Phot

o co

urte

sty

of P

AR

C

United StatesEnvironmentalProtection Agency

Wetlands are important elements of a watershed because they serve as thevital link between land and water resources. Wetlands play an integral role in theecology of a watershed. Their shallow waters, nutrients, and primaryproductivity are ideal for organisms that form the base of the food web uponwhich many species of wildlife depend. Wetland habitat provides the necessaryfood, water and shelter for mammals and migrating birds. Other animals, suchas amphibians and reptiles, collectively known as herpetofauna, or “herps,”depend on wetlands for all or part of their life cycle, meaning that their survivalis directly linked to the presence and condition of wetlands.

Amphibians and ReptilesDepend on Wetlands

Wetlands serve as critical habitat for many species of amphibians andreptiles. Most amphibians lay gelatinous eggsunder water, while others, like certainsalamanders, lay their eggs on moist land. Afterthe eggs hatch, the baby amphibians enter anaquatic larval stage, which can last from severaldays to many months. Once the aquatic stage iscompleted, the amphibians leave the water andenter the terrestrial adult stage of life. Wetlandsserve as breeding sites, as a habitat for larvaldevelopment and as a primary food source foradults. Insects, spiders, snails, worms andsmall fish are all prey for certain amphibians.

Why areephemeralwetlandsimportant?

Vernal pools, onetype of ephemeralwetland, are ofcritical importanceto amphibianpopulations. Assmall, oftenisolated wetlands,vernal pools areonly wet for aportion of theyear. Periodicdrying creates afish-freeenvironment foramphibians, manyof which haveadapted rapid eggand larval stagesas a race againstthe dry season.The absence of fishpredators invernal poolsbenefitsamphibianpopulations.

Garter Snake (Thamnophis elegans) - When disturbed, garter snakes will releasean unpleasant smelling musk from glands located at the base of their tail.

Amphibians and reptiles depend upon a varietyof wetland types. These may include marshes,swamps, bogs and fens (and their associatedsubclasses). Some wetlands are only wet aportion of the year and are considered“ephemeral” wetlands. These wetlands provideimportant habitat and breeding grounds (seeside bar).

There are often strong ecological connectionsamong wetlands in a landscape. Although somemay be permanent and others ephemeral,amphibian populations can depend on multiplewetlands within a given area. To protect thesespecies over the long term, the variety anddensity of suitable habitat sites within thelandscape must be preserved, along withterrestrial corridors that connect the wetlands.

For many reptiles,wetlands also serveas primary habitat,supplying them withan ample source offood and habitat forbreeding andnursing. Speciallyadapted reptiles thatare able swimmersare likely to befound in wetlands.Some of theseinclude the commonsnapping turtle,spotted turtle,northern watersnake, cottonmouthsnake, diamondbackwater snake andgarter snakes.

Wetland Habitat LossOver 220 million acres of wetlands are thought to have existed in the lower 48 states prior to 1700.Since then, extensive losses have occurred, and over half of our original wetlands have been drainedand converted to other uses. Though the rate of loss has decreased in recent decades, wetlands andother aquatic resources are still threatened by activities such as ditching, draining, dredging andstream channelization; deposition of fill material for commercial and residential development,dikes, levees and dams; crop production, logging and mining. Since many amphibian species needboth aquatic and terrestrial habitat, it is very important to preserve wetlands and a buffer strip ofadequate upland habitat.

Chemical PollutionDue to their amphibious lifestyles, herpetofauna are very sensitive to changes in the water andsurrounding land. Many synthetic organic compounds and metals adversely affect amphibians andreptiles. Sublethal effects of chemical pollutants can impair a herp’s ability to swim, catch food andreproduce successfully. Amphibians are particularly sensitive to chemical contaminants owing totheir permeable eggs and skin. A recent study by the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) showed that“organophosphorus pesticides from agricultural areas, which are transported to the Sierra Nevada onprevailing summer winds, may be affecting populations of amphibians that breed in mountain pondsand streams.” The scientists estimate that

In order to maintain healthy amphibian andreptile populations, wetland habitat must beprotected. A watershed contains multiplehabitats, all of which are affected by changesin hydrology, land use and water quality.Since no habitat is isolated from itssurroundings, protection of herps must takeplace at both the large-scale watershed leveland at the smaller scale of individualwetlands.

Population declines and disappearances ofamphibians and reptiles leading to widespreadscientific and public concern have been welldocumented. The causes for their decline,while not fully understood, appear to becomplex and numerous.

Threats to Herps and Wetlands

The American toad (Bufo americanus) is one of the most commonly heardfrog or toad species in the United States. The male toad’s call is a long,uninterrupted 15-20 second trill that can be heard over a long distance.

Phot

o by

Jay

Ose

nkow

ski

47 of the 60reptile

species foundin Illinoisrely uponwetlands

Marbled Salamander (Abystoma opacum) -Courtship begins when the male nudges thefemale with his snout.

Why areamphibians sovulnerable?

Some amphibiansbreathe through theirporous skin, whichmakes them extremelyvulnerable to pollutionin the soil, air, andwater. You can think ofamphibians as spongesthat soak up theirsurroundingenvironment. This iswhy you shouldn’t try tocatch frogs if you haveinsect repellent on- thetoxic repellent will seepinto their skin and harmthem.

damage could be even worse for those speciesmore closely associated with water.

Endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDC) havebeen of great concern in the amphibian andreptile community. Studies have shown thatchemicals like polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)build up in turtle eggs, reduce eggshellthickness and cause reproductive failure. Otherstudies have shown reduced male organ sizeamong reptiles, which results in difficult sexrecognition and the subsequent lack ofreproduction. Both amphibians and reptiles arevery susceptible to the dangers of EDCs.

Phot

o by

Ala

n Sa

vits

ky

Nutrient LoadingThe indirect effects of excess nutrients can bevery detrimental to amphibians. Nutrientssuch as nitrogen and phosphorous can causedominance of algae, which is not conducive tolaying eggs. Excess nutrients can also reducethe amount of oxygen available in the water foramphibian tadpoles and alter the compositionand numbers of the invertebrate communitiesthat are food for the juveniles. In Texas, playawetlands receiving nutrient-laden feedloteffluent were devoid of amphibians found innatural wetlands. In this case, experimentsindicated that the nutrient concentrated effluenthad to be reduced to less than 3% of itsoriginal strength in order to minimize adverseeffects.

Global climate change may threaten aquatic andsemiaquatic life by reducing wetland acreage due tofrequency and severity of storms and sea level rise.Latitudinal shifts in temperature and precipitationpatterns also threaten herps.

Ozone depletion causes an increase in the amount ofUltraviolet radiation that reaches the earth’s surface andwaters. Research has shown that UV-B radiation hasadverse effects on some amphibians. The MontrealProtocol has reduced emissions of ozone-depletingchemicals.

Invasive species pose a constant threat to native herps.Invasive plants and animals can alter the ecologicalcommunity that is relied upon by native reptiles andamphibians. Invasive herpetofauna can also directlydamage native populations. In many parts of the U.S.,invading bullfrogs are preying on and often eliminatingother amphibians, as well as impacting some reptiles andfish.

Disease and Parasites significantly contribute todeclining amphibian and reptile populations. To helpprevent the spread of disease and parasites, followcareful washing procedures when traveling betweenwetlands.

American Crocodile (Crocodylus acutus) - Once hunted intensively for theirhides, today poaching and the loss of habitat to human development are thegreatest threats faced by American crocodiles.

Phot

o by

Mar

k B

righ

t

Additional Threats

On the whole, it is difficult to documentreptile population trends. Many specieshave secretive natures, which, whencombined with large home ranges, lowpopulation densities and a rarity ofcongregational behavior, may result in asevere population decline without beingnoticed by people.

Eastern Gray Treefrog (Hyla versicolor) - Its call is aresonant, flutelike trill similiar to the call of thered-bellied woodpecker. Depending upon itsenvironment, this treefrog can range in color frombright green to gray. They breed in permanent tosemi-permanent wetlands.

Phot

o by

Mel

inda

Knu

tson

Some turtles, such as thediamondback terrapin, areendangered owing to commercialharvesting, stemming primarily fromthe food industry.

The pet trade also endangers manyreptiles, such as the box turtle.

Conservation efforts for amphibians and reptiles come in many differentforms. Like other wildlife conservation efforts, the first step is to identifyand monitor existing populations. The USGS has a volunteer monitoringprogram where participants learn to identify local frog calls and submitobservational data at different times of the year.

Fortunately, laws are being passed in some States to protect herpetofauna.New Jersey adopted special protections for vernal pools to ensuresufficient regulatory review. California enforces laws to prevent peoplefrom taking native reptiles and amphibians without a license, exceptcommon herp species. The laws also forbid the sale of herpetofauna forhuman consumption. Various bird and wetland initiatives have positiveimpacts on herps as well.

The North American Wetlands Conservation Act (NAWCA), a habitat-oriented program led by the U.S. Fish and Wildlfe Service, has beenparticularly helpful to amphibians and reptiles, as waterfowl and herpeto-fauna often share the same habitat. The conservation programs withinthe U.S. Department of Agriculture’s Farm Bill program also help topreserve or restore habitat for herpetofauna.

Conservation Efforts for Amphibians and Reptiles

On the InternetPartners for Amphibian and Reptile Conservation ....................................................... www.parcplace.org

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ......................................................... www.epa.gov/owow/wetlands

U.S. Geological Society ..................................................................................... www.usgs.gov/amphibians

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service ................................................................................ www.wetlands.fws.gov

USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service .................................... www.nrcs.usda.gov/programs/wrp

You can help to save amphibian and reptile diversity in many differentways. On a larger scale, working to protect your watershed is the firststep to ensuring clean water and healthy habitat for herps. You should:

• Prevent soil erosion by seeding for grass or planting shrubs;

• Avoid dumping chemicals down drains;

• Maintain vegetative buffer strips between your land and any surfacewaterbody; and

• Avoid releasing or transporting exotic plant or animal species intothe environment.

Protecting surface water and wetlands is important to promoting herpdiversity. Identfying, monitoring and restoring local wetlands are greatways to educate yourself and your community about the importantfunctions and values of wetlands. Supporting public and privateorganizations involved in habitat protection is another way to help.Further information can be found at http://www.epa.gov/owow/wetlands/vital/protection.

How Can You Help?How Can You Help?

EPA 843-F-03-015Office of Water

The chicken turtle (Deirochelys reticularia) is foundin the southeastern United States from southeastVirginia to east Texas. Their preferred habitatincludes quiet bodies of water such as ponds,swamps, and marshes. Although an aquaticspecies, it readily wanders and is often found outof water. They are mainly carnivorous, and theirdiet includes tadpoles and crayfish.

Partners in Amphibian and ReptileConservation (PARC) is the largestherpetological conservation partnership in thenation. They are a habitat-focused partnershipinvolving State agencies, Federal agencies, theprivate sector, conservation organizations, andthe academic community. The partnership isdedicated toprotecting endangeredreptile and amphibianspecies and keepingcommon nativespecies common.Their website(www.parcplace.org)contains educationalmaterials on theconservation of amphibians and reptiles alongwith an extensive list of weblinks.

PARC - Partners in Amphibian andReptile Conservation

Phot

o co

urte

sty

of P

AR

C