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Dr Lynne Bianchi & Rosemary Feasey An A – Z Guide to Primary Science Active Teaching And Learning Approaches In Science

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Page 1: An A – Z Guide to Primary Science Active Teaching And ... · • uses a wide range of teaching strategies • encourages independence and decision making • offers children a wide

Dr Lynne Bianchi & Rosemary Feasey

An A – Z Guide to Primary ScienceActive Teaching And LearningApproaches In Science

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Dedicated to Dr Eric Duckworth OBE(Comino Trustee)

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Contents

Introduction 4

Active Learning 6

Big Ideas in Science 8

Context Rich 10

Discussion and Debate 12

Evidence 14

Frameworks for Thinking 16

GROW – Goals, Reality, Options and Will 18

High Achievers 20

Independent Learning 22

Justify 24

Knowledge 26

Leadership in Children 28

Motivation in Learning 30

Natural Curiosity 32

Outdoor Learning 34

Personal Capabilities 36

Questioning 38

Response Rich 40

Scientific Inquiry and Enquiry 42

Talk as window into children's scientific understandings 44

Up-2-date Learning 46

Verbal Behaviour Analysis – it's all about Smart Talking! 48

Wonder 50

X curricular 52

You as a Learner 54

Zzz – Dreamtime 56

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This booklet has been produced tocelebrate the 25th Anniversary of theoriginal Active Teaching and LearningProject (ATLAS) which drew upon theexpertise, experience and advice ofteachers and educators from around thecountry in 1986. Much has changed inscience education since then, yet manythings have stayed the same.

Introduction

For more information on theComino Foundation & its workwith us at Sheffield Hallam

University, log onto:www.cominofoundation.org.ukwww.shu.ac.uk/research/cse

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As with the original ATLAS material, this booklet hasbeen guided by the same two simple principles:1. That children learn best when they are motivated to

learn, i.e. when they find the learning experienceenjoyable and worthwhile and when they areactively involved in the learning process.

2. A teacher is likely to be more effective having firstgained the confidence and skills to use a range ofstrategies which provide a variety of active learningexperiences for the students.

This book has been supported by the CominoFoundation which has been a significant partner for theCentre for Science Education (CSE) over many years.Together we seek to promote the understanding of theprocess of achievement, so that through greaterunderstanding of the nature of this process, peoplebecome:• more focused on achievement; • more attuned to achieving successful outcomes; • more capable of achieving what they set out to

achieve; • better equipped to realise their own potential and to

serve others.

How to use this bookletThe aim of this booklet is to provide a starting point forreflection and discussion on issues in primary scienceeducation, for example, it could be used:• for reflection on your own approaches to teaching

and learning;• as a starting point for discussion with colleagues;• to initiate debate within your own school or a family

of schools.

Each section contains a summary of current ideas andsome questions on which to reflect.

Collaborate with us at the CSEThe primary team at CSE would like to offer an openinvitation to you to work with CSE whoever you are,whether you are a classroom teacher, senior manager,lead professional for science, consultant or in industry.If you would like to find more about CSE visitwww.shu.ac.uk/research/cse.

Or contactDr Lynne Bianchi Centre for Science EducationSheffield Hallam UniversityHoward StreetSheffieldS1 1WB

Email: Lynne on [email protected]

Acknowledgements are extended to Rosemary Feasey,Visiting Fellow of Sheffield Hallam University for hersupport in the writing and development of this bookletand to Tanya Shields for her special contribution tosection T.

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Active Learning

Active science learning has been a long standingtrademark in the work of the Centre for ScienceEducation as championed in the publication ‘ATLAS –Active Teaching and Learning Approaches in Science'(1992). More recently Smart Science (2006) is aresource developed to exemplify how ATLAS could befurther enhanced by infusing a range of PersonalCapabilities within primary science learning.

There are many different ways to encouraging anactive approach to learning. Consider how many ofthese strategies you currently use (ref. Figure 1).

Active learning takes placewhen pupils:

Active learning takes placewhen the teacher:

• have personal involvement intheir learning

• make decisions about theoutcome of their work

• discuss and work purposefullywith others using scientificvocabulary

• plan and design their ownactivities

• test their own ideas to solveproblems

• communicate to others• ask questions that can be

investigated and questionsthat can extend their learning

• think about, reflect on andevaluate what they are doing

• encourages children to takeresponsibility for their ownlearning

• challenges the children tothink for themselves

• offers a wide range of learningopportunities

• uses a wide range of teachingstrategies

• encourages independence anddecision making

• offers children a wide range ofaudiences

• presents open endedsituations

• thinks about the learningenvironment

Discussionand debate

ActiveLearning

Approachesin Science

Science visitsand visitors

Fieldwork Surveys

Role play

Simulations

Research Exploration

Solvingproblems

Investigation

Figure 1 Approaches to active learning.

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Recently, we have extended the notion of active learningby exploring how best to develop ‘Rich Tasks’ – our wayof best describing a contemporary form of activeteaching and learning which leads to motivatedteachers, innovative teaching and most of all engagedlearners.

The Three-Riches approach will be explored further inthis booklet. It provides a three-step approach toplanning for active learning and generates activities thatare:

a) Context-Rich: they explore skills, knowledge andunderstanding through real and engaging topics orthemes;

b) Activity-Rich: they use a range of inspirationalideas and different modes of delivery such thatchildren use a range of personal, learning andthinking skills, working independently, in pairs, insmall groups, as a class, inside the classroom oroutdoors; and

c) Response-Rich: they encourage children to showtheir learning using a wide variety of newinformation and communication technologies.

Reflect onPrimary science has been developed on the premisethat children should be offered ‘practical’ or ‘hands on’opportunities in learning. Is being ‘hands on’synonymous with being an ‘active’ learner?

— How do the range of approaches in Figure 1 supportactive learning in your classroom?— Which approaches do you think could lead to addedimpact on teaching and learning in your science?— What is your opinion of the Three-Riches approachand how it could influence your planning of science?

References, useful reading and linksBianchi L & Barnett R (2006) Smart Science, SheffieldHallam University, Sheffield

Bianchi L & Thompson P, The Keys to Wonder-fullScience Learning (Chapter Pending publication)

Sheffield City Polytechnic (1992) Active Teaching andLearning Approaches in Science, Collins London

Smart Science URL – www.smart-science.co.uk

RESPONSEACTIVITY

CONTEXT

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Big Ideas in Science

Many national curricular in science are founded on acollection of information, ideas and facts, oftendiscretely taught, without offering the learner theopportunity to stand back and make sense of howinterconnected science is and understand the biggerpicture. Recently discussion in science education hasbegun to focus on developing a science curriculum thatis based on the premise that teachers should worktowards developing pupil’s understanding of the ‘BigIdeas’ in science.

‘The goal of science education is not knowledge of abody of facts and theories but a progression towards keyideas which enable understanding of events andphenomena of relevance to students’ lives.’ Harlen, W.(2010, p.2)

These key ideas in science, called ‘Big Ideas’, movescience education towards making links betweensmaller steps en route to understanding a bigger idea.As pupils progress through their science education they‘make links that create bigger and more abstract ideas’.Harlen continues and suggests that if the Big Ideasapproach is adopted then teachers will be, ‘ensuringthat the students arrive at a picture of the world that isnot a collection of independent assertions but parts thatconnect with each other.’(ibid, p.47)

The Big Ideas: • have wide‐ranging explanatory power • facilitate understanding of current issues that affect

human health and wellbeing, the environment, theuse of energy, etc

• provide pleasure in understanding and satisfycuriosity about the natural world

• have cultural significance in relation to humanactivity and its impact on the environment.

What are the implications of the Big Ideas for primaryscience education? The main implication is thatteachers should think differently about whatconstitutes the subject knowledge to be taught and howto help children to understand that:• what humans know about science changes over time• people use science to create things• when humans apply science there may be

consequences and we have to think about ethics,politics, the economy and effects socially on people.

Reflect on— What impact would teaching the ‘Big Ideas’ have onprimary science in your school?— Do you feel that your science subject knowledge andunderstanding, and that of your colleagues, couldsupport this approach?— What effect would the Big Ideas approach have onteaching and learning across the primary years?

References, useful reading and linksHarlen, W. (Ed.) (2010) Principles and big ideas ofscience education: ASE. Hatfield.

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Context Rich

What do you think it meansto have lessons or activitiesthat are ‘Context Rich’?

Why do the contexts throughwhich we teach and learnscience matter?

Relevant and interesting contexts get children hookedinto primary science. If we offer contexts that childrencan't relate to then we run the risk of losing theirinterest before we've even begun, or indeed loosing theopportunity to explore and connect to their intuitiveunderstandings, beliefs and previously acquiredknowledge and understanding.

Children learn when they develop new connections withwhat they already know or have seen. As teachers weshould pay more than a notional lip-service to whatchildren say they're 'into' and consider how sciencelearning can be offered in ways that children seerelevant to themselves and that they can identify withintheir daily lives and experiences.

Contexts are important because they challenge childrento apply their scientific skills and understanding fromfamiliar to novel or new situations.

Lemke, J.L. (1994) suggests that it is not enough to saythat we approach ‘science in everyday contexts’, butthat we must be explicit in what we mean by this andwhy contexts are important to children’s learning, andhow they support learning and when should they beused.

The range of contexts offered to children should include:

By giving children access to science set in a range ofcontexts, teachers can: • provide practice in applying the fundamental

concepts of science• increase the level of sophistication of the way pupils

think about their world • improve children's awareness of the diversity and

influence of science in the world around them.

In this way children become more scientifically literate– able to appreciate, use and apply science in a range ofcontemporary situations.

Reflect on— How you would best find out about the contextsthat appeal to the children in your care?— What kind of contexts would staff feel confident in using?— How should contexts change across the primary years?— How could you develop ‘Context Rich’ science inyour school?

problem solving workplace

scientistsenvironmenta

l

school based

role playhistorical

issues that involve

themselves, society an

d

the wider world

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References, useful reading and linksThe Missing Context in Science Education: Science J.L. Lemke City University of New York This paper waspresented at a multi-disciplinary symposium "In Search of Inquiry" at AERA, Atlanta, GA (April 1992). ArlingtonVA: ERIC Documents Service (ED 363 511), 1994.

http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/context accessed 7.3.12

http://serc.carleton.edu/econ/context_rich/why.html accessed 7.3.12

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Discussion and Debate

Discussion and debate are not the same; it is importantto distinguish between the two in primary science, andin doing so it can influence how we support children inthinking and talking about science in different contexts.

Discussion –means to talk over something withsomeone else.Debate – refers to discussions where people takeopposing viewpoints.

Both discussion and debate are central to how scientistsand the scientific community work; it is the basis of howscientists share and validate ideas and ways of workingin science. It is also how they challenge each other toensure rigour and integrity. Public discussion anddebate about science is where people learn about howscience influences their lives and may lead to the publichaving some influence on the work of scientists.

In the Cambridge Primary Review, Alexander (2010,p.29) suggests that ‘Talk – at home, in school, amongpeers – is education at its most elemental and potent. Itis the aspect of teaching which has arguably thegreatest influence on learning.’ He goes on to suggestthat schools, ‘should be: where classrooms are full ofdebate and discussion that is collective, reciprocal,supportive, cumulative, critical and purposeful.’

Feasey, R. (2011) suggests that children working inprimary science mirror how the scientific communityworks, so it is obvious that some, if not all of thepurposes of discussion and debate amongst scientistsare reflected in the classroom. For example, discussionand debate offer children opportunities to:• share ideas• challenge thinking and ways of working• construct and re-construct meaning• change ideas and approaches• clarify understanding.

Productive discussion and debate flourishes in aclassroom climate in which:• teachers and children respect each others ideas and

opinions• where ground rules are established for speaking and

active listening

Discussion and debate demand that children developand practice a range of personal skills and capabilities,including:• structuring thinking and information• collaboration, cooperation and teamwork• listening (and hearing)• responding• understanding their audience.

Debating extends discussion as an active way oflearning. Well planned debate in science requireschildren having researched and prepared what theywant to say and that time has been given tounderpinning arguments with evidence using scientificknowledge and understanding.

There are many different strategies to support childrenin discussing and debating in science, you mightrecognise some or all of the following examples.• Hot topic of the day – a science news item from the

media or based on Primary UPD8 (see page 46),children could be asked to suggest positives,disadvantages and things that are interesting.

• Listening triads – where children take the roles ofspeaker, questioner, recorder

• Snowballing – Pupils first talk in pairs to developinitial ideas. Pairs double up to fours to build onideas. Fours double up to tell another group abouttheir group's ideas.

Later on in this booklet you will be introduced to thetechniques related to Verbal Behaviour Analysis (seepage 48) – good discussion and debate rely onindividuals being perceptive of those around them andusing behaviours that enable them to manageconversations effectively. Read on to find out moreabout this area of work.

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Reflect on— What do you think are the benefits to children ofengaging in discussion and debate in primary science?— What changes to a classroom could be made toencourage discussion and debate?— What approaches can you use or develop to helpchildren to resolve differences of opinion when engagedin debate?— How can discussion and debate be integrated into ascheme of work to ensure progression across theprimary years in science?

References, useful reading and linksAlexander (2010) Introducing the CambridgePrimary Review, University of Cambridge. Accessonline atwww.primaryreview.org.uk/Downloads/Finalreport/CPR-booklet_low-res.pdf . Accessed 7.3.12.

Feasey, R. (2011) in Skamp, K. (Ed.) Teaching PrimaryScience Constructively 4th EditionMelbourne:Thomson.

www.azteachscience.co.uk/resources/cpd/talking-science/view-online.aspx

www.azteachscience.co.uk/resources/cpd/discussions-in-primary-science.aspx

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OBSERVE

Evidence

Ask a child or group of children what they think theword evidence means and they will undoubtedly refer tocriminal investigations, the police, court rooms andprobably forensic scientists, for these are the contexts inwhich children come across this word and begin to buildup their own concept of the word.

In some ways it can be very useful to parallel theexciting world of the forensic scientist and courtroomdrama with evidence in science because in bothcontexts evidence is being used to support or counter anargument, hypothesis (giving reasons for what mighthappen) or a theory.

Whether a person is a thief, computer hacker orfraudster, the police evidence must prove beyondreasonable doubt the supposition. Science plays tosimilar rules, if a scientists observes something, has atheory, has discovered something then he or she mustprovide proof. It cannot be any old proof, it must be ableto withstand scrutiny, it must be valid and reliable, justas the evidence of a witness in a courtroom must be ableto stand challenge.

In order for children to appreciate the importance ofevidence they should have an understanding of:• scientific concepts• the importance of standard measurement• how the evidence was collected – whether the

process was valid and the evidence reliable• the link between the evidence and the question• patterns and trends in data• whether conclusions are appropriate to the evidence

presented.

Children, just like the forensic scientist, will have aquestion or problem to solve, they will need to dosomething to collect evidence and use that evidence toanswer their question, solve their problem, lead them todraw a conclusion. They should be able to present thatevidence and have others, preferably their peers,challenge that evidence and their conclusions to findout whether they are robust, or weak. This is exactlywhat happens in the working world of a scientist, and itis thinking and working scientifically that we are asking

children to emulate, and central to this is ‘evidence’.

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Prove

EVIDENCE

Reflect on— What do your children think the word evidencemeans?— What do you know about children developing theirunderstanding of evidence in science in your school?— What kind of strategies would support childrendeveloping their understanding of evidence in science?— How could children be exposed to the work ofscientists both past and present to illustrate how thecollection of evidence led to changes in science?

References, useful reading and linksTOLSON, S (2011) Engaging critically with scientificevidence, Primary Science, Issue: September 2011119, Association for Science Education

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Frameworks for Thinking

Classroom based action research has demonstrated thatthe Thinking Frames Approach improves children'sconfidence and can significantly raise their level ofachievement in science. Thinking Frames motivate andengage children by giving them ownership of their ownproblem solving and enquiry explanations.

Thinking Frames are exactly that, they are not writingframeworks, but scaffolding that can help to break downchildren’s thinking into small steps, acknowledging thatit is important to stop, reflect and organise thoughtsbefore committing them orally or to paper. They mightsupport writing, but they are primarily used to helpchildren to organise their thoughts. ‘Thinking Frames’can serve a range of purposes depending on the needs ofthe learner, for example, they can support children in:• thinking through a plan• making sense of evidence• using ideas to solve problems• constructing argument• looking at something from a different perspective

This can be done by using ‘Thinking Frames’ that:• focus on vocabulary• sequence ideas• join up ideas, sometimes from different sources

‘Thinking Frames’ can be used by individuals, howeverscience is a collaborative endeavour, and using a‘Thinking Frame’ with others means that children’sideas are then public and so they can be added to,challenged, changed as well as endorsed. ‘ThinkingFrames’ can take many different forms, many ideas ofwhich are presented well in Active Assessment (Nayloret al, 2004), such as:• odd one out activity• true or false quizzes• PMI (Positive, Minus, Interesting) • teacher and peer effective questioning• photographs• graphic organisers• card sorts, a set of cards etc.

A problem solving framework long established by theComino Foundation is GRASP – Getting Results AndSolving Problems. This framework encourages peopleto want to succeed and enables them to develop theirself-esteem, enterprise and initiative, their ability to leadand to work with others, to be creative in their thinkingand decision making, and to accept personalresponsibility for their decisions and actions. Takensimply it looks to help the learner establish clearly whatthey really want to achieve, to explore the optionsavailable to them to succeed and to take ownership overthe course of action and its outcomes.

GRASP has a clear association with scientific enquiryprocess and therefore has implications for work inprimary classrooms. It has been actively integrated intothe Smart Science Resource, making it accessible toyoungsters for use in all areas of the curriculum.

What do I (or we) really want to achieve? Purpose

How will we know when we have achieved it? Criteria

What possible ways can we use to get the result? Alternatives

Which one best satisfies the criteria? Selection

How will we know if we are keeping the processon track and what action to take if we are not?

Monitor & Control

Are we reviewing continually our purpose, thesuccess criteria, our progress and finally theresult?

Review

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Reflect on— What do you think are good reasons for using‘Thinking Frames?’— Have you a generic set of ‘Thinking Frames to suitdifferent learners across the curriculum? If not, whatactions could you take to develop one?— How would/should ‘Thinking Frames’ develop acrossthe primary years? Think about progression.— How will you know when children no longer need animposed framework?

References, useful reading and linksNaylor S, Keogh B & Goldsworthy A. (2004) ActiveAssessment for Science: Thinking, Learning andAssessment in Science, David Fulton Publishers.

GRASP –www.cominofoundation.org.uk/D1_GRASP.html

www.azteachscience.co.uk/resources/cpd/the-thinking-frames-approach/view-online.aspx

http://media.education.gov.uk/assets/files/pdf/c/camshill.pdf

www.thinkingframe.com/

www.azteachscience.co.uk/science-teaching/continuing-professional-development/discussions-in-primary-science/view-online.aspx)

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GROW – Goals, Reality, Options and Will

The GROW model is a technique for problem solving orgoal setting, championed in the UK by GrahamAlexander, Alan Fine and Sir John Whitmore and isoften used for the purpose of coaching. The value ofGROW is that it provides an effective, structuredmethodology which both helps set goals effectively andis a problem solving process.

There are a number of different versions of the GROWmodel. This version presents one view of the stages butthere are others.

The GROW model has been adapted and used in anumber of primary science projects, for example, theCentre for Science Education's Smarter Schools Project(funded by AstraZeneca Science Teaching Trust). In thisproject groups of teachers engaged in moving science intheir school forward through professional peer coaching.

I have valued the time to reflect on practiceand use the GROW approach to think aboutcoming to my own solutions. ….Without thetime to reflect on what had actuallyhappened in the classroom I’m not sure Iwould have so definitely defined orrecognized what went well and therefore doneanything about it. Teacher AZSTT Final Report Smarter Schools Project

The potential of GROW as a tool for reflection was alsoextended to work with children in the Smart KidsProject. In this work we explored how children, mainlyfrom Key Stage 1 and 2 could be supported to undertakepeer-pupil coaching activities as a means of reflectingon their science learning and their development ofpersonal skills and capabilities.

The use of GROW, in fact, was met with mixed reviewsby the children, some, especially girls, liking thestructure, others finding it too restricting – and manychildren wanting very much to offer help and supportby giving information and answers, as opposed tohelping peers reach their own understandings andconclusions. Reflective prompts were produced in thisproject, as shown here, which helped the children self-coach and review with peers. In this way, the GROWapproach was tailored and the insights gained wereinvaluable, especially with respect to GROW as astimulus or framework for self and peer assessment.

G Goal

This is the end point, where youwant to be. The goal has to bedefined in such a way that it isvery clear to you when you haveachieved it.

R Reality

This is how far you are away fromyour goal. If you were to look at allthe steps they need to take inorder to achieve the goal, theReality would be the number ofthose steps they have completedso far.

O Options

Sometimes also including anexploration of the obstacles, thisstage asks you to identify ways ofdealing with them and makingprogress. These are the Options.

WWill orWayForward

The Options then need to beconverted into action steps whichwill take you to your goal. Theseare your ‘Wills’ or ways forward.

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Reflect on— What would what happen if you combined theGROW model with approaches to your scienceplanning? — What impact could the GROW model have if appliedto problem solving in relation to your own professionaldevelopment, school issues or indeed your discussionswith children?— Why could the GROW model be significant in yourwork in school or in the classroom?

References, useful reading and linksAZSTT Final Report Smarter Schools Project,accessible by emailing [email protected]

AZSTT Final Report Smart Kids, accessible byemailing [email protected]

Smarter Schools Online CPD Unit

http://www.azteachscience.co.uk/resources/continuing-professional-development/smarter-schools.aspx

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High Achievers

The National Association for Gifted Children (NAGC)acknowledges that there is no universally agreeddefinition to what is a gifted child and the ideas of whatconstitutes giftedness are fluid concepts. The termgifted may narrow our view of the very able in science;when considering the term ‘gifted’ many people, think ofEinstein and hold limiting views of gifted children forexample, that they will do fine on their own, they canlearn by themselves, and teachers may lack confidencebecause they see gifted pupils as more knowledgeablethan themselves.

Change the term to 'high achievers' and our perceptionsmay change, immediately the term becomes moreinclusive allowing teachers to consider expandingopportunities for children considered to be highachievers. The aims for high achievers are the same forall children and that is to challenge and extend theirscientific knowledge, skills and thinking. The differenceis that their starting point is different from otherchildren in the class, and they have the potential toexceed the level of most of the children in the class.

What we must remember is that children can join thisgroup at any point in their primary career, some willclearly be more able in the early years, whilst others,might not come to the attention of the school as a highachiever until later.

What is clearly important is how the school responds tomanaging provision for this group of learners. Mostexperts in the field would agree that schools should offerhigh achievers access to enrichment/extensionactivities, thinking skills activities, differentiatedactivities and approaches that encourage familyinvolvement. You could argue, of course, that in fact allchildren should be offered these opportunities inscience, and that sentiment couldn't really be disputedthat much, could it?

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Nevertheless we do need to explore our offerings forthese children, which might include:• accelerated learning in areas of interest, offering

children opportunities to advance their learningbeyond that offered to the rest of the class. Acceleratedlearning should not narrow high achievers experience(for example, by focusing on fast tracking knowledge ofplants by introducing, photosynthesis) but broaden itto include, debate, problem solving, contemporaryapplications of science e.g. food miles, GM crops, use ofpesticides.

• specialist activities to broaden further children’s accessto areas of science which challenge children’sperception of science and scientists and also help tosow the seeds for choice in science linked careers e.g.giving children access to scientists through the ScienceAmbassador scheme.

• master classes which give children access to ‘experts’and provide opportunities for children to deepen theirunderstanding and participate in activities that theteacher either would not have the personal knowledgeto provide or the physical facilities.

• summer schools to give children a sense ofcommunity, enabling them to work with children of asimilar ability and interest in a leisure based context.

Reflect on— What is a high achiever in your school? — Why might the use of the term ‘high achievers’rather than gifted, be significant in your school?— What evidence can you list for how high achieversare currently being supported in your school?— If you were to design a new approach to supportinghigh achievers what would it include?— What do you consider to be the priorities in relationto supporting high achievers in primary science?

References, useful reading and linkshttp://www.nagc.org/index.aspx?id=574

http://www.brookes.ac.uk/schools/education/rescon/cpdgifted/cpdresources.html

http://www.nace.co.uk

http://www.nagty.ac.uk/

http://www.nagcbritain.org.uk/

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Independent Learning

Walk into most early years settings and you will findchildren busy choosing where to work, deciding who towork with and indeed walking away when they havehad enough. Routines are set in place where they canget out the things that they want to use, and they knowthat they need to put things away. Often they spendconsiderable time exploring something that intereststhem, asking questions, seeking out new informationand help when they want it. Fast forward through theprimary years and for many children independencechanges, the balance of personal choice and powershifts from the child to the teacher. In primary sciencethis often manifests itself as science which is primarilyorganised by the teacher, adhering to a givencurriculum or scheme, where experiences are heavilyscripted by the teacher.

An environment where independent learners thrive ischaracterised by choice and personal decision making,and much less by a teacher-managed, staged approachto learning. Of course, this type of approach doesn'tcome without its risks for a teacher, it doesn't take longto see that one might be judged as having lessons thatlack pace towards achieving identified learningoutcomes.

So, the question is again, what do we value? What do wewant in our learners? How do we achieve our desireswithin the boundaries of our school and educationalcultural rules?

Firstly, let's establish what independent learning inscience might look like. It could be characterised by anyor all of the following. As you read, consider what othercriteria you would add.• Children engaged in activities of their own choice.• Children engaged in activities which allow them to

manage how they work.• Children reflecting on what and how they have learned.• Children reflecting on their own success.• Children working at their own pace.• Children choosing who to work with where they want

to work.• Children initiating their own learning.

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ACollaborative. Working in a teamdoing a specifically defined job.Route and role defined. Littlecreative influence.e.g. comparing measurements ofpeople’s head circumferencesusing a tape measure

BOutcome defined. Route/rolesuggested but some influence overit if desired. Working in pairs.e.g. investigating the bestconductor. Materials of their ownchoice, brainstormed class ideasfor method

CCo-operative. Working in groups.Outcome defined. Route/rolesuggested but some influence overit if desired.e.g. using data loggers to tracktemperature of a range of coolingliquids

DWorking in pairs. Objectivesdefined. Route/role negotiated.Outcome semi-flexible.e.g. categorising a range of wastematerials. Own choice of what thecategories will be.

ECo-operative task. Working ingroups. Objectives defined.Route/role negotiated. Outcomesemi-flexible.e.g. making an alarm clock for deafpeople, choosing from a range ofchosen equipment

FIndividual project. Working alonewith some guidance/mentoring.Route and role defined. Littlecreative influence.e.g. growing a broad bean, followinginstructions and using equipmentprovided

G Collaborative. Working in a team.Route/role flexible. Objectivesundefined. Outcome flexible.e.g. exploring the snow and ice,thinking about investigations to dowith it or a question to answer

HIndividual project. Working alonewith some guidance/mentoring.Route/role flexible. Objectivesundefined. Outcome flexible.e.g. doing a project on rockets or atopic of their choice

Graham, K. (2003) acknowledges that in the short termour worst fears might be realised, but counsels us towork through any potential pain barrier so that childrencan become independent learners in science.

Of course, if children are not being spoon-fedthe apparent standard of work may dropinitially, but with a long-term view standardswill increase because children will have theknowledge and skills to achieve away fromthe spoon. It is vital that we take this long-term view.

Have a go at this activity. Look at the Independence Pendulum and match one of the activity descriptions to each of the colouredhexagons.

Reflect on— Why is independent learning important to you? Toyour learners?— What strategies will help children to develop asindependent learners?— Which of these strategies do you use in yourclassroom? — What are the potential tensions between coveringcurriculum content and encouraging children'sindependent learning development?

References, useful reading and linksGraham, Karen (2003) How Can Children'sIndependence be Promoted and Measured in thePrimary Classroom? PhD thesis, Coventry University incollaboration with University CollegeWorcester.http://eprints.worc.ac.uk/376/

http://www.highlandschools-virtualib.org.uk/ltt/whole_learner/independent.htmaccessed 25/4/11

Swinging inand out of

dependency

Workingwith others

Workingindividually

Open ended tasks:outcome attuned to route taken

Absolute freedom

Closed tasks:one outcome

Total dependence

Independence pendulum Activity description

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Justify

“The best way to predict the future is to buildit.” Douglas Adams

Politicians and governments will come and go, andtherefore so will many different approaches ineducation but the constant is the teacher and the child.All schools are different and one size really does not fitall, and the only way to move science education forwardis to help to build the future through continuingprofessional development which includes actionresearch.

By engaging in action research the teacher seeks toanswer a question or solve a problem in order toimprove primary science education. This, by defaultengages the teacher in a reflective practice whichenables the teacher to shift parameters and personalboundaries of their professional practice and therebychange the science experience of children. Bycommunicating the outcomes of action research andsharing it with other teachers we can help to changepractice and shift the parameters in primary scienceeducation. Where we have a clear understanding of whywe are using certain approaches, that is, we have apersonal pedagogical underpinning, then we are moreable to justify approaches when challenged. Having aclear rationale approaches for the methods we useinvariably means that we have explored our options andcan explain why something is or is not appropriate.

At the simplest level action research involves a spiral orcycle of planning, action, monitoring and reflection(indeed not far dissimilar to a professional use of theGRASP Framework outlined on page 16).

Figure 2: Basic Action Research Cycle

Engaging staff in this level of critical analysis andreflection is crucial to all aspects of education, not leastprimary science. This means that we need to create andmanage opportunities for staff to engage in this kind ofprofessional development.

We need to constantly challenge our currentapproaches to teaching in primary science, throughengaging in our own action research, in dialogue withcolleagues and other professionals external to oursetting.

If we reflect on past action research projects we findthat they have provided justification for approaches thatare now considered as the norm in science education,for example:• Constructivism• Concept cartoons• SMART Science• Argumentation in Primary Science• Primary Horizons: Starting out in science

'Primary Horizons' is based on a research studyconceived and commissioned by the Wellcome Trust in2004 and carried out by Queen's University Belfast andSt Mary's University College Belfast. Whilst not actionresearch in the classroom, this research project isthought to be the largest study of its kind, whichexplored teachers' views and experiences of primaryscience education across the UK and identified ways inwhich it could be improved. By engaging teachers in thisresearch project the study has subsequently been usedto inform change in primary science.

PLANNING ACTION

REFLECTION MONITO

RING

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By ensuring that teaching and learning is properlyinformed by research whether our own or carried out byother groups, we can avoid pedagogical fads, which mayonly result in quick fixes, not long lasting change inpractice.

What we do need to recognise is that action researchcan be carried out by anyone, an individual with theirown class, a group of teachers in school; it might be acollaboration with the community, or a research projectinstigated by a large institution. So all teachers can haveaccess to being involved with action research andcontributing to change in primary science.

Reflect on— What action research do you know about?— How could you share the outcomes of actionresearch with your colleagues?— What would you like to action research?— How would an action research contribute to teachingand learning in science in your own school?— How could you set up an action research group inyour school or cluster group?

References, useful reading and linksHarlen, W. (2011) ASE Guide to Primary Science,Hatfield ASE

Primary Horizons: http://www.wellcome.ac.uk/About-us/Publications/Reports/Education/WTX026627.htm

http://www.azteachscience.co.uk

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Knowledge

At the time of writing this it is the 200th anniversary ofthe birth of Charles Dickens; amongst his manycharacters is Mr Gradgrind from the novel Hard Times.Gradgrind believed in facts, and all that was measurable.

"Now, what I want is, facts. . . Facts alone are wanted inlife," states Mr Gradgrind, someone whose educationalphilosophy could not be more far removed from thevalues that we hold today.

In science today there are facts that we want children toknow, such as light travels faster than sound, and theEarth moves round the Sun.

Or do we?

Is it the fact or the underpinning knowledge that weseek; the fact can be repeated without understanding,and we suggest this is of little use to anyone. Theknowledge that allows us to understand the fact, andthen use this information is what is important – butwhat kind of knowledge is this?

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We query: • Is there more than one kind of knowledge in science? • How do they relate to each other and is one useful

without the other? • How many of these have you come across and what

place should they have in the primary sciencecurriculum?

• If they should have a place, how, what, where andwhen should they be included and developed?

Here are some types of knowledge that we undoubtedlyalready address – but are there any that you find moredifficult to tackle in primary science?1. Knowledge about the nature of science.2. Content knowledge – knowledge about the material

and natural world3. Conceptual knowledge which refers to a person’s

representation of major concepts in science4. Procedural knowledge about how to think and work

scientifically.5. Epistemic knowledge the nature of knowledge that is

produced by scientific reasoning6. Knowledge about science in society7. Knowledge of self – knowing one's strengths, one's

personal capabilities and how to use and apply themwhen thinking and working scientifically

8. Everyday knowledge that is based on experienceand might even conflict with what is scientificallycorrect at the time.

Reflect on(Just a few questions to reflect on; it makes Gradgrind'ssimplistic approach almost appealing!)— How well do you understand the different kinds ofknowledge in science?— Which one are you most comfortable with, why?— Which do you understand the least?— Which ones are represented in your primarycurriculum, how well?— Which ones should be represented in the primaryscience curriculum? Why?

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Leadership in Children

What does it mean to empower children as learners anddevelop their leadership qualities? Be that in terms ofleading their personal learning, or leading a group intheir learning in an activity?

Taking the lead in the classroom can be interpreted indifferent ways, from considering whose agenda do wework with in the classroom – be it the teachers' (drivenby a curriculum demand) or the children's (driven bytheir interests and motivations). To develop children asleaders we must challenge ourselves and consider theextent to which we encourage children to be masters oftheir own learning in science.

Of course this is a great leap to make and small steps areoften the most successful. In primary science we canextend opportunities for children to drive or lead theirown learning. We should respect children’s experience,allow their voices to be heard and make sure that theyare actively engaged in decisions about how, when andwhere they learn in science.

Bianchi, L. & Feasey, R. (2011 p.41) suggests that weneed to create situations where ‘Children can graduallymove from regulation by others to self-regulation.’ Thisis the basis of much of the work undertaken in valuingand developing children's personal capabilities –encouraging them to appreciate ‘how’ their behaviourinfluences ‘what’ they learn. But this needs to happenover time using scaffolded approaches to support thechange in role.

A simple, yet very effective technique is the use of ‘rolebadges’ which provide young children with a clearpurpose and area of responsibility. Often used in scienceinvestigations and especially good when children arelearning science outdoors, roles range from:• Chief Tester• Chief Resource Manager• Chief Measurer• Chief Recorder• Chief Time Keeper

Using these role badges supports children in movingtowards working independently as a group, eachmanaging their role, whilst working collaboratively tosolve a problem or answer a problem. In some classesthese roles are different, mirroring roles andresponsibilities in industry, for example, health & safetyofficer (clean up any spills, clean equipment),administration officer (do all recording),communications officer (feedback from group),personnel officer (ensure that everyone is doing theirjob). Whichever approach is used what we are trying toencourage is leadership in children, by introducingthem to individual responsibility.

Waller, N. (2006) recounts how a class of childrencarrying out a science activity led in their individualroles, and Jake proudly explained, "I’m also in charge ofhealth and safety in the group, my job is a bit like anengineer.”

Leadership is an increasingly topical issue in schools, asOFSTED explore ways that it is encouraged throughoutthe school. This includes developing leadershipcapabilities in our youngsters. We must be braveenough to allow children to explore new parameters intheir learning by increasingly taking charge. Outdoorlearning offers perfect opportunities to see how childrencope leading their own learning – management ofresources, time and space are all.

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Reflect on— Where does the balance sit in your class in terms ofwho leads science?— What are the issues in shifting that balance furtherin favour of the children? How could barriers beovercome?— How can you scaffold the children into leadershiproles in science?— How does this translate into children leading theirlearning?— What whole school strategies could be introduced tosupport children leading in science?

References, useful reading and linksBianchi, L. and Feasey, R. (2011) Beyond theClassroom Boundaries: Fro 7 – 11 year olds.Berkshire: Open University Press.

Waller, N. in Primary Science Review Sept/Oct 2006 17Real science for primary age children

www.personalcapabilities.co.uk/smartscience/

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Motivation in Learning

For this part we would be silly not to review the work ofCarole Dweck, whose research has provided much foodfor thought around motivation in learning. Carol is anAmerican researcher whose research has illustratedhow motivation for learning is affected by children'stheories about themselves.

Her studies have investigated how people developbeliefs about themselves (their self-theories) and howthese lead to a shaping of their thoughts, feelings andday-to-day behaviours. The theories explain why somestudents are motivated to work harder, and why othersfall into patterns of helplessness and are self-defeating. 1. The Entity View – which would indicate that

intelligence is fixed. That you are born with an IQthat determines the capacity for learning. Suchstudents have a strong desire to prove themselves toothers and wish to be seen by others to be smart.

2. The Incremental View – which treats intelligenceas malleable, fluid and changeable. These studentsgain satisfaction from the process of learning andseek opportunities to get better. They do not focuson what the outcome will seem to say about them,but they focus mostly on the taking part.

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Dweck suggests that entity theorists are more likely tofeel helpless and to blame circumstances they feel arebeyond their control. Because of this these students aremore likely to lack motivation and to give up – feelingthat they are not in a position to influence change. Theyeither avoid challenges or indeed seek them out toprovide a seemingly justifiable reason for failure.

Incremental theorists however display alternativebehaviours, and enjoy challenges as they see that byinvesting effort they are engaging in more fruitfullearning, even though difficult, they flourish in thepursuit of an outcome. If they do encounter failure, theydo not give up but seek alternative ways to get aroundthe problem, they value the way they seek out newstrategies seeing this to be in their favour. As such theirmotivation for learning increases and self image isenhanced.

This work has obvious implications for learning in allsubject areas, and indeed for primary science. It shouldinfluence the way we praise and reward our children,whether our language should shift to reward effort-fulllearning – 'Well done, that was a real challenge and youmade a great effort to find different ways to go about it!'.By moving towards this type of praise children are morelikely to appreciate that they are in charge of their ownintelligence and by investing effort they can improve.This is contrast to feedback which may reinforce anentity view – where a child might be praised for beingclever, getting all the answers correct, getting thingsright the first time.

Dweck's work is ongoing and contemporary andprompts personal and professional reflection. Whattype of a beliefs do you hold of yourself? You might alsobe interested to find out what children think about theirown intelligence, whether it is fixed, or they can developit and how this affects ourselves as learners.

Reflect on— What is your view of your intelligence, is it fixed orcan you continue to develop it? — How do you think your view impacts on how youlearn?— What effect do you think it has on high achievers?— Do you think people with a fixed view of intelligenceare more likely to be risk takers?— What implications does this idea of fixed ormalleable intelligence have for teaching and learning inscience?

References, useful reading and linksDweck, C. S. (1999). Self-Theories: Their role inmotivation, personality, and development.Philadelphia, PA: The Psychology Press.

Dweck, C.S. (2011) Mindset: How you can fulfil yourpotential, Ballentine Books.

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Natural Curiosity

Children are naturally curious: how often have we heardthat phrase? Curiosity in children is seen when theydisplay inquisitive behaviour which might be observingsomething, touching, tasting, smelling or listening tosomething. In primary science we aim to capitalise onchildren’s natural curiosity and encourage them to useit to explore new experiences and ideas. Fuelling theircuriosity leads to broadening experiences.

Of course it is only natural that children want to sharethe outcomes of their curiosity with their parents,siblings, friends and teachers by showing or talkingabout their experience. The excitement and theintimacy of sharing with another are important humanemotions, one suspects that scientists both past andpresent have delighted in sharing with others their ideasor what they have found. Of course this success meansthat both scientists and children are likely to want torepeat what they have done and learn more from it.It is this natural curiosity that is the foundation ofscience, at all levels of experience and expertise.Thankfully Fleming was curious when he noticed thatone of the plates he had left in a pile had mould on it.The mould was in the shape of a ring yet the areaaround the ring seemed to be free of the bacteriastaphyloccus he was studying. Curious Flemingobserved more closely and concluded that it must besomething to do with the ring of mould. Of course wenow know that his curiosity and subsequent discoveryof penicillin has played a major part in medical history.

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What can we as teachers learn from this?• To value curiosity and its associated questioning.• To encourage curiosity through creating a school

and classroom environment that promotes and feedsthe curious mind.

• To provide opportunities and different contexts inwhich children are encouraged to be curious, includebooks, the internet, artefacts, questions, and accessto experts.

• Not to limit curiosity through careless responsessuch as ‘yes I know’, ‘we haven’t got time’, ‘get on withyour work’.

• To allow children to follow lines of curiosity not onlyin school but also in their own time whether that isduring school breaks or at home.

• To build bridges between school and home, so thatadults at home have an understanding andappreciation of the nature and importance ofchildren’s innate curiosity to their development inscience.

• Try not to take short cuts and telling children whatto do or the answer! Being curious is about findingout for oneself, just because we are older and moreexperienced does not give us the right to curtailsomeone else’s opportunity to find out forthemselves.

• Introduce children to scientists and celebrate theircuriosity to help children understand how some ofthe greatest discoveries and inventions are due tosomeone’s curiosity

It is interesting to note the work of the ImaginativeEducation Research Group. Founded in 2001 in theFaculty of Education at Simon Fraser University,Canada, this group want to help bring about a change inthe way schooling is conceived, organized and practicedworldwide. They explore ways of teaching that arebased on engaging learners’ imaginations. Imaginationbeing the ability to think of what might be possible, in amanner that is not tightly constrained by the actual ortaken-for-granted. A current research project of theirs,the Learning in Depth Programme, offers a novel way tostimulate children's imaginations. In this children arerandomly assigned a topic in their first week ofschooling, e.g. pets, trees, dust, rockets. They researchthis over the duration of their school life. Where somechallenge the researchers by suggesting the childrenwould be bored by the same topic, especially when theydo not choose it themselves, they suggest that whatactually happens is that children begin to realise thescope of knowledge out there and that in fact the moreyou know about something the less you find it boring.

They suggest that such topics engage curiosity,especially after the first 3 or 4 years, such that by theage of 12 the children know more about it than mostpeople. It will interesting to note the outcomes of suchresearch and to explore how children's naturalcuriosities map the journeys within this programme.

Finally, we will close this short section with a quotefrom Nickerson in Sternberg 1999:410 who likenscuriosity to ‘intellectual playfulness – finding pleasurein playing with ideas.’ He puts forward a suggestion thatonly prompts us not to wain in our endeavours to allowour youngsters to pursue their own questions about theworld and themselves.

‘It could be, too, that all children are curiousand that whether they maintain theircuriosity into adulthood depends to a largedegree on the extent to which it is encouragedor inhibited in early life.’

Reflect on— How would you create a unique environment tonuture children’s curiosity in science?— What do you think are the most importantapproaches to creating a creative environment whichsupports children’s curiosity?— How might curiosity and independence be linked?

References, useful reading and linksFeasey, R. (2005) Creative Science: Achieving theWOW Factor with 5-11 Year Olds, London: DavidFultons Publishers Ltd.

Sternberg, J. (Ed. ) (1999) Handbook of Creativity.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Learning in Depth Progamme: www.ierg.net

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Outdoor Learning

There is a long history of what is taught there,by whom and how, as well as embeddedperceptions about the types of buildings andspaces where these practices traditionallyoccur. However, there is a need to challengeexisting assumptions… this requires taking adifferent approach to imagine a whole rangeof different possibilities. Futurelab (2008: 12)

Put quite simply, the school grounds are both accessibleand free providing the opportunity to make the most ofwhat we have! Our goals should be to:• rethink where science learning takes place and to

move most science learning ‘Beyond the ClassroomBoundaries;

• redevelop the outdoor spaces around out schools sothat they provide a wide range of opportunities forteaching and learning in science and associatedPersonal Capabilities.

Robert Brown MSP, the then Deputy Minister forEducation and Young People offered a thoughtprovoking question when he commented:

'We must challenge people to think: Whylearn indoors?’www.eriding.net/educ_visits/learning.shtml [accessed25.06.10]

Underpinning this is the resolve to develop children’sPersonal Capabilities (Bianchi, L. 2006) so thateventually children are able to choose why and when totake their learning ‘Beyond the Classroom Boundaries’,on a regular basis.

The question is how will you do this? It is perhaps easierthan we think if the challenge is broken down into smallstages, for example:

1. Identify how the grounds are currently used forscience.

2. Identify the potential of the school grounds forscience, by asking what do we have outdoors thatlinks to science?

3. Involve children and the local community indeveloping the school grounds to support science.

4. Develop an action plan to redesign and use allappropriate elements of the school grounds.

5. Explore with staff and children, how creative andinnovate practice and resources to support learningoutdoors, can be embedded across all aspects of thescience curriculum.

6. Think about how you will celebrate your success.

Practical ideas for taking primary science outdoors(taken from Bianchi & Feasey (2011) Beyond theBoundaries)

Clay tile invertebrate decision treeTiles of about 10cm². Each tile has the outline of aninvertebrate found in the school grounds, such as anant, beetle, woodlouse, bee, either in relief of indentedinto the clay. Children are challenged to model theirinvertebrate using clay ensuring it is scientificallycorrect, e.g. in proportion with correct body parts. Oncehardened the clay tiles are sealed using an outdoorvarnish, and mounted as part of an outdoor decisiontree. Each tile is fixed low down on an outdoor wall,using ‘No Nails Glue’ so that the tree is accessible to allchildren. Connecting lines are painted on with anoutdoor emulsion.

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Outdoor SkeletonChildren are organised into small groups and givenaccess to small P.E. equipment such as skipping ropes,bean bags, rounders bats, team bands and quoits. Theyare asked to model a human skeleton using theequipment and create labels on white boards. Usingphotographs to capture the evidence, these can then beplaced in big books or on the school website etc. Ofcourse skeletons aren't the only model appropriate here!

Snowman's CoatThis example encourages you to use what's out theretoday! Snow, puddles, wind, rain, sunshine. On a snowyday you may encourage the children to go out and builda snowman. Investigations exploring how to stop thesnowman melting, using photographs to track over timeare motivating and engaging to the children. In thesame light watching puddles change, tracking shadows,flying kites are all simple, yet science-rich explorations.

Issues that may crop up but that can be overcome.

Reflect on— What could the term ‘open’ classroom mean?— Why do we need to challenge perceptions of what itmeans to learn as a primary scientist?— How are personal capabilities central to workingbeyond the classroom boundaries?— How can working beyond the classroom boundariesempower children?— How can outdoor learning contribute to children’swell-being?

References, useful reading and linksBianchi, L. & Feasey, R. (2011) Beyond the ClassroomBoundaries 4 – 7 years: Open University Press

Futurelab (2008) Reimagining outdoor learningspaces Primary capital, co-design and educationaltransformation. Bristol: Futurelab.

http://www.eriding.net/educ_visits/learning.shtml[accessed 7.3.12]

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Issue Suggested Strategies

Health and safety Behaviour guidelines

Children work in threes or more, learning to lookafter each other.

If there is an accident e.g. child falls over, onestays with the child, the third leaves if necessaryand tells adult in school.

Resources that can help: timers/watches, rolebadges, cones to mark off physical boundaries,coloured flags (teacher waves particular flag tocall particular groups back inside).

Time Time is only an issue if this is seen as an ‘add on’to science lessons rather than a regular andintegral part of science.

Ratio of staff tochildren

The use of the school grounds should be seen asthe classroom without a roof – the fencingprovides a boundary. Class rules for working inthe outdoors should help the issue of needingadditional staff, as children become able to‘police’ themselves, staying within given area andbehaving responsibly.

Weather Foundation have wet weather clothing. Childrenput coats and wellies on to go outside. Coldweather should not be a deterrent.Summerweather – hat and sunscreen if out for extendedperiods.

Differentiation Should be based on approaches used in theclassroom and appropriate to the activity, e.g.levelled groups for fair test investigations, mixedability when they are exploring or carrying outsurveys, sometimes groups will have reader withnon-reader

Which areas ofscience

Only areas that are appropriate – for example, itisn’t really appropriate to make circuits inelectricity outside.

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Personal Capabilities

The Smart Science materials (2006) developed by theCentre for Science Education have been mentionedalready in this booklet. They explore how PersonalCapabilities can be embedded in the science curriculumwhich was first researched by one of the authors of thisbooklet. Her assertion is clear, children’s learning inprimary science, and indeed beyond it, benefits whenexperiences are tailored to support the learning process(the 'how are we learning') as well as the 'what' oflearning of – the knowledge.

By engaging in generic games and tasks, children's self-awareness of their personal strengths and capabilitiesincreases, enabling them to be able to identify thoseareas of skill that they feel are their strengths, e.g. Ithink I am good at sharing my ideas and opinions; I liketo take time to be imaginative; I find it difficult to stickat a task. They start to develop as ‘personally literate’individuals. Capitalise on these generic experiences byassisting them to apply their personal skills andcapabilities in science tasks, then assist the transfer ofskills, and provide meaningful contexts for the use oftheir personal skills. Essential is the need to scaffold thechildren's transfer of skills, with the use of talk (e.g.think-pair-share), thinking frames (e.g. graphicorganisers), visual prompts (e.g. role badges) and activereview strategies (e.g. self and peer assessment tactics –thumbs up/sideways/down; traffic lights).

Five Personal Capabilities addressed within SmartScience are:1. Self-management – taking charge of your own

learning2. Teamwork – working well in groups and teams3. Creativity – coming up with and sharing new or

unusual ideas 4. Problem-solving – analysing problems and

developing strategies and solutions5. Communication – speaking, listening and sharing

feelings with meaning

These capabilities have often been thought of as beingendpoints in themselves, for example, once children aremore aware and able to communicate, or managethemselves they have achieved the required outcomes.Yet these are the first steps and foundations ofdevelopment, from which children are increasingly‘personally literate’.

Personal Literacy:• having the knowledge and understanding of one's

personal skills and capabilities• being able to speak with confidence about their own

personal development • articulating which particular aspects of a skill are

relevant to them and why.• developing a strong sense of what they can do to

help improve their abilities• acknowledging where they need or could find

support• having the self-confidence to demonstrate their

skills to others, receiving and giving feedback whereappropriate.

Reflect on— What difference do you think embedding PersonalCapabilities in the science curriculum might make tochildren’s experience in science?— In your own context which of the PersonalCapabilities are most relevant?— How would you encourage children to value PersonalCapabilities? — What behaviours would you expect to see whenjudging whether children are developing PersonalCapabilities?

References, useful reading and linksBianchi & Barnett (2006) Smart Science, Centre forScience Education, Sheffield Hallam University.

URL: www.smart-science.co.uk

www.personalcapabilities.co.uk

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Hedgehog Crime Scene

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Generic Task Embedded Task

If… then...Explain that part of thinking creatively and solving problems involvesforseeing what could happen in different situations. This task poses lots ofdifferent 'if…then…' scenarios which encourage the children to think freelyand give a quick response.

Explore through discussion:If trees could talk, then…If promises had to be kept…If we were one inch tall, then…If no one needed to eat, then…If people didn't have skin, then…If all people were boys, then…If there were no diseases, then…If rocks were flexible, then…If gravity didn't exist, then…

Ask groups of children to look at the picture evidence and to consider allthe possible reasons why Norman the hedgehog might be unconscious. Asthem to suggest, 'If…then…' or 'What if…' possibilities.

Then using samples of extra evidence challenge them to agree on one ortwo most likely scenarios. What other questions might help you find out ifyour suggestion is true?

Review by emphasising the idea that in a complex situation like this, openquestions, such as 'Why?' 'How? and 'What if' encourage us to considerdifferent possibilities. They help us to think more freely and creativelyabout options and when new evidence is found we review this in an openminded way and if necessary refine our initial thoughts.

An example of a Smart Science activity, Hedgehog Crime Scene, focusing on:Creativity & Problem Solving: to consider Why? How? and What if?Investigative Skills: to make comparisons between pieces of evidence

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Questioning

‘When Socrates defined teaching as "the art ofasking questions", he had in mind the cut andthrust of lofty philosophical debate. Theprosaic truth of the modern-day classroom israther different. Four hundred questions a daymay seem a startling statistic, but a largeproportion of these (anything between 30and 60 per cent) are procedural ratherthan learning-based. In otherwords, they tend to be of theis-your-name-on-it? or have-you-finished-yet? variety. ‘TES Newspaper 4 July, 2003 |Hastings, S. Questioning in TES,4.7.2003

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Feasey, R. in Skamp (2011) suggests that as teachersone of our roles in science is to help develop children tobecome scientifically literate individuals. The ability ofa person to question and challenge science and theevidence it presents is crucial if he or she is to be able toparticipate in a democracy. Being someone who can usehis or her knowledge and understanding and haveconfidence to ask questions is important.

For ourselves as teachers this means that we need torefine the art of asking questions so that they arescientifically focused. Feasey (ibid) argues that‘simplistic though this statement may appear, thereality is that, all too frequently, teacher questions inscience lack this crucial component. The ability to askthe right question at the right time is probably one ofthe most difficult aspects of teaching. The essence ofeffective questioning in science is in the ability to linkthe linguistic form of the question to a scientificoutcome.’

She goes on to suggest that teachers need to model forchildren:• a range of question stems, for example, why?, what?,

what if?, where?, how?, what do you think?, which?• questions that are carefully structured, that is,

questions that have a scientific outcome andappropriate question stem are more likely to be aneffective question.

In addition to this, questions need to be sufficientlychallenging in terms of higher order thinking skills;Bloom’s Taxonomy (1984) indicates that such questionsrelate to:• knowledge• comprehension• application• analysis• synthesis• evaluation.

Questioning in science is ongoing, from the beginningwhen we elicit prior knowledge and understanding tochallenging pupils to formulate questions that will helpthem take their own learning forward and then questionchildren at the end of the process to reflect on their ownlearning journey.

What all of this requires is an environment where pupilquestions are actively encouraged, promoted,challenged and celebrated, and there are many practicalways in which this can happen, for example:• using Floorbooks (see

http://www.azteachscience.co.uk)• having a ‘question of the week’• hot seating where pupils ask questions of another child• personal question / thinking books, where children

jot down their ideas and questions in science both atschool and home

• question boxes and mobiles• games such as ‘What am I?

Whilst questioning is important, let’s not forget thatchildren should also be given the opportunity to answertheir questions and also scaffolded into understandingthe different ways that questions can be answered, forexample:• through observations (sight, sound, touch, taste,

hearing)• researching answers using books, internet, videos,

leaflets, posters• carrying out a fair test investigation• interviewing an expert or talking with a friend• thinking about what they already know to see if they

can work out the answer using knowledge and priorexperience

• trying something out to see if it works (exploration)

Reflect on— What is the role of questioning in primary science?— What is the role of the teacher as a questioner inprimary science?— What do you think are ‘powerful questions?’— How are questioning and curiosity linked?— How could stories about scientists be used toencourage children to understand why questioning inscience is important?

References, useful reading and linksHastings, S. in TES Newspaper 4 July, 2003 |Questioning in TES, 4.7.2003

Skamp, K. (2011)Teaching Primary ScienceConstructively (4th Edition) South Melbourne,Victoria : Cengage Learning,

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Response Rich

So far you've read about Activity Rich and Context Rich-ness, so now it's the turn of the last element of theequation. By taking into account a ‘Response-Rich’.approach to developing a curriculum or lesson we feelthat we can really do justice to our attempts to maketeaching and learning more 'wonder-full'.

After reviewing many approaches to curriculum design,developed by teachers and by us, we acknowledged thata great deal of effort was being placed on getting thechildren 'hooked in' – engaged by a context for learning,and getting the children using a wide array of activelearning strategies. Both those elements take a lot ofeffort and often it's because of that we may overlook theneed to consider, 'How can I make the way childrenshow or express their learning as full of wonder,engagement and relevance as I can?'

Are we really providing a diverse and 'rich' approach tothe 'showing' of learning as we are with other aspects ofthe lesson?

During the Top Marks Project (AstraZeneca ScienceTeaching Trust Funded) ‘Response Rich' exploited theuse of ICT to help children communicate their learning.

In KS1 children’s responses were shared through:• Floor books – featuring children’s work, photos of

activities, questions and reflections• Photostory – photographs with children talking

through their learning experiences.• Talk buttons and talking speech bubbles- to collect

children’s thoughts and ideas as they are formed.

In KS2 children’s responses were shared through:• Talking photo albums• Films• TV advert development • Photostory

These methods proved fun and engaging for thechildren, and at times provided a steep learning curvefor teachers and pupils alike. Children reported thatusing these methods meant that there was less need forjust writing and teachers found the capturing oflearning in these ways provided a rich source ofassessment material.

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Reflect on— What are the range of ways you currently use toencouarge children to share their learning in primaryscience?— How would you say that you could further encouragea sense of awe and wonder through the processeschildren use to share their learning with others? — To what extent does ICT play a role in the sharing ofchildren's learning in primary science?

References, useful reading and linksView the AZSTT Continued Professional Developmentunits for an interactive learning experience of the 3riches - Context, Activity and Response Rich.

TTS has a wide range of electronic resources that arerelevance to this section. Visit www.tts-group.co.uk

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Scientific Inquiry and Enquiry

Scientific Enquiry – Scientific InquiryYou may have noticed these terms usedinterchangeably, however the question is – Is there anyreal difference between the two?

Educators talk about 'enquiry-based learning', which ischaracterised by 'learning through doing'. Others talkabout ‘inquiry’ which we can define through dictionarydefinitions as being about ‘seeking for information byasking questions’(www.definitions.dictionary.net/inquiry). We may alsounderstand an 'inquiry' to be a type of formalinvestigation.

Perhaps both have a role in primary science and thatthere is a connection between the two, childreninvestigate, in its broadest sense, through engaging inhands on activity (enquiry) and use more formal,systematic approaches to answering their questionsthrough inquiry.

Within hands on enquiry in the context of primaryscience there are different ways that children can‘inquire’ by engaging in different types of activity. Thesehave been recently reviewed in the 'It's not fair – or is it?'(2011) guide to developing children's ideas throughprimary science enquiry. Authors review 5 types ofenquiry, namely:• Observing over time• Identifying and classifying• Pattern seeking• Research (surveys, using books, internet etc.) and• Fair testing.

It's questionable as to whether ‘pattern seeking’ shouldbe viewed as a separate form of enquiry – or whetherthe notion of 'exploring' would better suit this listing.After all, isn’t looking for patterns just what science is allabout? Of course, looking for patterns enables childrenin all sorts of enquiries to draw conclusions to take theirknowledge forward.

Just consider the relevance of pattern seeking within afair test investigation. Children collect data and considerthe patterns within it. The same happens when theycarry out and collect data as part of a survey, patternseeking is an inherent part of the scientific inquiry.

When children explore they frequently repeat whatthey do, to see if it happens again and again to see if apattern emerges. The role of pattern seeking inclassification is unquestionable – seeking patterns iskey to identifying similarities (rather than differences)between flora and fauna.

Within all of the activities associated with enquiry andinquiry, there is a continuum of development whichchildren move along – from the naive enquirer, who hasyet to develop complex ways of thinking and working inscience, to the expert enquirer, who has the PersonalCapabilities and subject knowledge to ‘be strategic’ intheir search for knowledge and who can systematicallypursue their goal through a range of differentapproaches.

The Wellcome Report highlights various key issues thatare useful to review in this section.• Ofsted comment that inquiry based learning has a

positive effect on student enthusiasm andachievement (Success in Science 2008)

• Teacher preparation is key and must coverunderstanding about inquiry, as well as thenecessary pedagogical content knowledge to teachthrough inquiry.

• A student's understanding about inquiry is moredifficult to assess than other areas of the curriculum,as more importance is put on practical and thinkingand reasoning processes

• Progression in inquiry means, for example, studentsmaking more rigorous observations, taking accountof more experimental variables, analysing morecomplex evidence and ensuring that conclusions aremore scientifically valid.

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Reflect on— Whether you think there is a difference betweenscientific ‘enquiry’ and ‘inquiry’— How can we ensure that engaging in these activitiesdevelops and extends children’s scientific subjectknowledge?— What do you think of the points raised in theWellcome Report?

References, useful reading and linksTurner J, Keogh B, Naylor S & Lawrence L (2011) It'snot fair – or is it? a guide to developing children'sideas through primary science enquiry,MillgateHouse Publishers and Association for ScienceEducation.

Wellcome Trust (2011) Perspectives on Education:Inquiry-based Learning, access online athttp://www.wellcome.ac.uk/stellent/groups/corporatesite/@msh_peda/documents/web_document/wtvm053969.pdf [Accessed 28.5.12]

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Talk as window into children's scientific understandings

‘The easiest way of making an understandingis often through talk, because the flexibility ofspeech makes it easy for us to try out newways of arranging what we know…’Douglas Barnes, 1995

Talk is easy. Talking comes naturally to most children.Verbal communication begins at birth. From the firstcry to the first word children engage in conversationsthat develop their understanding of the world. A cryevokes concern, a giggle is reciprocated with a smile anda defiant yell brings about confrontation. In theclassroom, children can talk about what the worldwould be like if there was no disease and respondcreatively without having to worry about spellings,punctuation or legible handwriting.

For teachers, talk is probably the most essential ‘tool’ ofthe trade. This was the focus on the DIPS – Discussionsin Primary Science Project (managed by Martin Braund,University of York and funded by AstraZeneca ScienceTeaching Trust). Some insights from this work allow forteachers to consider the relevance of talk withinprimary science and indeed what we’d do without talkin learning. Of course we couldn’t discuss, debate or askquestions! Talk is essential in developing a personalunderstanding of the world around us. This could bethrough direct conversations, egocentric speech or thesilent conversations in our heads.

Neuroscientific research allows us to recognise that talkis not only essential for learning but is also necessaryfor developing the brain itself. At critical points in achild’s development, 3/4years and 10/11 years, thebrain undergoes changes that shape the capacity tolearn in adult life.

Talk is transitory. Children have the freedom to try outideas without the fear of making mistakes. Thinking canbe communicated immediately and reshaped based onthe response of others. Often the current school systemof evidence generation/collection in science still reliesmost heavily on paper based activities that can lack thespontaneity, and in-turn the ‘raw’ content, presentedthrough talk. Through effective talk activities teacherscan assess more accurately and therefore plan moreeffectively.

The style and function of talk changes as childrendevelop cognitively. Piaget estimated that, up to the ageof 7 years, 44-47% speech is egocentric, meaning that atthis stage thinking is verbalised for all to hear. Socialspeech occurs later on when children develop thecognitive ability to internalise thoughts. Talk is thenused as a mechanism to communicate thoughts and isless about the process of thinking. Teachers can beginto use talk to formatively assess children’sunderstanding in science. You only need to be aclassroom for short while to hear young children narrateevery action as they carry it out, e.g. “I’m pouring thewater on the sand, it feels cold”. These overt sharings ofthinking provide teachers with a window into children’sunderstandings that can then help inform planning thenext steps and provide materials to extend learning.

The shift to social speech occurs when children becomemore adept at controlling their verbal behaviour.Discussion between children and their peers providesfurther valuable insights into what children know andwhat they want to know about the world of science (Seesection D, page 12).

Paired and group talk is common practice in manyprimary classrooms and provides opportunities toexplore and develop understanding in science. Whilsttalk comes naturally to most children, the discussionsthey engaging in may not always be productive from alearning perspective, especially in a culture where wefocus heavily on achieving teacher identified learningoutcomes and success criteria. If children are unable toengage in meaningful talk the teacher must considerhow best to scaffold discussions, for instance throughprobing questions (See section Q, page 38) or bymodelling best practice through their own interactionsand highlighting it in other children.

Of course, encouraging a ‘climate of talk’ within aclassroom should ensure that children acknowledgethat talk is valuable and valued, and that good learningis about being actively engaged with conversations,listening to and respecting one another’s ideas is whatgood learning is about. They should be encouraged torecognise that learning is more likely to come through adiscussion of understanding rather than astraightforward sharing of the correct answer.

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Talk is so generic it’s hard to consider why talk inprimary science is more special in any way. Of courseit’s about far more than just a way of communicatingexpectations or giving instructions. Talk helps childrento organise their thoughts and develop theirunderstanding. The association between talk andscientific literacy and indeed personal capability isunchallenged – effective talk in primary science canenable pupils to ask questions, evaluate ideas andjustify their conclusions. It can help children share theirown theories about why things are as they are, whatthey’re wondering about and indeed what their thoughtsare about contemporary scientific issues.

Reading, writing and number may be theacknowledged curriculum ‘basics’, but talk isarguably the true foundation of learning. Robin Alexander, Dialogic Teaching (2006)

Reflect on— What do you think are the benefits of specificallyemphasising the value of talking about science in yourclassroom? — What could you refine in your classroom to furtherencourage pupil talk?— How essential do you feel talk is within your currentassessment processes in science?

References, useful reading and linksAlexander, R. (2006) Towards Dialogic Teaching,Rethinking classroom talk, 3rd Edition, Dialogos UK

Barnes, D., Todd, F (1995) Communication andLearning Revisited, London: Heinemann

Dawes, L. (2011) Creating a Speaking and ListeningClassroom, Integrated Talk for Learning at KeyStage 2, David Fulton

For more on the DIPS project and other related workvisit:www.azteachscience.co.uk/resources/cpd/talkingscience/view-online.aspx

www.azteachscience.co.uk/resources/continuing-professional-development/discussions-in-primary-science.aspx

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Recent contemporary scientific developments whichmight at first glance seem inaccessible to children, andremote from their everyday life, are after more detailedconsideration, essential to ensure that primary scienceoffers contexts which:• motivate• capture imagination• are relevant• challenge perceptions• illustrate applications and consequences• indicate that science is a human endeavour.

Trying to ensure that children have access tocontemporary contexts for science is challenging,finding out what is current, researching backgroundscience and adapting it so it can be successfully locatedwithin a curriculum takes time and imagination.Sometimes it is a case of ‘we don’t know what we don’tknow’ particularly in an area such as science wherehuman knowledge changes everyday. Let’s take someexamples, and at the same time, perhaps provide someinspiration for accessible contemporary contexts.

Biomimetics, do you know it is? It comes from theGreek words bios, meaning life, and mimesis meaning toimitate, so scientists often mimic nature to solveproblems. One of the most famous was the design ofVELCRO by George de Mestral; a Swiss engineer, who, onreturning from a walk one day in 1948 and found somecockleburs clinging to his cloth jacket, he examined oneunder his microscope, it had thin strands with burrs (orhooks) on the ends an adaptation that meant thehooked part could cling to the fur of a passing animal.He used this idea to create a material which, on one sidehad stiff hooks like the burrs and the other side with softloops like the fabric of his trousers. Hey presto! We haveVelcro which now has hundreds of different uses and iscommonplace in our everyday lives.

Other inventions include household suction pads whichwere inspired by the soles of tree frogs’ feet and thetentacles of octopuses and even more surprisingly evengarden plants provide scientists with new ideas, forexample, nasturtium leaves have self-cleaningproperties, drop of water on this leaf will roll off veryquickly. A close look under a scanning electronmicroscope reveals why: there are tiny wax-coveredbumps on the surface. Water hits the tip of the bumpswhich reduces the drop’s contact so that the drop barelytouches the leaf and runs off easily and takes dirt withit. It is through this kind of observation that scientistsbegin to understand the properties of materials innature and replicate them for human use.

How about sharing this with children and asking themto imagine that they were the scientist who had justdiscovered this. What do they think it could be used for?

Scientists learn by observing, and nature can help uslearn some basic principles of science and we can usethis knowledge to solve problems and develop newinventions. It is important that children realise howscientists work and from where they gain theirinspiration. As teachers it would be hard to keep up withthe fast pace of change in science, and how can weintroduce to ideas such as Biomimetics ornanotechnology (working at a molecular level)? How arewe to know that scientists use ideas from nature tomake materials such as self cleaning glass, sunscreensand even clothes that can clean pollution from the air?Well we aren’t expected to, but we can be expected tokeep up to date in our own professional area, andtherefore know about resources such as Primary Upd8(created by the Centre for Science Education & theAssociation for Science Education) which provides uswith ideas and activities directly related to science inthe news with children.

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Up-2-date Learning

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Whether it is the latest discoveries and inventions orhow science is solving a human problem such as an oilspill Primary Upd8 makes science relevant using thepower of topicality. Every week interesting science popsout of the news and popular culture. UPD8 creates abridge from science to different areas within the sciencecurriculum and areas across the primary curriculum.The aim of Primary Upd8 and its secondary equivalent(Upd8) is to create punchy activities that deliver contentwith maximum engagement without compromisingsound pedagogy in science.

Upd8 also tackles the ‘difficult or dull’ topics in scienceso material is designed to make pupils mentally andemotionally involved, which as all good teachers know,makes it easier to grasp the ideas.

Turning news into high quality Upd8 activities everyweek means that there is material to engage pupils anddevelop their scientific capability in relevant and topicalcontexts. Using such resources enables the teacher togive children access how scientists work and theconsequences of science on everyday living includingethical, social, political and economic issues.

Reflect on— What impact could using resources such as UPD8have on a school’s science curriculum?— What aspects of your national curriculum doesUPD8 meet?— Why is it important that children understand howscience influences our lives?— Why is it important that children understand howthe pace of change in our lives because of scientists andtheir work?— How might introducing children to contemporaryscience and scientists help raise personal aspirations?

References, useful reading and linkswww.primaryupd8.org.uk

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Verbal Behaviour Analysis – it's all about Smart Talking!

VBA is a process through which the things people sayare identified and grouped into categories. It provides uswith an explicit recognition of what we say, how we sayit and enables us to explore the implications of theseverbal behaviour choices.

The Centre for Science Education has been working inpartnership with Huthwaite International as a way ofsharing knowledge between business and education. Wehave found that Huthwaite's research and approaches toVBA complement primary teachers work on speakingand listening and have relevance for children'scollaborative work in science.

Since the 1970’s Huthwaite have been researchingverbal skills and their relationship to success in a widerange of jobs. Its research has developed a language fortalking about interpersonal skills, namely verbalbehaviour. There are different verbal behaviourcategories:

© Huthwaite International

Our partnership projectWe wished to explore the application of VBA in primaryclassrooms a little more, and we valued the opportunitythat the Yewlands Family of Schools allowed us. Projectteachers in each school were trained by Huthwaite touse VBA to develop verbal skills in the classroom. SmartScience lessons were adapted to provide opportunitiesto teach and observe pupils’ verbal behaviour skills.Teachers used a lesson study approach to trial differentactivities with their own class, as well as a master classfor gifted and talented pupils from across the schools.Teachers worked together to plan, observe and feedbackon generic tasks and science activities developed byHuthwaite and CSE.

This is one of our most recent projects and initialevaluations provided insights into:

Smart Science and VBATeachers felt that the use of Smart Science was a goodstarting point for introducing VBA. However, pupilunderstanding of the categories only came about whenthe skills were taught explicitly and success was greatlyenhanced by the use of a VBA classroom wall displaywhich could be referred to during the whole project. Itwas felt that more generic tasks to introduce VBA wouldhave been beneficial. All teachers agreed that They feltthat the timescale was too short to see any real longerterm gains in the children’s communication skills.

Gifted and Talented Master Class EventTeachers and pupils agreed that this was a very positivetransition event for children, with benefits for both KS2and KS3 pupils. The focus on VBA and science reallyhelped structure opportunities for dialogue whilstchildren were engaged in hands on science activities.The impact of this day could have been improved byensuring all children had a more in depthunderstanding of VBA in advance of the lesson. Themaster class was an invaluable experience for allmembers of the project team in that it gave insights intothe reality of introducing VBA into science lessons andfuture possibilities.

Initiating Reacting Clarifying Processcontrol

Proposing(proceduraland content)

Supporting TestingUnderstanding

Bringing in

Building Disagreeing Summarising Shutting out

Defend/ attack SeekingInformation

GivingInformation

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Reflect on— What approaches does your school use to enrichspeaking and listening in the curriculum?— To what extent do you capitalise on thoseapproaches in your primary science lessons?— How do you feel about working with businesses as ameans of providing inspiration for curriculumdevelopment?

References, useful reading and linksExtracts taken from VBA Project Final Report 2010-11, Centre for ScienceEducation

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Goodwin (2001) helps us in understanding wonder,defining it in 3 ways that relate directly to the teachingand learning processes in science. He considers,• wondering about: which reflects the activity of

scientists, questions relate to how does it work? whatwould happen if?, why?, when? what next?

• wondering at: which reflects the human response todiscoveries and understanding and, indeed, to ourcapability of 'wondering' and pertains to theexclamations like 'wonderful!', 'wow!', howinteresting!, how fascinating

• wondering whether: which reflects questions thatexplore our values, moral and ethical judgments,should I do this?', 'Must I do this?' Is this right?, Whyis this important?

Other writers talk of 'wow' moments in science learning,Feasey (2005) talks of the wow-factor in primaryscience and its direct interrelationship with creativescience learning. She explores in very practical wayshow children’s learning can be filled with awe andwonder, focusing heavily on the role that investigativescience and scientific enquiry has. Her recent work intolearning outside the classroom (Bianchi & Feasey 2011)similarly explores strategies to enrich questioning,personal exploration and scientific talk within richenvironments that provide opportunity for increasinglyindependent ways of learning and thinking.

Eccles & Taylor (2011) provide examples of wow events,some of which are teacher demonstrations, others freeexploration by the learner, e.g. children observing whathappens when mint Mento sweets are dropped into abottle of Coke, or what happens with magic sand inwater, or mixing cornflour and water into slime.Although fun in themselves and relevant to a primaryclassroom or home the focus here is on how suchactivities aim to grab children's interest for the keypurpose of encouraging particular types of dialogue, inparticular question posing, question musing andquestion answering.

What do children wonder about? We asked and foundthat children wonder:Why do some bananas that are not ripe go a bitgreen? (Nathan, age 8)Is fish meat? (Harrison)What does alcohol have in it to make you drink?(Emily, age 8)What’s God’s real name? (Spencer, age 8)What is inside the Moon? What was the Earthbefore the big round solid ball? (Sam, age 8)Is there such thing as a Big Foot? Have there everbeen any UFO’s? How are cow’s milked? (Matthew,age 9)

What do the children in your school wonder about?What do you wonder about?What do you do with the wonderings of children?

The teacher’s roleA crucial issue to address in this chapter is whathappens when we spot children having these specialwondrous and wonderful moments in learning. Howdoes a teacher’s role evolve in response to these events?

Often we experience moments of awe and wonder whenwe see or experience new things for the first time, thingsthat are unexpected or perhaps challenge ourpreconceived ideas. Our role as teachers is not to try and‘do’ much with the moments – that they are precious intheir own right, and by possibly trying to jump intothem, deconstruct and grab each one and move it oncould spoil the moment. Should we say that our role asteachers, when these moments take place is to raisechildren’s awareness of them, to acknowledge them andto plan for opportunities in the future that will supportand extend it? That giving a wow moment its breathingspace is in fact the best way to preserve the moment.

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Wonder

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Reflect on— What does the notion of 'wonder' bring to a sciencecurriculum?— How could children's wonderings influence theteaching and learning in your classroom?

References, useful reading and linksGoodwin, A (2011) Wonder in science teaching andlearning: an update, School Science Review, 83(302),Herts: Association for Science Education.

Acknowledgements to children and staff at St ThomasMore RC Primary School, Rochdale, England.

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X curricular

Barnes (2007:8) defines a cross curricular approach asbeing:

‘when skills, knowledge and attitudes of anumber of different disciplines area appliedto a single experience, theme or idea, we areworking in a cross – curricular way.’

Lakin (2006) writes, there is a range of skills such asquestioning, hypothesising, predicting, usingobservations, planning, conducting investigations,interpreting evidence and communicating, which arenot unique to science and appear across the curriculum.Assisting children in transferring these skills from onesubject area to another still remains key to successfulscience cross-curricular experiences. The ability to talkusing appropriate vocabulary, role play, ask questionsand work in a group or team are skills that can bepractised during investigative and exploratory activities.The key issue for teachers is to acknowledge theseopportunities and to plan actively to scaffold theseareas of development. It is through these that childrenwill acquire knowledge and develop understandings inand make sense of a topic.

Taking a cross curricular approach gives children thechance to see links between science and different areasof their learning and enhances their engagement andmotivation for science. Bianchi & Thompson (2011)consider a range of approaches that are currently usedwithin a cross-curricular approach, including:

making a linkThis could be as part of a general lesson discussion,addressed in a relatively straight forward way, e.g.‘Remember when we learnt about different types ofmaterials and their properties in our science lesson, nowlook at the armour Roman soldiers wore, what were theadvantages of metal armour for them and what couldhave been the disadvantages?’. This could be as short asa 5 minute conversation.

a topic or topic web A topic name is found, based on objects (Toys, Plants),an occurrence in every day life (Summer, Christmas) ora theme (Health, Light, Monsters & Giants), or a story(Little Red Riding Hood, The Iron Man). These stimulatea holistic experience for the learner, however thecurriculum design remains subject-defined with manybeing taught as stand alone and separate from oneanother.

an integrated topic These still bring together subject learning under theumbrella of a theme or topic but subjects no longer sitside by side. Efforts are made to link areas of knowledgethat share the same or similar modes of exploration andenquiry. Knowledge and skills development would aimto appear seamless to the children rather thancompartmentalised into subjects.

a personalised topic. This approach responds to the desire for a learner-centred approach to curriculum development. It goesbeyond the teacher being the sole-decider of the topicthemes and focuses on the children taking increasingresponsibility for the context in which they learn andthe content of their learning. Children are encouraged tosuggest topics or choose from a selection, with theemphasis on capitalising on their personal interests byposing the questions and problems to be explored.Curriculum design becomes more flexible as subjectboundaries are fluid yet opportunities for directteaching used when appropriate. Subject knowledgeand skills are drawn upon when they are relevant, andmuch focus is placed on exploring with the children‘how’ they will go about finding out more or solving theirproblems. This approach is enriched by closerelationships between home life and school life.

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Jarvis, T. (2009, p. 40) recognises that teachers stillstruggle with planning for cross curricular science. Shereinforces that we should not underestimate howimportant it is for a whole school approach to be firmlygrounded in a set of principles which include, (ibid,2011:59):• a firm understanding of curriculum aims• changing attitudes and gaining confidence takes

time• science coverage must be checked• use only relevant associations between curriculum

areas• use a range of types of assessment• begin with what promotes wonder and imagination

in children’s minds.

Reflect on— What forms of cross curricular approach do youcurrently use?— What do you find is most successful and why?— How confident are you or is the staff that crosscurricular is the best approach for teaching science?— What do you see as the benefits of a cross curricularapproach in primary science?— How appropriate is it for science to be taught onlythrough a cross – curricular approach or only in asubject specific way? What might a middle ground looklike?

References, useful reading and linksBarnes, J (2007), Cross Curricular Learning 3-14, Sage

Lakin, L (2006) Science in the whole curriculum, inHarlen W (2006) ASE Guide to Primary ScienceEducation. Hatfield: Association for Science Education.

Jarvis, T (2009) Pollen Project: www.pollen-europa.net

Bianchi L & Thompson P (2011) ASE Guide to PrimaryScience Education. Hatfield: Association for ScienceEducation.

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You as a Learner

How often when asked ‘What do you do?’ have youreplied ‘I’m just a teacher!’? It’s likely that most of usoften pass ourselves of as ‘just’ teachers, when in truthwe are so much more.

Teachers, advisors, consultants, confidantes, managers,leaders, partners, collaborators, role models, councillor,researchers, learners, friends... which one are you? Whatelse should be added to this list?

Of course teachers working in the 21st Educationsystem today are expected to conduct roles well abovethat of ‘just’ encouraging learning in others.

We stand at the crossroads in primary scienceeducation, often wondering which way our governmentwill send us and indeed wondering if it’s the way wewould have chosen or indeed is best for our youngsters.We reflect in staff rooms, cluster meetings, over thedinner table and in our hearts about what we wouldreally like to see happen: we identify with precisionwhere we feel the mistakes in the past have been made.Indeed we are already a lot like Donaldson, in his reportabout a future possibilities for teaching in Scotland,wishes us to be, as he promotes the profession to be: ‘reflective, accomplished and enquiringprofessionals who have the capacity to engage fullywith the complexities of education and to be keyactors in shaping and leading educational change.’(ibid p 19)

It is welcoming to read the Scottish view and to feel asense that many of us have been moving down the rightpath using our own innate wisdom, when encouragingteachers and clusters of schools to try out innovativeideas related to improving the experience of learners inscience. In fact, with the backing and support of a widerange of funders, including the Comino Foundation,local authorities, and the AstraZeneca Science TeachingTrust, the approach we use at The Centre for ScienceEducation to teacher-informed innovation anddevelopment is a positive way forward.

You may think you aren’t part of this community ofresearchers, but if you are in the classroom and reflectupon your lessons, then of course you are. It may be toolong winded to say that you’re a ‘reflective practitionerengaged in critical and grounded action research relatedto the teaching and learning of science’, when askedwhat you do, but as a teacher, by default – you are, andso you should be proud to say it and supported to do it!We have one of the most powerful roles to play in thedevelopment of our youth, don’t we? In a fast movingworld where time passes so very very quickly, I urge youto do something that restores your commitment todoing more than ‘just’ teaching – download theDonaldson Review perhaps, explore the AstraZenecaScience Teaching Trust CPD Units, find out who we areat the Centre for Science Education and see if there areany projects you’d be interested in learning about. Andwhen you’ve done that, share it with someone else...

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Reflect on— What areas of primary science innovation are you inspired by?— What learning have you had in your classroom and professional life that you would like to share with others?

References, useful readingPrimary Science by the Association for Science Education (quarterly journal with articles by teachers for teachers).

Donaldson G (201) Teaching Scotland's Future, Scottish Government, Edinburgh. Access athttp://www.scotland.gov.uk/Resource/Doc/337626/0110852.pdf [Accessed 28.5.12]

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For many years the Comino Foundation has supportedthe work of the Centre for Science Education. TheComino Foundation was established by a highly giftedengineer called Dimitri Comino in 1971. He wascommitted to making things and to making thingsbetter. Ahead of his time, in his companies, he workedwith all employees to raise aspirations and to encourageachievement. His starting point was a desire to helppeople be more effective.

The Foundation encourages and supports innovativeventures designed to enable people to function moreeffectively and thrive. It looks for better ways ofdeveloping people's capabilities, their capacity anddesire to make things happen – their zest, and appetiteto learn, to create, to change things for the better, forthemselves and others.

For the CSE this close relationship over many years hasprovided opportunity for much in-depth explorationinto the notion of developing youngster's personalcapabilities and leadership skills. From professionalstandpoints it has provided chance to network and openconversations with a wide variety of groups andorganisations. Over the years it is clear that the way inwhich the Foundation supports our work is oftenthrough providing time for us to pursue new ideas,opportunities and indeed to follow our ‘dreams' orprofessional desires. As such, staff have the space toinnovate, explore and experiment with new ideas in theworld of Science Education.

The idea of ‘dreamtime’ is central to creativity.

In the busy, ever-changing world of education, we mayfeel that time is of essence, that even time is our enemy,but imagination and therefore creativity requires it.

Ueland offers us a lovely term in 'moodling', which shedescribes as long, inefficient, happy idling, dawdling andputtering. We feel that this a valuable way to end thisbooklet, as many of the ideas and thoughts presentedwill require some 'moodling', some time to allow thewritings to sink in. You never know, your thinking maylead to a desire to make a change or do somethingdifferent, it may lead to a new passion or dream thatyou wish to chase.

In a lot of ways we really hope it does. All be it a whistlestop tour of Primary Science it encourages us to reflectand think about new ideas and our practice.

As teachers we need this time out in order toconsolidate our approaches, but let's not forget thosewho are always the most important in the learningprocess in schools – the children themselves.

• Do we offer them enough time to stop and stand still?

• Do we offer them enough time to dream?• Do we offer them enough time?

Coleman (1993, p.63) reminds us that children too needtime out in science, so that they can be creative andenjoy what science has to offer them.

It’s a terribly frustrating thing to be stoppedwhen you’re in the middle of the process. Butwe live in such a hurry-up way. So again andagain children are stopped in the middle ofthings they love to do. They are scheduled.There isn’t time for children to relax into theirown rhythm.

So to move forward in science education both adultsand children we must all have time to stop, time tostand still away from our scheduled lives and to moodle,talk and of course never stop ‘Zzzzzzzzz’ dreaming aboutfuture possibilities.

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Zzz – Dreamtime

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Reflect on— What are your dreams for the future?

References, useful reading and linksColeman, D. Kaufman, P. & Ray, Michael (1993) TheCreative Spirit. A Plume Book: New York.

Sternberg, J. (Ed. ) (1999) Handbook of Creativity.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

http://thinkexist.com/quotes/brenda_ueland/

The Comino Foundation, www.cominofoundation.org

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Notes

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The aim of this booklet is to provide a starting pointfor reflection and discussion on issues in primaryscience education, for example, it could be used:• for reflection on your own approaches to teachingand learning;

• as a starting point for discussion with colleagues;• to initiate debate within your own school or afamily of schools.

For additional copies please contactCentre for Science EducationSheffield Hallam UniversityHoward StreetSheffieldS1 1WB

Email: [email protected]

www.shu.ac.uk/research/cse.