnursingndearly hilddevelopment,hichwere eenas fundamentalotheproductionf goodcitizens Schama1990). ndeed, ythe atenineteenthentury,disciplininghemind"nd learning ow othink"were he ccepted oalsof Europeanducationaldeologyhat o ongerawthoughts a movementfthe oulgiven yGod.Thesewere mphaticallyotthegoalsof educationn Cyprus,nd to nterprethe ackof attentiono therudimentsfprimaryducations a failure f he ducationalrojectsto mis-understandhe imsofthat roject.In this ontext,t is worth oting hat ne of the greatestomplaintsfTalbot ndCape's reportwas their epeated isappointmentith he over-scholarly aturef ducationnthe urely griculturalommunitiesfCyprus.Moreover,heir bservationsbout he uselessness"fCypriotducationx-tended eyond he impracticality"fthe lassically rientedurriculumventothe orts f practical"ducationhat hen xistednthe sland. or nstance,they raised he ttemptsfthePancyprianymnasiumoeducate uturele-mentarychool eachersn woodworking,ut heywere urprisedythedec-orativeatherhan ractical aturefthe inished roducts:We aw ne f hewo raininglassesngagednwoodwork,n room peciallyro-vided or he urposend eparatedromhemain uilding.ome f hework as d-ucativencharacter,utmuch f twasmerelyrnamentalnd nsuitableor lemen-tarychoolboys.oomuchimend nergyppearobedevotedo hemakingf ancyarticles ithhe retaw r o racingatternsnwoodwithot ronTalbotndCape1913:30).Similarly,hey ound hatntheMuslim irls' choolsmuch ttention aspaidto acemakingndembroidery:Both he irlsnd heireachersxpend uchimend abourn he roductionf lab-orate nd fteneautifulmbroidery,nd t s usual orhis urposeokeep ne lass-room ree f llfurnituretherhanhe quare ramesestingn owwoodenupportsonwhichheworks done.twould emuchmoreeneficialo he irls,ndmuchessexpensiveor heirarents,f hey ere aughto ut ut ndmake p implearmentsfor heirwnwear ccordingo measurementsakeny hemselves,o calculatehequantitynd ost f hematerialsed,nd odotheirwnmendingnd arningibid.).Inother ords,he chools aughtnly he spects f arpentryndneedleworkthatwouldbetaughttthemost dvanced tages fanapprenticeshipnthosecrafts,nd evenmoremportantly)hey aught hatwas beautifulnd deco-rative atherhan turdyndfunctional.The"experts"lso observed hat edagogical echniquesevaluednstruc-tionthrough uotidian bservation.heysuggestedhat he reading ooksmighte concerned ore irectlyith he hildrens'ives, nd hat boymight



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MORAL REMAKING AND CYPRIOT EDUCATION 595learn rithmeticetterypracticingn the prices f he orn, arobs, roliveswhich isfatherrowsnd ells othemerchants"rfindinghe reaofhisfa-ther's ieldsibid., 3). Or, nnaturetudy,hey bservedhat in placeoftheformalessons boutcrustaceannimals' nd phanerogamouslants,'whichare at presentrescribedy theProgramme,e might e taught,mong therthings,oobserve hevarious tagesnthegrowthftheplants, irds, rops,and nsectswhich e sees every ay" ibid.).And est ne thinkhathis mphasisn the frivolous,"he rnate,ndtheclassicalwasrelegatedoan early eriod f Cyprus' ontemporaryistory,tmaybenoted hats late s 1931the cottish eadmasterf heTurkishoys'Lyceewould omplainhathe urriculumsthen onstitutedrovidedradu-ateswith o hopeofemploymentndthat he choolwoulddo wellto altertscurriculumo onebasedonthe rinciplefmind rainingnsteadfbook earning hichs the asisof heLycee ystem.oys hould etaughto hinkndreason or hemselvesnstead f earn-ingpagesofbookswhich hey ften onotunderstandndwhich hey eadily orget.23

And till, t east ixyearsater nd fter he esignationfthat eadmaster,thegeneralonsensus asthat he urriculumhould emainhe ame, nd hedirectorfMuslim eligiousoundationsoundtnecessaryoexplaino gath-eringt the ime hatycee dmissionsouldnot e enlarged,ecause hegov-ernmentouldnotustifysing tsfunds o supporthe ducationfpersonswhowouldgoabroad orwork, eing nable ofind t nCyprus.24In similar ashion,rthodox hurcheaders efined classical ducationsthe nly atrioticort, ince twasclosely ied oth othe urriculumf choolsinGreece ndto the raditionalducationfwhich hechurch ad formerlybeenthebearer. ven afterWorldWar I, and despite yprus' rowingndus-tries fthepost-wareriod,echnicalndcommercialducation asstronglydiscouragedy he thnarchy.n1952, or xample,heheadmasterf he an-cyprian ommercial yceumnLarnakawroteo the rchbishopomplainingof thepittancehat ad beengrantedythechurch ohis school.The head-masteromments,Do youperhapseemt bsolutelyecessaryor ur chool, swell, he nly ompletelyrecognized ommercial chool, o converto a classicalschool?However,t s wellknownoYourGrace hat ptonow here asbeennograduatef he ancyprianom-mercial yceumwhohasdivergedrom hepath fbeliefn thenationaldeals.25He goeson to accusethe rchbishopfprejudicen thematterf educationalcontent,rguinghat is choolhasalsonourishedhe upils nreligion, oral-ity, ndthe deals ofhuman reedom.uchdisputes ver"classical"versus"technical"ducationndover mind raining"ersus book earning"ndeedpersistedhroughoutheBritisheriodnthe sland.Cypriots,hen, esistedhebanalizationf their ducationndemphasizedthe rnatendclassical n thename fculturaldeals hathey elieved upils



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596 REBECCA BRYANTstrove oembody. pedagogy hat mphasizedotememorizationasa prob-lem, t seems, nlyfor olonial dministrators,hilemembers f both om-munitiesn Cyprus ppear o havebelieved hat heirhildren ere earningobecome ffective,ducated epresentativesftheir ommunity.There re wo onclusionshat would ike odraw rom his. hefirsts thatCypriotsesisted hanges ot nlyneducationalontent ut lso npedagogybecause hey aw education s an aestheticnterprise.nthemodern ra, hisidea ofeducations an aesthetic as given ts learest ormulationn theGer-man oncept fBildung, r elf-formationnd ultivation,hich imed tmak-ing ife tself nto work f art.26 ut this dea of self-fashionings actuallybasedon the ncient reek nderstandingfpaideia,theword sed nthe asttodenote ducationnd ulturendused oday odenote ducation r earning.In his well-knowntudy f Hellenistic ducation, enri-Irenee arrou e-scribedhe estheticims fpaideia: "ForHellenistic an," aysMarrou,thesole aimofhuman xistence asthe chievementfthefullest ndmost er-fect evelopmentf he ersonality"1956:98). n Marrou's iew, hetoric asconsideredhecrowningchievementfHellenisticducation recisely oraestheticeasons, hough e admitshat like ny ulture hoseultimateimispurely esthetic,tcanbechargedsbeing ssentiallyain,hollow ndfriv-olous" ibid., 05).Marrourgued, evertheless,hat here assomethingorethan rivolousbout his estheticsfeducation:Tomake neself;oproduceromhe riginalhildish aterial,nd romhemper-fectlyormedreaturenemayoeasily emain,hemanwho sfullyman, hosede-alproportionsne anust erceive:uchsevery an'sifework,he ne askworthyof lifetime'sevotionibid., 8).It waspreciselyhis otion f elf-fashioninghat ppealed othoseGermann-tellectuals ho oughtoarticulatehenotion fBildung.The articulatorsfBildungwere trugglinggainsthat train fEnlighten-ment hilosophyhat ells sthatducationsabout earningow othink. utthere s onevery ignificantifferenceetween he ncient nderstandingfpaideiaand hemoremodern ildung: ildungwasstill part fwhat harlesTaylor1989)callsthe expressivisturn"nmodernhought.his urn idnotdiscard he ultural,ut trelegateshe ignificancefcultureo ourown nte-riority.his would ontrast ith Cypriotnderstandingf he rocess, hichI believeharks ack to a much lderunderstandingfpaideia. Thisshouldhardlyesurprisingiven hat reek ypriotsawa directine hroughyzan-tium onnecting ellenistic ducation f thepre-Christianra to their wnschooling, hile heOttomans ere onquerorsnd ppropriatorsfByzantineimperial ulturendheirs o theHellenistic-inflectedducation fArab slam.Thisunderstandingasnot,notherwords, ne ofhumans s self-reliant,n-dividuallyelf-realizingreatures;nstead,twas anunderstandingfhumansas social, olitical reatures,ndoftheirelf-realizationndself-fashioningsa communal ne.



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MORAL REMAKING AND CYPRIOT EDUCATION 597I wouldsuggest,n fact, hatust as ancientGreek ducation ad as itscrowningchievementhemasteryfrhetoric,omight ther orms feduca-

tionhave as their ltimateestheticims therealizationndembodimentfwhatwe would all deology. hetoric as theultimate oalofancient reekpaideiabecause tflourishedna culturehat laced high alueonthe rts fmemory,eautifulanguage,ndon civic ife nwhich ublic peech layed nimportantole (Clarke 1957; Marrou1956; Yates 1966). Similarly,elf-expression as the imofBildung ecause t existedna culturenwhich heindividual s representativef hisrace was thesole source f authenticx-pression. want o suggest hat herealizationnd embodimentf ethnicideals-what wemightall deology-mayhavebeen he oalof hatestheticin Cyprus.TELOS AND LOGOSA furtheronclusionhat would ike o draw sthat n ethnic elosmayhavebecome he oalof hat estheticecause ducation asclearly ot nly com-munityffair;trepresentedhe true" ontinuityfthe ommunity.enceas I observedarlier-educated ersons otonly cquired tatus utbecamethe ersons est apable ffulfillingdealsofmoral onducthatwere nextri-cably inked ocommunal rethnic elf-definitions.or nstance,nboth om-munities-as well as inGreece nd Turkey-folk raditionseredisparagedexceptwhere hey ould be rewrittennd revised hroughcholarlyesearchthatwould onnect hem oother,higher" arts f thepast. nGreece, ao-grafta,rfolkloretudies,xplicitlyimed ofindinks etweenurrentrac-tices nd hose f ncient reek ncestorsseeesp.Herzfeld 982;for urkey,seeOztuirkmen998).Thisformf cholarshipadmade tsway oCyprus ythe ate nineteenthenturynd is bestrepresentedhere ya massive om-pendiumfpoetry,tories,nd inguisticbservationsSakellarios 890),aswell as bya considerably ore oncisephilological reatisen theCypriotGreek ialectLoukas1874/1974)hat ttemptedo ink tto HomericGreek.Whatwas emphasizednthese tudieswas the true" radition,heclassicalpast,which adprovidedhe undamentalontinuityfeachcommunity.So,when famous ratorikeNikolaosKatalanos oused isaudiences, edidso not nthe tandardpoken orm,ndcertainlyot ndialect, ut n thearchaized igh anguage, atharevousa,reven nancient reek. hesewerethe anguages fthe earned rat eastof the iterate,he anguages f"na-tional" elebrationsndpolitical peeches.Thevillagers o whom peechessuch s Katalanos'weredirected erenot xpected ullyounderstandhem,only o have a visceral esponse fpride. hat hey id have such responseis indicated otonlybythehistoricalecord,27ut lsobythefact hat ventoday lderGreekCypriotsften ecallwith dmirationnstancesromheirchildhoodsnwhich hey adheard n oratorpeakwell nthe ncientan-guage.



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598 REBECCA BRYANTIt appears,n fact,hat he ontentf such peecheswas onticallynsepara-ble from he rchaizedanguage; reams frecapturingyzantiumouldonlybe expressedn the anguagehatwas also thehistoricallyontinuousndcon-sistentpirit f he ace. Christianellenism annot e fullynderstoodith-out tsoriginal inglyanguage," xplained ne newspaperrticle.ThenewHellenisms so closely onnected ith he ncient,hatt snot ossible oun-derstandowthe econd an existwithouthefirst,hebelief f which s stillsymbolized y anguage."28he all-conqueringreekanguagewastheulti-mateproof hat heGreek piritwas timeless uthistorical,nchangingutadaptable,ontinuousutmalleable. orthese easons,nstructionn the an-

guagewas much ikemilitaryraining: nedidnotneed ounderstandheme-chanics fthe rainingounderstandhat hegoal wasto become disciplinedsoldier. ulogies o thebeauty ftheGreekanguagen all itshistorical ani-festationseft ittle oubt hat he racial" ontinuitiesmplied ya Romanticnationalismidnot equire full nderstandingfthe inguisticnheritance.But should mphasizegain hat he ndeavor o maintainhe true" on-tinuitynd true" raditionsfthe ommunityas also an ethical ndeavor,nthe ense utlinedyAlasdairMaclntyren hiscontroversialrgumentegard-ing he oleofthevirtuesn communalife.There, e alsoattemptsotake c-count fthe ontext ithin hich irtuesmake ense.Virtuesrise nparticu-larcontexts, e argues,ndthedemand hatndividuals ulfillhose irtuessnot nly mannerf achieving hegood ifebut lso themaintenancef cul-tural ontinuity.aclntyreotes:Thevirtuesind heirointnd urposeot nlyn ustaininghose elationshipsec-essaryf he arietyf oodsnternalopracticesre obeachievednd ot nlyn us-tainingheform fanindividualife nwhich hatndividualmay eek outhis or hergoodas thegoodofhis or herwhole ife, ut lso insustaininghose raditions hichprovide oth racticesnd ndividualiveswith heir ecessary istoricalontextsMac-Intyre 984:223).In thisway, believe, nemay lso make enseofthe ignificantulturalon-tinuitieshat nderpinhe eeming oveltyfnationalistolitical orms.Furthermore,he ontrasthat previouslyrew etween Britishmphasison earningow o thinknda Cypriottruggleor xcellencenfulfillmentfa telos n factmakes ense nlywithinhe ontext fa largerontrast:hat e-tween n ordern which here s a presupposedogos,ormeaning,nthings,and one n which he enseofordertself akesprecedence.ntheorder hatpresupposes logos nthings,he rderxists riorothose eingswhowouldfulfillt.Thiscontrasts ith modernerspective,n whichwe seek o under-stand atures somethinghat eflects hats,ratherhan ounderstand hatis through presupposednderstandingfnature.Atthe ametime," otesCharles aylor,theres a radical hangenthe ocusof hought.. [T]hemod-ernview,rejectingmeaningfulrder, nderstandshoughts whathappenswithinubjects. houghts always na mind"1985:257).



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MORAL REMAKING AND CYPRIOT EDUCATION 599It s this atter resupposition,want oargue, hat ives o educationalhe-ories n ntractablendividualism.ndeed, he dea of an underlyingrder asbecome o entirelynfamiliarous thatt s, would ssert,mpossible owfor storeconstructrreimaginenunderstandingf houghts a breath f heSpirit, r movementf he oul.Rather,he imited oalsof telos ixedwith-in a meaningfulrder avebeenreplacednmodernityya modelwhosegoalis open-endedrogressndperfectibility.istorically,xcellence ave way oprogress,irtue o perfectibility.ence, he better"s no ongerinked o thebeautiful ut o thenovel.Becoming he imple earer f traditions not c-ceptable; ne mustearn o thinkn ordero nnovate,o break he hackles ftraditions, ores,uperstitions.nd n theoreticalritingsneducation romDurkheimo Foucault hismonadic ndividualismfmodernityingers, hileit seemsmanifestlylear hat hework fpedagogy ndthe urriculums act-edout nthe ndividualupil,whose wn,ndividual ind s affectedy t.Ed-ucations supposedlympartedqually oall; at the ametime,t s acceptedbyeach ndividually.However, hat havetried o arguehere s that ducation ctsnotupon heindividual utupon heperson s bearer f a socialrole.This s as true f ourown, ontemporaryocietys it s ofothers.ncontemporaryociety,hat ole

is the oleof "the ndividual";n otherwords, ducation ctsupon hepersonqua individual,ras embodimentfthe tatusndroleof thendividual"hatpervades ontemporaryocietyseeMaclntyre 989:129).Hence, hepercep-tion fpersons s individuals orks ecursivelyponour heoriesndresultsin an epistemologyhat s intractablyndividualistic.ven anthropologiststhe elf-proclaimedefendersfthenon-Western-beginntheirulturalhe-oriesfrom tabularasa,from n assumptionfcommon umanityowhichculture s appliedthrough processof "socialization" r "enculturation."Hence, ven nmost nthropologicalheory,ducations somethingpplied oindividualsqua individuals).If,however, ebegin romhe ssumptionhat ducation ctsuponpersonsquabearersf ocial raditions,he esults reconsiderablyifferent.fwe seethe ubjectsf ducations "individualsuaparticipantsnparticularocialor-ders mbodyingarticularonceptionsfrationality"ibid., 21), henwe un-derstandifferentlyhe dvantagesndaspirationsmbodiedneducation.feducationctsupon he erson ua individual,henwe evaluate he uccess fthat ducationnterms fthe racticalationalitiesssociatedwith capitalistn-fodernity.ut fwe look at theperson ua bearer ftradition,henwemustsee thattheirctions ndprojectsmay eevaluatedccordinglyyothers ndbythemselves,nlyn so far s those ives lsoare at thepoint f ntersectionof socialrelationshipsfhighly pecificypes" ibid.,128).This s not oreproduceomeform f communalismntowhich the ndi-vidual"s subsumed. ather,t stodescribe heways nwhich ersonhood aybe realized ommunallyna self-conscious,nd elf-consciouslyeproductive,



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600 REBECCA BRYANTsense.Taylor otes hat inthe ontextf premoderndentity,o make ome-thing f one's ife s to realize n one'sperson place nthepattern, ell,ful-ly,with 'clat" Taylor 985:259). uch a perspectives indirect ontrast iththe nfluentialourdieuian erspectivehat mphasizes he ontext fthe o-cial "field," r arena nwhich ocialactors egotiate.ntheBourdieuianer-spective,he ompetitionf elites eads to the laborationf culture, ecausesuch ompetingctors rgroups eem ochange 'egoistic,' rivate,articularinterests.. into disinterested,'ollective, ublicly vowable, egitimaten-terests"Bourdieu 990:109).ThecontrastingerspectiverticulatedyTay-lor seesmygoodas a personnextricablyoundup with he hared oodsofthe ommunity.Insum, he wo ommunitiesfCyprus hared n understandingfhumansas socialbeings etwithin particular,eaningfulrderwho should trive oachieve xcellencenfulfillmentfa telos inked othat rder. urthermore,that rder tself-the ogos ofthings-described or hem heir wnnature,their wn imitations,here hey it nto hat rder,ndthenature fthose e-ingswhooccupied hat articularlace nthat articularrder.Where he wocommunitiesiffered as nthemeaning iven o that rder, fthe eli inkedto t, ndofwhattmeanto achieve xcellence n fulfillmentf a telos.EVOCATION AND ENLIGHTENMENTEducation,hen, as seen s a necessary art fone'sgrowtho fullhumanityinsofars that umanity as understoods being pecifically reek r Turk-ish. Onemightearn rom ne'sfatherow to be goodatbeing man, ut olearn owtobe goodatbeing Greek ra Turk-i.e.,howtobe a goodGreekorTurk-one needed ducation. utclearlyhe onceptionf a communal rethnic umanity,ndof ducated ersonss bearers f hatocial radition,on-tainedwithint the eedsofpotentialonflict. nemight,nfact, spire o anidentityhatwas exclusive ynecessity.t wasthis, wish oargue,hatwas nfactwhat ccurrednthe ase ofCyprus.Clearly,ducationwasrecognizeds importantornationalismnCyprus,since,whenBritish dministratorsecognizedhat lanswere foot or ealiz-ingnationalistspirations,he rimaryargetftheir lamewas education.n-deed,nthe inalhree ecades fBritishulenthesland,dministratorstrug-gledto eliminate rom he schools ll the igns nd symbols f non-Britishpolitical oyalties.ntheir esponseso this rackdown, e canalready eginto understandhedifferencesetween urkishndGreek ypriotonceptionsoftheorder ntowhich hey it ndtheir wnnature ithin hat rder. reekCyprioteachers,riests,ournalists,ndpoliticaleaders ll called heBritishpolicy neof "dehellenization"hat hey laimedwas aimed t"anglicizing"theCypriot outh. urkishyprioteaders,while pposed omany spects fthepolicy, ever alled t one of "deturkicization."Interestingly,ndescribinghis eriod,heGreek yprioteachersndfight-



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MORAL REMAKING AND CYPRIOT EDUCATION 6oiers hat interviewedll felttnecessaryobegin t the eginning,yexplain-ingto methe ntire istoryfthe sland hatmadethe truggleounitewithGreece nevitable.hisuniformityfnarrativeorresponds ith nobserva-tion hat explainndetail lsewhereBryant 998a),which s that neof themost trikingontrastsetweenGreek ndTurkish ationalisms,s these refound nCyprus,s that etweenhevehementnsistencey GreekCypriotsthat he sland sfive housandearsGreek,hat he oil, ea, nd ky reGreek,andthe qually irmonvictionfTurkish ypriotshat hey ave a stake nthe slandbecause twas conquered ytheir ttomanncestors.Moreover,Greek ypriotsell storyfethnicdentityhat tretchesack nanunbrokenlineofcontinuityor ive housandears. ncontrastothis, ationalismametoTurkishypriots ith he oundingftheTurkish epublicn1923andthesubsequenteriod fnationalisteforms.n littlemore han decadeTurkishCypriotshangedheirlphabet,heirlothing,he ormsf heireligious or-ship, ndevenwhat hey alled hemselves.What foundspecially uzzling, owever, asthat ll those interviewed,intalkingf he ateBritisheriod, eny hat he choolswerenecessary or hecreationnd ransmissionf nHellenicdentity,et hey iscuss hese ritishmeasuress attemptso"dehellenize." neof the eachers ithwhom dis-cussed his roblem asMichalakisMaratheftis,hohadbeenforcefullyn-volved nthemanynternationalrotestsf the1950s against heBritishd-ministration'sttemptsocontrol reekCypriotducationnd-in thewordsoftheprotestors-todehellenize"t. f anethnicdentitys somethinghat'snot aught, askedhim, ow canteachingomethingifferente "dehelleniz-ing"?Maratheftisnswereduite imply hatheproblem asthattwas "un-natural,"nd o couldnot ormneffectiveedagogy; edagogyouldonly eeffective hen t expressed thetimelessdeals of a people" (Maratheftis1992:154).As I haveobservedlsewhereBryant998b), he deasoutlinedyMaratheftisndothers uggest hatGreekCypriot edagogy ctually as aratherlatonicharacter:ne s Greek yblood, ndeducationhould ebutreminderfthat.Evenmore han his, owever,t sclear hathe ealizationfethnicdenti-ty hroughducation as therealization f anunquestionableood, hereal-ization fone'sfull umanity.his sso much part fGreek ypriot iscoursethat canpickanexample nly omewhattrandom.t is certainly ell ex-pressednthewords fLeontios, ishopofPafosduringhe1930s,whode-fehndedheneedfor purely reek ducationysaying,Here, owever,t s a questionf nhistoricallyreeksland,avinghistoryffivethousandears,historyf gloriousivilization,ccupieduringheseimesy pop-ulationurelyreek,oble,ndChristian....or his easonhe fficialnd ystem-atic ttempto nglicizeheGreek ypriotssreprehensible.. It s a truthcientifi-cally rovenhatheGreeks-thencestors-becamehe irstreatorsf ducation,andn hisway heyecamehe ducatedeople fhumanity.. TheGreekpiritp-



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602 REBECCA BRYANTproaches he niversal eaning f human,"ndGreek ducationm6rfosis)means u-man ducation.29While hiswaswrittenix decades go, tdiffersot t allfrom claimmadeas recentlys 1994bytheGreek ypriot inisterfeducationhat the evel-opmentf a Hellenocentricducation,upportedyour ntellectualradition,is our alvationnd s irreplaceablend constitutesurdefensegainstwhat-everchauvinisms being aughtn theoccupied erritories."30ccording oboth, o denyGreekCypriots Greek ducation as not ust todeprive hemof their ightsut o deny hem ullhumanity,incehumanityirectlyorre-sponds o Hellenism.

Hence, heultimate uman oal accordswith heultimate ational oal. Iwould omparehiswithwhat oucault1979:136)describessthe great ookofMan-the-Machine,"hemodernistrojecthat esultedna newdiscipliningandregimentationf thebody.Philosophersf the French nlightenmentwouldhave aidthatman s,byhisnature, echanical,ut hat ducation asrequired o achievehis telos.GreekCypriots,ntheother and,wouldhavesaidthatman s,byhisnature,n ethnic ubject, memberfhisrace, ut hateducation asrequiredofulfill ishighernd.ForGreek ypriots,hen,ducation asa process fevocation.ncontrast,I wouldpropose, urkish ypriotducation asa process hat call here en-lightenment"ndirectppropriationnd ranslationf he urkishydinlatmak.Butas I want o outline ere, hiswas not scientificnlightenmentut atheranenlightenmentf elf-a clarification,fyouwill, fone'senvironment,ra-ditions,nd culture.hisbecame learer o meone October aywhen wenttooneof he hoddilyonstructedovernmentfficesfnorthernypruso n-terview former irectorf Turkish ypriotducation. e hadbeenan in-spector fschools nthe1950s, nd among therhings wanted oask himwhy, uringhatameperiod, urkishypriotsidn't omplainlongwith heirGreek ounterpartsf "deturkicization."e laughedheartily,hen aid thatTurkishypriots eren'tbsessed,ike heir reek eighbors,ith ome deaof"pure" ulture. e characterizedt as "a lotofdemagogy,"henwent ntosay hattwas this dea thatwasresponsibleormistrust.Otherwise,"esays,"you ouldfindGreeksndTurksiving ontentedlyith achotherndividu-ally, utwhen t came tocommunally,heGreekswouldalways ry o lookdown ttheTurks, otbecausethey houghtheywere hemajorityere, utbecause hey houghthey elonged o a high ulture.. Every acehas theirowncharacteristic;his s their haracteristic."Rather, e said, twas well-knownhat, edagogicallypeaking,hildrenlearn estby earningirstbout heir wnenvironment.nthis egard,duca-tionwas supposed o make the childrenroud-proudoftheirnheritance,proud f their raditions.o whileGreekCypriotspokeofanElliniki r eth-niki(psychi-aGreek r ethnicpirit-Turkishypriotspokeofmillihisler,or national motions. nd ncomplaintsfproblemsnthe chools, urkish



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MORAL REMAKING AND CYPRIOT EDUCATION 603Cypriots ould ftenay hat heirnationalife"milli ayat) rnationaleel-ingswere n danger fbeing xtinguished,ike flame.3'

Indeed, heDurkheimianociology hatwas thefoundationfTurkish a-tionalismppearedo mplyhat he est ducation as a culturalnethat avepride f placetothe ulturalenses hrough hichndividualsnevitablyeetheworld.32ut he mplicationf his s thathoseenses hould lsobe craft-ed,and possibly rafted ifferently.33he anthropologicaldea that ersonsthink,eel, nd seetheir orld hroughulture aswidely ccepted. uttherewere ertainmplicationsf this n theTurkish ationalistontexthat wanttodraw uthere.Thefirsts that ersonsredependentpon ulture,ut hatforhat ery ea-sonthenaturefthat ulture eeds o beclarified.n order o work ogethersa community,eall have o ookthroughhe ame enses.This s a themehatemergedepeatedlyn discussionsfeducationnCyprus, heretwasgener-ally elievedhat he ommunityadfallen ehind ecause fdisunitynd ackof cleararticulationf its naturendgoals.As early s 1926,a committeeformedo reconsiderurkish lementaryducationtatedtsbelief hat inceitwas an"undeniablendself-evidentruth"that ducation . . must ecessarilyttain erfectegularitynd harmonyythegrad-ualprocess f volution,nd hat communityhould e convertedrom n ncoherentmass nto societyfmutual upport, efeel onvinced hat ydealingwith urpres-ent ubject-matter,iz. our lementaryducation, e shallbe speakingor heMoslemcommunityhich,wing oneglectnd ndifference,s behindhandneverything.34These oncerns ere choed nthe1950sand 1960s,when artiesndnews-papers rganizedonferencesbout ulture ndproposed rovidingibrariesand heaterso villagers. hosesamepublicationsepeatedlymphasizedhat"especiallyn thevillages great bligationalls n our ntellectualsnd cul-tured ouths."35

The functionfculturesparticularlylear nthedebates ver tsmeaninganduse, n which ne ournalistemarked:Our ultural eedshavenotbeenfullyatisfied. ntheday hat urgreat eedfor ul-ture anbesatisfied,ur uture illbecome lear. or his eason,t snecessaryor hepeople oappreciatehis ruthndto makeself-sacrificesor ulturalnstitutions,obring peducated hildren,ndto ncreaseheir eal inthis egardn the resent.36"Culture"s indeedmeant eren ts nthropologicalense, ut ttakes n theovertonesf"high ulture." he reasonfor his, wouldpropose,s thatnTurkeys wellas inCyprushe rticulatorsndclarifiersfthat ulture erea group nown s the ydinlar,r ntellectuals,ho nthenationalisteriod t-temptedo describewhat he true" urkish ulture ad been andshould e.The word ydiniterally eans clear" r"enlightened,"ndwhen pplied oa persons usually ranslateds "intellectual,"eplacingheoldermuinevver,whichiterally eans enlightened."heaydinlaraninclude otonlywhatwemean y ntellectualsut lsonovelists,ssayists,ournalists,ndpoets.37



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604 REBECCA BRYANTIt was theiresponsibilityo separatehe true" urkishulture romhe alse,searching,or nstance,or heoz Ttirkfe,rpureTurkish,idden nderneaththe seless ccretionsfPersianndArabic.38n Cyprus,he ydinlar ere x-pected o nstructthepeople" nthings uch s religious ractices,ince oomany illagerstill lung othe yncretisticracticeshat orrowedrom heirChristianeighbors.39hus culture,or ll of tsanthropologicalndertones,was still omethingccessibleprimarilyhroughducation nd "enlighten-ment," ndthroughclarificationadepossible ythe ydinlar.Second, t s clear hat hisnotion f a "culture" larifiedhroughducationalsorepresentsform fprogress.uring hese amedebatesnthe1950s, twasrepeatedlytatedhat heonlywayfor illagers o progress as "educa-tion tahsil),education,nd againeducation,"nd that withoutducatedyouths,he illages hat rebehindnthe ulturalealm annot rogress."40n-deed, twas clear n suchdebates hat ulturerovideshe thical imthatwilldirect he ommunitynto he uture.hereason or his, believe, sthat urk-ishnationalistsnCyprus ollowed tatuirkndrawing separationetweencivilization, hich epresents aterial rogress,ndculturenthe nthropo-logicalsense, houghnthis nstancet alsorepresentedmoral ndspiritualprogress,n contrastomaterialrogress.4'ulture,hen, as meantn ts n-thropologicalense,but talso hada positive, ven progressivealue.Thisequation f a fully rticulatedulturewith moral rogress as possible,tseems, ecauseofa fusion f Durkheimianociologywith lderunderstand-ings f ulturendmoral rogress,ywhichwas clearlymeant omethinguitesimilarothe ld Kantian otion hathehuman acewasslowly evelopingo-wards ivilizationndmorality,ndthat his houldmakeusmore ndmorecapable of beingresponsibleitizens.Obviously, iventhat his progressshouldmake smore esponsibleitizens,his otionfhumanmoral rogressis nseparableromhe olity.heres,then,n nferenceobedrawn romhisidea thatn tsmore opular r Romanticorms ertainly asdrawn: amely,that uman ivilizationndmoral rogress ouldbe realizednparticularul-tural ndpolitical orms.o for urkishypriots,becomingultured"ecamea moralmperativend thefailureo do so a moral ailing. Progress" as acloser ndcloser pproachotruthchievedhroughhe ydinlarndresultinginan overallmprovementfthe ommunity.These, hen,re wovisions fpersonhood olded hroughducation.heyare thnic isions,s wellas moral isions,magininghe oleofeducated er-sons na possible uture-agood ife till o be made.Clearly,ducated er-sons nCypruswerenot imply layingherolesofgoodTurks ndGreeks;theymbodiedhe irtuesfgoodTurksndGreeks. heir bilityconicallyorepresentruthsbout he ommunityas not role hat hey layed nd ma-nipulated;twas whothey ecame nd howtheyived.Theunityf ife husachievedwas also nreferenceo the raditions-andraditionalierarchies-within hich uch unityouldmake ense.Hence, he ntanglementfreli-



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MORAL REMAKING AND CYPRIOT EDUCATION 605gion,politics, nd educationn Cypruswas not an overlapping f distinctspheres; ather,t was an inheritanceithin hich nowledgend tsbearersmade ense. twas nto uch contexthat ationalismouldbe inserted,ndthroughuch ormshathevirtues f hegoodcitizen, hegood eader, he d-ucatedman rwoman,might ontinuento henationalistge. Education,hen,became means othe ull ealizationndembodimentfethnicdentitieshatwere tructurallyndontologicallyinked obodiesofknowledge. hereal-ization fthose thnicdealswas not nly n epistemologicalroblem ut lsoanethical ndeavor,ndone whichmay lso have foreclosedhepoliticaln-clusion fothers ithin newformfculturalommunity.CONCLUSIONI have ttemptedodescribe erehoweducationmighte perceived s an aes-theticnterprisen which he tudentttemptso moldhimselfftern ethnictyperepresenteds "cultured,"civilized," nd therefore orally etter.nCyprushe ntertwiningf education,civility,"ndethnicityasproducedmoral ision hat hapes xperiencenddemands struggleobecome he ypeofpersonwhocan realize hatmoral ision. t s inthis ense, haveargued,that deologymaybecome n endof an aestheticnterprisenmuch he amewaythat hetoric as for ncient reeks. o spout logans t the xpense f,say, ciencemay eemfrivolityosome,butfor hose orwhomdentityndthemoral annot edelinked,hismay e a necessaryart fgrowthofull er-sonhood.nthis ontext,dentityecomes omethingobeworked nand m-proved, oth good anda goal. Moreover,ettermenthroughducations in-extricablyinked o thnicoods, o that he ealizationfone'spotentials alsothebetterealizationfone'sethnic ersonhood.orCypriots hodefinedgood ifenethnic rnationalerms,ducation ecame moral nterprise,incethroughtthey ouldfashionhemselvesnto ersons etterapableofrealiz-ing hose deals. n this ense,tmaybepossible o ive n the resent ith er-sonswhilemaginingfuturehat xcludes hose ersons.I would ike o concludewith he bservationhat t s difficultoday o seesuch n ethical atterningecause nmodernityhe dea of a patternasbeenlost.Whatsmissings the dea of nend, good, goal, hroughhich he n-dividual's ifeand actions an take coherenthapewithinhecommunity."Goods" n themodernonceptionecomepropertyatherhan hared,om-munal oals;this bservationpplies s much oeducation s tocommodities.Mdreover,he dea of a limited eloshas beenreplaced y open-ended er-fectibility.hile ducationlways ntails notion fprogressowards goal,it sonlyn themodern ontexthat hegoal tselfs lost ndprogressecomesindefinite.his s importantecause notion fa limited elos s of coursecommunallyefinednd confinedne,whereas henotion f ndefinitero-gress ndperfectibilitysbasedonunderstandingsfthe apacities fhumansqua humans.



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6o6 REBECCA BRYANTHence, ny heoryfeducationhat oes not egin rom he ssumptionhathumanshave limited,nd intrinsicallyierarchical,oals must lwaysbestymiedy an ndividualismhatwillsneak n throughhebackdoor.Anthro-pology, have argued, espite ll of its relativisticretensions, aintainsmodelofculture s learned ehavior,s thoughultures somethingontin-gent, pplied o a tabularasa-a human ike everyonelse.Here, ndeed, swhere nthropologyeconcilestsclaims o relativism ith tsequally trongclaims hat we're all the ame,we'reall human." his samecontradiction,want opropose, ervadeswritingsn all formsf education,otonly nthetypes f"informal"ducationhrough hichwe learn urcultures.42nd tpervadest, n arge art, ecause he reedomsupposedlyuaranteedymod-ernpolitical nd egalsystems lsorequire hat umans e individuallyelf-realizingreatures,ven f his ntractablendividualismas ittleodo withheactual xperiencesfpersonsn theirived ives.43It is onlywith ome such assumptionstwork hatnationalismmaybeviewed s somethingpplied o ndividualshroughducation,o that he m-portantbjects f study rethe ontenthat s applied-thecurriculum-andthemannerfapplication-pedagogy.hese, havetried oshow, reatbestsecondaryo the verarchingattern ithin hich ducated ersonschieve

betterife valuated ot hroughainbut hroughhe chievementfcultural-ly specific umanxcellences.ndeed, utside pecificWesternuropeanon-texts,he ariousmodels roposedor hehistoricaluccess f ducationncre-ating ationalommunities ake ittle ense.Even n such ontexts,heymayrequire omerefinement.or nstance,n the ontext f a Britishmperialismthatwas ideologicallyroundedn deas of civilizationalinfancy"nd "ma-turity,"progress" as a goal thatwasalready enied oothers.nthat ontext,thendividualquaindividual)haped imselfnto omeonewho ould chieveanopen-endedationality;hereforerogress as a goal,but twas also onethatwas shaped ypridenone'spositionofrelative rivilege)ndbydutyoone's communityBritainndthe mpire). ven n this ontext,hen,he deaof "modern" rogressndperfectibilityas relativelyarochial.In other arts ftheworldwhere ierarchiesavenotbeenhidden,whereeducation asbeen exclusive ndvaluedas such, nd where raditionsavebeen mbodiednpersons,reatingducated ersons asalways een n nte-gralpart f magininghe ommunitynd tscontinuity.n theprenationalistera nCyprus,he spirationsfMuslim nd Christianillagers-for largerplotof and, goodcrop, oodmarriagesor ne'schildren-may avebeenshared. utaspirationsoachieve he xcellences fthe itizen,hevirtuesfa fully ealized urk rGreek,mplied ecoming ersonswhofit nto rdersdefinedyreligion, olitical ierarchy,nd ong ntellectualraditions.ence,the dvent f nationalismsnd thedivisivenesshat hey ntailed idnot ep-resent radicaldisjunctureutratherhe laborationfgoodsandgoalsthathadhistoricallyefinedhe rder feachcommunity.



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MORAL REMAKING AND CYPRIOT EDUCATION 607NOTES

1. Thequestionbout he elationshipetweenitizenshipnd thicss onethatAlas-dairMaclntyreoses npassingn works n social cience heoryndpracticeMacIn-tyre 998:56) ndon the xhaustionfcontemporarythics Maclntyre984:133).Al-thoughhequestions a general neand doesnotrequire cknowledgement,nyonefamiliar ithMaclntyre's orkwillrecognizehat he ollowingrgumentakes t eastsomepart fhisas a foundation.2. This s only he arestketchf he eryomplicatedolitics f he asthalf f hetwentiethentury,nd makenomentionere f he oleof nternationalowersntheconflict.orother iews, eeCrawshaw1978);Hitchens1989); smail 1989);Joseph(1985);Pantelis1990);Pollis 1973);Reddaway1986);Salih 1978);Stephens1966);andWoodhouse1980).Someofthe est nthropologicalndhistorical ritingsn thequestionncludeCalotychos1998); Kitromilides1979); Loizos (1974, 1988); Pa-padakis1998); and SantCassia 1986).3. On Cyprus,eeHodgeandLewis 1966) andPollis 1973).4. Itmay enoted y ome hatmy eferencesatern he ssay o quasi-Aristotelianform fethicaludgementmakemyuse of an aestheticsf self nachronistic,fnotdownrightroblematic.espite he hronologicallyate mergencefthe ermonthissee Ferry 993andNorton 995), choose ouse theren thepost-Kantianenseofaculturallyituatedormf udgement.5. I avoidhere singHerzfeld'swn erm,poetics," hich eusestodescribe con-tested rocessnwhich igns,ymbols,nd tereotypes-especiallyhose eneratedythenation-state-areverturned,anipulated,nd cleverly oughtver ndaily ife(esp.Herzfeld 997). avoidthis erm ecause believe hatwhileHerzfeldertainlydemonstratesheways n which ifferingoles-thatoffather,fshepherd,fCretan,of Greek itizen-maycome nto onflictnd be reconciledt the evel of symbols,believe hat e s muchesssuccessfuln showing ow single ole-thatofcitizennthe ation-state-isthicallyonstructednd mbodied.nother ords,my oal smorelimitednd encompassesnly n attempto find satisfactoryxplanationor he n-dubitablemportancefeducationndividing ypriotsndrendinghe sland, s wellas an attemptounderstandhy his uestion as been oinadequatelyheorized. iththisnmind, want o uncover ot he ormsf contestation,ut he easonswhy er-tain igns, ymbols,nd udgementshatmaybe poorly econciled ith ived ife reneverthelessot ontested.6. Forverynterestingbservationsn thepracticesnvolvedn this enerationndsacrality,eeNesim1987andProdhromou984.7. Thebust tself as erectedyKatalanos' ormertudents.8. AAOCC, Bt,B3iovE, letteroArchbishopofroniosrom heheadmasterfthePancyprianymnasium,0 December 895.9. Author'sollection.10. Theattempto stimulatenthusiasmor he Great dea"amongGreek-speakerslivinigutsideheGreek tate asbeen xaminedt engthnHerzfeld 982.ForCyprusandAsia Minor,his heme as been xplorednKitromilides990.11. Mustafa emal, lsoknown sAtatuirk"Father f theTurks"),was the eaderandhero ftheTurkishWarof ndependencend afterwardsaspresidentf theRe-public fTurkeyrom 923until isdeathn1938.During isyears spresidentftherepublic,e nstitutedumerousnd drasticeforms,uch s a changenthe lphabet,theunveilingf women,ndthe bolitionf thefez.Forsummaryiscussionsf theimportancefAtattirkndhisreforms,eeKinross 965andLewis1961.12. Thebest ccount fthis orCypruss available n Ali Nesim's nvaluableol-



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6o8 REBECCA BRYANTlection foralhistories,atmayan gitim flneoslerimiz:ibrisTurk gitimi akkindabirAragitirmaOurUnsettingducationaluns:A Research nCyprus urkishduca-tion).13. The muftind otherMuslimnotables omplainednnumerous ccasions hatKatalanoswas canvassinghe illage offeeshopsndrousing fewdrunkenhristiansto violence gainst heirMuslimneighborsfor nstance,A1/753/1910,ditorialnSunnuhato. 189of18August 910).14. As early s 1895, teacher homKatalanos llegedlyttemptedo kill na dis-pute mploredhe rchbishopo punish atalanos nd toprotecthe eacher rom im(AAOCC,Btij3iovAA, etter rom hiorgos . Kalvati oArchbishopofronios,/18January895).15. C067/105,confidentialespatch o. 8189, fromHigh Commissioner alterSendall oLordChamberlain,April 897, nd SA1/1259/1896,etter rom ommis-sioner fNicosiato Chief ecretary,July 896.16. SA1/1314/1881,raftmemorandumrom pencer o chief ecretary,5 July1881.17. There s ittle oubt hat his famousrator" as NikolaosKatalanos, ho s dis-cussed lsewheren this aper.18. There re t east wo ther trainsf iteraturen educationhat rerelevantuttangentialothe rgumenthat ollows. he first ealswith elfhood ndeducation ndis particularlyell-representedyDorinne ondo'sCraftingelves 1990) andher ar-lier rticleCreatingn deal Self" 1987).The main ocus f this iteratures thedis-mantlingfthe deaof"the" elf ndthe ramingf a newconcept f selfhood hat e-lates t to culturaldeals see also Dumont 980; Geertz 973;andMarcus ndFischer1986). The second train as comeprimarilyrom ecentnthropologicalttemptsounderstanduslim ducation nd its role n the arger ocialorder esp. Eickelman1978;Lambek1990;Messick1993;Mitchell 998; and Starrett998). Myown argu-ment akes hese s a backgroundeference,utmyparticularocus n education ndnationalismoes not llow me to deal explicitly erewith he oncerns hatmotivatethese tudies.19. N?ov Kitov, 10 May 1880.20. Report yCobham,ommissionerfLarnaka,n Blue Bookreport 895-6.21. A 1927request or he ervice f a Mr.A. L. T. Smith,fficern raq, o assessCyprus'ducational ifficultiesetwith positive esponsend he emarkhat on theeconomic ide theres the amedifficultynCypruss elsewhere. he schools renotfittingheir upils o earn living. here s a largerlass of would-be ureaucratsndunemployeddvocates han he sland ansupport"CO67/222/13, emorandumromA. J.Dawe,3 October 927).As late s 1953, neTurkish ypriot ewspaperttempt-ed toconvincets eadershiphatworkings not hameful"oryceegraduatesHursoz26August 953).22. "Manyvillagerswhopossessbigor smallpropertynstead fdevotinghem-selves o tsproperndup-to-dayxploitationasten oabandont.How?They penda lotofcapital or he heoreticalducationf their hildrenecause heyre actuatedbythe mbition o have themselvesalled thefathersfschoolmasters,dvocates rdoctors.hey hargenmost ases thewhole ftheirmovable nd mmovableroper-ty-manytimes t the xpense ftheir ther hildren-inorderogivehigherduca-tion o one member f their amily y equipping imwith selessmeansfor he ifestruggleo long s scientificrofessionsrenolonger oldmines.Andthe esult? ntheonehand heCyprusand osescontinuallyabouringands nd thevillager'sn-solvencys being ggravated ythecreation fprofessionalarasites.We do notofcoursemean osaythat he ducation fthepeople hould top.No!We maintainim-ply hat ispracticalducations what s most equired" pivij, 21 November 934.



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MORAL REMAKING AND CYPRIOT EDUCATION 60923. C067/238/14,memorandumrom ewisJ.Grant, irector f he urkishycee.24. C067/281/14, o. 90386.25. AAOCC,Bt,B3iovH, no. 77,4 October 952.26. For an analysis f the ultural oots f the rticulationfBildung, ee Dumont1994.Moregeneral tudies fthe nlightenmentndpost-Enlightenmentoncern itheducation, ildung, ndthe beautifuloul" ncludeHirsch 1983) and Norton1995).Otherworks ink he mergencef separate estheticphere othe olitics f he ost-Enlightenment;ee nparticularhytry1989); Ferry1993); andHess 1999).27. Muslim oncern ver his ractice rovides ne of thebest lues to tsefficacy.For nstance,n 1906 several etitions ere ent y Muslims rayinghat hegovern-mentwouldprotectherightsftheMuslimsn the sland.The Commissionerf Pa-phos,C. G. Wodehouse, roteothe hief ecretarynexplanation:I believe hewholetrouble ohavearisen hroughnill-judged peechdelivered ythe choolmaster fDroushia, n the ccasion f he nniversaryf he ndependencefGreece n the 5thofMarch.The speechwasmade nClassicGreek his roused he uspicions ftheMoslemswho ppear ohaveconcluded hat he peechwas ntendedo excite he eel-ings fthe illagers ndto ncitehem o actsofviolence" SA1/1491/1906,etter at-ed5May 1906).28. (ODovnnrKi5mpou,1 December 901.29. AAOCC, no. 500, etter rom eontios, ishop fPafos, o Governoralmer, 8November 935.30. (Dt2F?5D0?poq,18 July1994.31. Ziya G6kalp,whosewritingserved s the oundationormuch fAtatuirk'sa-

tionalism,iscussed ultures therealm f emotion, aying hat ivilizations "eco-nomics, eligion,aw,morals, tc., nd ll such deas"while ultures "religion, orals.and ll the motionsfbeauty." e wouldgo ontosaythatbecause he motions ro-ducedbycultureomefromnside nd are ntimate,t s very ifficultor hem o beseenorexamined"Gokalp1909/1989:9-10).32. Forthe pecific uestion ftheDurkheimianoots fTurkish ationalism,eeSpencer 1958).33. For nterestingarallels o his se of ulture,ee Bringa1995) andGrant1995).Such a vision s also mplicitnKhalid 1998).34. SA1/93 /1926,0May 1926,Programme: oslemElementaryducation.35. Halkin esi,29June 962.36. "KuilttireMedeniyet,"azif tileymanboglu, stiklal, 7 December 949.37. On this uestion,eeinparticular ardin 993.38. This ook laceunderhe irectionf he urk ilKurumu,rTurkishanguageSociety, eginningn1926 Shaw 1977:376).For nexcellentnalysis fTurkish olk-lore tudies,ee Ozturkmen1998).39. As, for xample,whenTurkish ypriot ritersncouragedhecommunityo"purify"ts ulture,ndthe intellectuals"o teach hevillagershattwasunnational-istic, ornstance,oworship hristianaints. I wonderwhat hedifferences,"oneasks, between Turkwho's ust copy fa Turk,whovisits hemonasteryfAposto-los'Andreas, neels eforehe ross, ights andles, nd does don'tknowwhat therunutterableonsense,nda pork-eatinghristian?'"Domuzetiyiyen irHristiyangibi!,"Halkin esi,22 September 954).40. Halkin esi,23June 955.41. Thefirstrticulationf his tanceppearsohavebeen hatfZiya Gokalp,whowas alsostronglynfluencedy heComtean trainf ociologyhat adbyhistime n-tered urkish ationalistircles.Gokalp rguednan nfluentialarlywork hat a civ-ilizationsthe ommonropertyfdiverse ations. ecauseeveryivilization ascre-ated n order o enble he ommon ifeofthosenationso which tbelongs. or this



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6iO REBECCA BRYANTreason ll civilizationsre international.'ut nevery ivilization,achnation roducesitsownparticular annersrways, ndthese recalledculturehars)" G6kalp1909/1989:3).See alsoGokalp 1959) andHeyd 1950).42. The problemsnvolvedndrawing contrastetween formal"nd "informal"education rewelldiscussednStrauss 984.43. For verynterestingnthropologicalebate nthis uestion,ee Ewing 1990);Murray1993); andSpiro 1993).

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MORAL REMAKING AND CYPRIOT EDUCATION 6iiCrawshaw, ancy. 978.TheCyprus evolt: nAccountf he truggleor UnionwithGreece. ondon:GeorgeAllen ndUnwin.Dumont, ouis. 1980.HomoHierarchicus. hicago:UniversityfChicagoPress.. 1994. Germandeology: rom rance to Germanynd Back. Chicago:Uni-versityfChicagoPress.Durkheim,mile.1956.Education ndSociology. lencoe,L: FreePress.. 1973.MoralEducation: Studyn theTheoryndApplicationf he ociolo-gyofEducation.New York: reePress.Eickelman, ale F. 1978. "The Art f Memory:slamicEducation nd ts Social Re-production."omparativetudies n Society nd History0, 4:485-516.Ewing,Katherine. 1990. "The llusion fWholeness: ulture, elf, nd theExperi-enceof nconsistency."thos18,3:251-78.Fallers, loyd.1971. Turkey: ation-Stateut fPolyglot mpire."n TheSocialAn-thropologyf heNation-State.hicago:Aldine ublishing.Ferry, uc. 1993. HomoAestheticus: he nventionf Taste n theDemocratic ge.TranslatedyRobert e Loaiza. Chicago:UniversityfChicagoPress.Foley, ouglas. 1990.Learning apitalist ulture: eep intheHeart fTejas.Philadel-phia:UniversityfPennsylvaniaress.Foucault,Michel. 979.Discipline ndPunish:TheBirth f he rison.NewYork:Vin-tage..1984. "On theGenealogyfEthics: n Overview fWorknProgress."n PaulRabinow, d.,EssentialWorksfFoucault 954-1984,Volume: Ethics: ubjectiv-itynd Truth. ew York: he NewPress, 53-80.. 1986. The Use ofPleasure: Volume oftheHistory fSexuality. ew York:Vintage ooks.Geertz, lifford.973. "Person, ime, nd Conductn Bali." In The nterpretationfCultures. ew York:BasicBooks,360-411.Gellner, rnest. 983.Nations ndNationalism.thaca,NY: CornellUniversityress.. 1987. Culture,dentity,nd Politics. ambridge:ambridge niversityress.Goody, ack. 977.TheDomesticationf he avageMind.Cambridge: ambridgeni-versityress.. 1987. The nterface etween heWrittenndtheOral. Cambridge: ambridgeUniversityress.

,and an Watt. 963. "TheConsequencesfLiteracy."n J.Goody, d.,Litera-cy n Traditionalocieties. ambridge: ambridge niversityress, 7-68.Gokalp, iya. 1959.Turkishationalismnd Westernivilization.ranslatedyNiyaziBerkes. ondon.. 1989.TurkMedeniyetiarihi.stanbul: oker ayinlarl.Grant,ruce.1995. n the ovietHouseofCulture: CenturyfPerestroikas.rince-ton: rincetonniversityress.Heper,Metin. 976. PoliticalModernizations ReflectednBureaucratichange: heTurkishureaucracynd 'Historical ureaucraticmpire' radition."nternation-al JournalfMiddle ast Studies :507-21.Herzfeld, ichael.1982.OursOnceMore:Folklore,deology,nd theMaking fMod-ernGreece.Austin: niversityfTexasPress.. 1984.ThePoetics fManhood:Contestnd dentityn CretanMountain il-lage. Princeton,J:Princetonniversityress.. 1997.Culturalntimacy:ocialPoetics n theNation-State.ew York:Rout-ledge.Hess,Jonathan . 1999.ReconstitutingheBodyPolitic:Enlightenment,ublic Cul-turendthe nventionfAestheticutonomy.etroit:Wayne tateUniversityress.



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6I2 REBECCA BRYANTHitchens, hristopher.989. Hostage to History:Cyprus romthe Ottomans oKissingerNew

an aesthetics of self: moral remaking and cypriot education

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