writing development –beginning writers implementing...
Post on 06-Apr-2018
219 Views
Preview:
TRANSCRIPT
2/7/2014
1
Implementing Effective Writing Instruction for
Students with Developmental Disabilities:
Curriculum, Measurement, and
Accommodations
Janet M. Sturm, PhD, CCC-SLP
Central Michigan University
Presentation for the Pennsylvania Training and Technical Assistance Network (PaTTAN), February 6, 2014
b
Writing Development – Beginning Writers
• move from drawing to scribbling to inventive spelling
• are single session writers
• naturally choose a variety of genres & topics
• may not yet have a sense of audience
• use spoken and written skills to convey meaning
• use pictures to convey meaning
• develop conventional spelling over time (after lots of opportunities)
In early writing development students -In early writing development students -
Writing In General Education First Grade Classrooms(180 day school year)
Include drawings or pictures with writing
• 148 times per year
Include drawings or pictures with writing
• 148 times per year
Choose Own Writing Topics
• 119 times per year
Choose Own Writing Topics
• 119 times per year
Start a new piece of writing
• 109 times per year
Start a new piece of writing
• 109 times per year
Write independently
• 164 times per year
Write independently
• 164 times per year
(Richards, Sturm, & Cali, 2012)
Students...
Text Types Naturally Chosen by
Kindergarten & 1st Grade Students
Kindergarten
• Labels
• Opinions
1st Grade
• Personal Stories
• Plans
• Descriptions
(Cali & Sturm, Manuscript in Preparation)
Text Types & Genres of Beginning Writers
• Label• LabelEmergent
• Opinion
• Persuasion
• Opinion
• PersuasionArgument
• Description
• Report
• Procedure
• Description
• Report
• Procedure
Informative/Explanatory
• Personal Narrative
• Plan
• Story
• Personal Narrative
• Plan
• Story
Narrative
• Poetry• PoetryLiterary
(Cali & Sturm, 2012)
Who are these beginning writers?
Kraz Anems
I like kraz anems. My favoertanem is a meke. I like to wach
thm sweg.
I LIKE LA BKSISN
Per brid
Like
tre
eat wor
I have a to dogs
Darnames Luke and Prekss
Day are my frends
and I play with vam.
2/7/2014
2
Assumptions About Emergent Beginning
Writers With Complex Instructional Needs
Need
prerequisite literacy skills
Conventional
writing is not possible
Early writing
should be conventional
Teach simple,
isolated tasks
Spoken
communication isn’t needed
during writing
Symbol writing
leads to conventional
writing
Work on fine
motor skills leads to
conventional
writing skills
Assumptions About Conventional Beginning
Writers With Complex Instructional Needs (CIN)
Language development is
complete
First-draft writing products are
sufficient
Sophisticated writing skills are
acquired through assignments
Students with CIN need writing
prompts
High-Quality Differentiated Instruction:
The Enriched Writers’ Workshop
The Enriched Writers’ Workshop is
based on scientifically derived, best practices of instruction.
Effective Writing Intervention for Elementary School
Children: The Baker’s Dozen (Graham, 2011)
1. Strategy instruction
2. Self-regulation added to strategy instruction
3. Peer assistance (peers working together)
4. Teacher transcription skills (e.g., spelling & handwriting)
5. Teaching text structure
6. Product goals (assigned goals for the written product they
are to complete)
Effective Writing Intervention for Elementary School
Children: The Baker’s Dozen (Graham, 2011)
7. Word processing (word processing with assistive features –
Great potential!)
8. Process approaches
9. Pre-writing
10. Composing (increasing how much students wrote)
11. Imagery/creativity instruction (taught how to form images or
received instruction designed to increase creativity)
12. Assessment (including adult or peer feedback to students)
Evidence of Effective Writing Instruction & Students
with Complex Instructional Needs
Intellectual &
Developmental
Disabilities (IDD)
• Joseph & Konrad(2009) reviewed 9 writing intervention studies with students who have IDD
• Overall results showed that they can learn strategies to improve writing quantity and quality
• Strategy instruction is the most frequently investigated approach
Complex
Communication Needs
• Koppenhaver & Williams (2010) reviewed 8 writing intervention students for students with CCN
• Results showed that improvement in writing occurs with systematic instruction
Autism Spectrum
Disorders
• Asaro-Saddler (2010) improved planning and self-regulation strategies & story writing ability
• Asaro-Saddler & Bak(2012) improved planning and self-regulation strategies & persuasive essays
2/7/2014
3
Students in the Enriched Writers’ Workshop
Intellectual DDAutism Spectrum
Disorders
Complex Communication
Needs
Students With Complex Instructional Needs:
Language, Communication, and Writing Skills
• Range from a beginning communicator to a relatively sophisticated communicator
• Beginning communicators: Beginning communicators who vocalize, use gestures, symbols, or very limited manual signs or words
• Sophisticated communicators: Active communicators who use words and sentences
Language, Communication, and Social ProfilesLanguage, Communication, and Social Profiles
• Present as beginning writers who range from scribbling to coherent and cohesive paragraph-level writing
• Many demonstrate fine motor needs
Writing ProfilesWriting Profiles
Emergent Writer Emergent Writer
Emerging Conventional Writer Emerging Conventional Writer
2/7/2014
4
Conventional Writer Beginning Writers
“…beginning writing skills are defined as starting with emergent writing (drawing, scribbling, and writing letters)
and ending with conventional writing abilities, usually acquired by second or third grade for typically developing children. More generally, a beginning writer is one who is
learning to use written language to express communicative intent.”
Sturm, Cali, Nelson, & Staskowski (2012) p. 299
A Framework for Writing Instruction
© Sturm (2012)
National Standards, Models, and Policies
The Enriched Writers’ Workshop aligns with
the Elementary and Secondary
Education Act definition of evidence-
based instructional practices.
Enriched Writers’ Workshop
Anyone who can choose a
topic to share can participate inthe Enriched Writers’ Workshop
The ability to make a clearchoice is not a prerequisite!
Enriched Writers’ Workshop
• Social-interactive learning environment
• Writing is communication
• Everyone is an author
• Students own their writing
• Students publish their work
• Social-interactive learning environment
• Writing is communication
• Everyone is an author
• Students own their writing
• Students publish their work
Writers’ Workshop
• Targets increases in:
• assertiveness and responsiveness
• range of communication functions
• vocabulary diversity
• eye contact
• Targets increases in:
• assertiveness and responsiveness
• range of communication functions
• vocabulary diversity
• eye contact
Social Communication Training
• Teaches students how to set goals, engage in
self-regulation, and evaluate performance
• Teaches meta-cognitive problem solving
• Provides scaffold, showing what good writers do
• Teaches students how to set goals, engage in
self-regulation, and evaluate performance
• Teaches meta-cognitive problem solving
• Provides scaffold, showing what good writers do
Cognitive Strategy Instruction
Atwell, 1987; Calkins, 1983, 1991,
1994, 2002; Graves, 1994; Harris &
Graham, 1996; Reif, 1992
Harris & Graham, 1996; Pressley & Woloshyn, 1995
2/7/2014
5
Components of Enriched Writers’ Workshop
Mini-Lesson
(5–10 min)
Independent Writing
(25–30 min)
Author’s Chair
(20–35 min)
Mini-Lesson Framework
Introduction and purpose of
activity
Communication activity
(modeling and guided practice)
Small group conference (on special occasions)
Sturm (2012)
Mini-Lesson: “Say More”
Introduction and Purpose of Activity
• Start by asking, “Who in here is an author?” (Encourage
students to raise their hands or indicate in some way)
• “The purpose of today’s lesson is to talk about ‘saying more’
in our writing. When we say more, it means that we are
writing more letters, words, and sentences in our writing. We
are making our writing longer when we say more!”
© Sturm (2010)
Mini-Lesson: Say More
Mini-Lesson: “Say More”
Communication Activity (modeling and guided practice)
• Ask, “How many of you like to fill the page with your writing?”
(Encourage students to raise their hands or indicate in some
way)
• Say, “Sometimes authors don’t write very much at all. When
we listen to an author whose writing is very short we really
wish the author would say more.” (Show a photo with a very
brief sample you’ve written; i.e., a single word label, phrase,
or sentence)
• Say, “Let’s look at our tip sheet to get some ideas about how
we can say more in our writing.” (Show the students the “Say
More” tip sheet)
© Sturm (2010)
Mini-Lesson: “Say More”
• Model how to “Say More” in writing by using the short sample
you used earlier in the lesson
• Talk about the photo and the interesting content in the
photo (Post a photo on the writing area—a large paper, dry
erase board, SmartBoard, or chalkboard)
• Read your written text aloud
• Ask students, “What else could I tell in my writing?” (Offer
ideas the students can choose if they struggle with sharing
new ideas to add)
• Say, “Let’s add your ideas to my writing” (Model, out loud,
how you would turn the students’ ideas into sentences)
• Say, “Let’s read everything we have added. (Read entire
sample aloud.) We really said a lot more in our writing.”
© Sturm (2010)
Strategy Tip Sheet: “Say More”
2/7/2014
6
Mini-Lesson Component
INSTRUCTIONAL ACTIVITY
• MINI-LESSON
Example Instructional Goals
• Build self-confidence and intrinsic motivation
• Contribute during the mini-
lesson
Example Targeted Student Skills
•Improve attitude and perception of self as a writer
•Raise hand to contribute
•Make eye contact
•Participate in choosing a group writing topic
•Provide content related to the lesson or to the writing being
produced as a group
Example Individual Supports
•Use a gesture to cue student to raise hand
•Provide verbal reminder to use eye contact
•Offer 3 photo choices for student to vote on topic for writing sample produced during mini-lesson
•Ask yes/no questions about
content
•for group writing sample
© Sturm (2012)
Independent Writing Framework
Students choose a topic
Students tell what they want
to share in writing
Students get ready to share
their writing with others
© Sturm (2012)
Author’s Chair Framework
Each author shares his or her
writing
The author then asks, “Any
questions or comments?”
Peers and instructors praise, ask a question, or make a comment
© Sturm (2012)
Providing Individual Supports: Adult Scaffolds and
Communication and Writing Tools
Author’s Toolkits
Toolkit content & sections -
• Some contain letter tiles & letter boards
• Lesson Tip Sheets
• Communication Boards
• Photos for Topics
• Writing Products
• Some contain schedule boards
Individual Student Tip Sheets
• Each student has an individual tip sheet
• Helps any adult (or peer) know the student’s core goal during a specific part of the Writers’ Workshop
• Helps any adult know what he or she should do to scaffold the student
• Goal is to provide the least amount of support then add support as needed
• Goal is to work yourself out of a job!
About the Tip Sheet:About the Tip Sheet:
Sturm (2012)
2/7/2014
7
Accommodations: Instructor Scaffolds
• Locate and manipulate materials (e.g., Authors’ toolkits)
• Use communication tools
• Review and choose topic choices
• Alternate among writing tools
• Share comments with peers
• Encourage students’ active participation in communication and writing
Verbal and physical cues may be used to:Verbal and physical cues may be used to:
Accommodations: Communication Tools and
Strategies
• Yes/no responses
• Making a choice from a set of 2–4 items
• No-tech communication boards
• Digitized micro-switches (e.g., BIGmac)
• Speech-generating devices (SGD)
• Microphone
Examples:Examples:
Accommodations: Conventional, Adapted, and
Alternative Writing Tools
• Photos/images
• Standard pencil
• Alphabet board or alphabet tiles
• Standard, alternate, or enlarged keyboards
• Assistive software (e.g., word banks, word prediction, organizational tools)
• Dry erase board (offered single or two-word combinations)
• AAC device and no-tech AAC books
• Access hardware (e.g., joystick, trackball, infrared sensor)
• Alternative pencils (Center for Literacy & Disability Studies)
• Color encoded eye-gaze frame
• Print alphabet flipcharts
Examples:Examples:
Existing Assessments of Beginning Writing
“…no measure currently exists to bridge single-letter writing and spelling and
beginning composition abilities.” (Coker & Ritchie, 2010, p. 178)
Challenges with Existing Measures
of Beginning Writers
Not
comprehensive
& may miss stages
Lacks sensitivity
Assesses only a
specific construct
Assesses vague,
absent, or unrelated traits
Lacks
instructional relevance
Uses time limits
Text type
specific
Progress Monitoring
In writing, you’ll need assessments that will let
you see the visible progress students are
making as writers along the way, so that you be able to track the success of your teaching.
Calkins, Ehrenworth, & Lehman, 2012
2/7/2014
8
Five Purposes for the Writing Quantity and
Quality Outcome Measures – They will:
quantify evidence of small but significant changes so that educators can celebrate growth with students and their parents.
serve as a functional outcome measure for periodic assessment probes and classroom-produced writing artifacts
offer instructionally relevant information about what to target next
be easy for educators to learn and use reliably
identify small differences in beginning writing skills
Sturm, Cali, Nelson, & Staskowski, 2012
Outcome Measures as a Tool for Assessing
Teacher Efficacy
Evaluations must be based on multiple reliable
measures and indicators that support valid measurement of special education teacher
effectiveness
Excerpt from the CEC Position on Teacher Evaluation
Formative & Summative Measures of
Beginning Writers
Measure Purpose Directions
Total Intelligible Words To quantify number of
intelligible words produced by
a beginning writer.
Count the total intelligible words
written. A second reviewer may
do the same.
Total Unique Words To quantify number of unique
words produced by a
beginning writer.
Count the number of unique
(different) words written).
Total Number of Letters To quantify the number of
letters written or selected (on
an alphabet board, choosing
letter tiles, or on a keyboard)
by a student writer).
Count the number of letters
written or selected during a
single writing session. This
measure used for students who
are not yet writing words.
Topic Diversity To quantify the variations in
self-selected topics chosen by
beginning writers.
Review the picture and text and
assign each writing sample a
topic (based on overall gist)
using key words.
Formative & Summative Measures of
Beginning Writers
Measure Purpose Directions
Developmental Writing
Scale
To identify the overall
developmental writing level of
the beginning writer.
Review the writing sample and
use the descriptions above to
assign a single level to the
sample. If you are debating
between two levels, assign the
lower level.
Text Type Diversity To quantify the types of texts
used by beginning writers.
Each writing sample will be
assigned a type of genre.
The genre assigned will be the
predominate genre used in the
sample (greater than 50%).
Measures for Emergent Beginning Writers
Developmental Writing Scale
Total Number of Letters
Topic Diversity
Unique Letters
Identifiable Topic
Emergent Writer
2/7/2014
9
Measures for Conventional Beginning Writers
Developmental Writing Scale
Genre Diversity
Topic Diversity
Total Intelligible
Words
Total Unique Words
Developmental Writing Scale for Beginning
Writers (Sturm, Cali, Nelson, & Staskowski, 2012)
Level
1 Drawing only
2 Scribble writing which may include letter-like forms but with the majority of shapes not
recognizable as letters
3 Some recognizable letters in strings but not grouped into words
4 Strings of letters grouped into “words” (i.e., with spaces between at least two groups of
letters) but with no intelligible words
5 Strings of letters grouped into “words,” with only one possible real word (i.e., two or more
letters in length) set apart, written repeatedly (e.g., dog, dog, dog), or embedded in a string
of letters
6 Two to three different intelligible words embedded in strings, separated by spaces, or in a
list format
7 More than three different intelligible words in a list format
8 More than three different intelligible words, with at least two of them in a partially formed
sentence (i.e., grammatically related parts of a phrase, clause or sentence)
Developmental Writing Scale for Beginning
Writers (Sturm, Cali, Nelson, & Staskowski, 2012)
Level
9 One to two complete sentences with a subject phrase and a verb phrase
10 A minimum of three sentences, but with no coherent topic (i.e., most sentences are not
related)
11 Organized writing with three or more sentences on a coherent topic but with limited
cohesion between sentences (i.e., sentences can be reordered without changing meaning)
12 Organized writing with a coherent topic (i.e., on a consistent theme) and use of cohesive
devices (e.g., pronoun or synonym replacement, logical connectors, subordinating
conjunctions, conclusions that refer to prior content) across three or more sentences, so that
sentences cannot be reordered without changing meaning
13 Organized writing with a coherent main topic and 2 cohesive subsections (sub-topics or story
parts) with at least two sentences elaborating the meaning of each
14 Organized writing with a coherent main topic and at least 3 cohesive subsections (sub-topics
or story parts) with at least two sentences elaborating the meaning of each
Level 2: Scribble writing with the majority of shapes not
recognizable as letters
Typically Developing Beginning
Writer
Writer with Developmental
Disabilities
Level 4: Strings of letters grouped into “words” but with no
intelligible words
Typically Developing Beginning
Writer
Writer with Developmental
Disabilities
iLCR6a iLKVKC CPRSB WRKeBRKe
Hya L kirio s pDriD
Level 9: Level 9: Level 9: Level 9: One to two complete sentences with
a subject phrase and a verb phrase
Typically Developing Beginning
Writer
Writer with Developmental
Disabilities
We Ro gowg to The Big SLiDe To
SLiDon A FASD onthefewtrrep
Me And My Daddy R Play with
Mounika.
Alvin and the Chimpmuks
They sing and dance
2/7/2014
10
Level 11: Organized writing with three or more sentences on a
coherent topic but with limited cohesion between sentences (i.e.,
can reorder sentences)
Typically Developing Beginning
Writer
Writer with Developmental
Disabilities
Frogs are eggs. Frog are cool. I
no how a frog grows egg then
grow mory. Frog eat lot of things
that we don’t eat like bugs. I
want a frog to play with. I thak
frogs are mumloss because thae
swim.
I love to watch the garbageman
to pick up our trash can to. I
don’t watch the garman out to my
window to. I love to watch the
recycling person to get my
recycling from my house to.
Kristen I went on a pane
so did I wish I was sleeping
flying,
My Mom was with me
Text Type Diversity Measure
Text Type Genre Function
Emergent Emergent Graphic expression using drawings, pencil marks, scribbles,
a string of letters, or letter-like forms.
Label Describe elements of a drawing.
Argument Opinion Express an opinion about a thing or event.
Persuasive Explain reasons for an opinion.
Informative Description Describe a specific thing or entity.
Report Describe a group or category of things.
Procedure Explain how an event happens.
Explanation Explain why an event happened or happens.
Narrative Recount Recount a past event.
Plan Plan a future event.
Story Create an imaginary event.
Poetry Poetry Use carefully chosen words to create meaning or share emotion
(May employ word order, connotation, imagery, figures of speech,
sound, or rhythm.)
© Sturm (2010). Permission may be granted for educational application, with an email to sturm1j@cmich.edu
Narrative Genres
Genre Typically Developing Writer Writer with Developmental
Disabilities
Recount On monday my frid came over my house. We played and we had fun. She lath. She what houm I clin up my mas
We went camping. My Grandpa and Grandma were there . my Mom and Dad were there. My brother was there WE slept in tents and had a camp fire and we had a picnic.
Expository Genres
Genre Typically Developing Writer Writer with Developmental
Disabilities
Opinion I do not like school. I am glad we got 5 mor days in school. onley I like part of the school.
I like birds Like a canary. Canaryssing pretty. Canarys are tellow and they fly very good. I thank bridsare very good pets to have in your house. Birds stat to be a egg then they crate then little birds.Humming birds bon't jumteat flerow they eat one flerow.
I like catCat are niceI want a cat
I love to watch the garbagemanto pick up our trash can to. I don’t watch the garman out to my window to. I love to watch the recycling person to get my recycling from my house to.
Goal for Writing Accommodations
The instructional emphasis is writing using
orthography and moving students up the Developmental Writing Scale. Do not spend a lot of
time accommodating for drawing skills - Have students choose a photograph for their topic
and start writing.
Sturm, Peartree, Cali, Nelson, Staskowski, 2013
Accommodations for Writing
Essential Accommodations
• Difficulty drawing a drawing
• Cannot generate recognizable text with ease
• Difficulty spelling and generating complete words
Specialized
Accommodations
• Difficulty holding and using writing tools
• Severe motor difficulties and cannot generate text
• Have severe vision needs impacting ability to see and produce text
Essential as well as specialized accommodations assist students
with additional motor or sensory needs in moving up the DWS
2/7/2014
11
Antonio’s Story Baseline Writing – Paper & Pencil
Level = 7
Total Words = 4
Unique Words = 4
Topic = Unclear
Text Type = Emergent
First Author Software - Spring 2012 First Author Software - Spring 2012
Level = 8
Total Words = 12
Unique Words = 12
Topic = Author’s Chair
Text Type = Label
First Author - Spring 2013
Level = 8
Total Words = 25
Unique Words = 16
Topic = Fireman
Text Type = Plan
First Author Software - Spring 2013
Level = 11
Total Words = 12
Unique Words = 9
Topic = Prom
Genre = Opinion
2/7/2014
12
Antonio’s Positive Change
Develops as a writer and
communicator
Positive change in self-concept
Reduced Negative behavior
Increased time spent reading
Other’s perceptions of Antonio change
First Author – A Writing Process Software Tool for
Beginning Writers
This tool was designed to be an integrated
writing software tool, that supports beginning
writers across the writing process -- planning,
composing, revising, and publishing – and is
accessible to students with severe speech and
physical impairments (SSPI).
First Author – Software Goals – It will:
provide functional outcome measures for periodic assessment probes and classroom-produced writing artifacts
provide access to the general education writing curriculum by reflecting, and operating in parallel with, an exemplary model of writing instruction
use research on the development of beginning writers
target simple and efficient interface design for both direct selection and scanning
provide ease of access to planning, composing, and revising processes, & offer ease of movement among the processes
How Does First Author Impact Students with
Complex Instructional Needs?
First Author – Phase I Research
• Five primary and secondary special education classrooms
• Mild cognitive impairments (3 classrooms)
• Moderate cognitive impairments (2 classrooms)
• 44 total student participants (Age 5-19)
Participants
• Repeated measures between-subjects design
• Control group = Paper and pencil
• Treatment group = First Author software
• Teachers utilized standard instructional practices
• Measured:
• student independence
• writing quantity and quality
• time writing
Research Design
FirstAuthor vs. Paper and Pencil – Research Results on the
DWS for 44 Students with Mild-Moderate IDD
DWS Level (Assumed Interval) Minus Baseline Level by Group
2/7/2014
13
First Author – Phase II Research
• Eight primary and secondary special education classrooms
• Physical or Otherwise Health Impaired (1 classroom - 35 participants)
• Moderate cognitive impairments (4 classrooms – 34 participants)
• Autism spectrum disorders (4 classrooms – 38 participants)
• 107 total student participants
Participants
• Repeated measures between-subjects design
• Control group = Paper and pencil
• Treatment group = First Author software
• All participants received high-quality writing instruction (Enriched Writers’ Workshop
• Measured writing quantity and quality
Research Design
First Author vs. Paper and Pencil (MOCI) – Total Intelligible
Words
First Author vs. Paper and Pencil (MOCI) – Developmental
Writing ScaleMichael’s Story
Baseline Writing – Paper & Pencil
Level = 3
Total Words = 0
Unique Words = 0
Topic = Unclear
Text Type = Emergent
First Day on First Author – Fall 2012
2/7/2014
14
First Day on First Author – Fall 2012
Level = 8
Total Words = 14
Unique Words = 12
Topic = Miley Cyrus
Text Type = Label
Michael’s Excitement on Day 1
“Hey Mrs. K! I just wrote
a short story about Miley Cyrus!”
Current Writing – Spring 2013 Current Writing – Spring 2013
Level = 11
Total Words = 13
Unique Words = 10
Topic = Acting
Text Type = Plan
Current Writing – Spring 2013
Level = 9
Total Words = 7
Unique Words = 6
Topic = Gravedigger
Text Type = Persuasion
Recognize Possibility – The Future
I had these kids that really couldn’t write even….they could not write a word, they didn’t know letters. Now I
have these same kids. I have Michael [who] would
actually write backwards. He’d start on the right and write to the left. But he couldn’t do it. Now he’s writing
sentences on paper as well as the computer. It’s amazing!
2/7/2014
15
Celebrate Authorship: The “Meet the Author” Event
Principles for Working on Writing & Communication
with Students with Complex Instructional Needs
• Believe that each student is an author who has something to communicate
• Eliminate pre-requisites for membership in the writing community
• Believe that each student is an author who has something to communicate
• Eliminate pre-requisites for membership in the writing community
Attitudes and Beliefs
• Set up a social interactive learning environment
• Challenge each student and keep them safe
• Offer choices across the learning environment to foster intrinsic motivation and respect student choices
• Communicate in ways that inspire students to do more
• Celebrate all accomplishments, big and small!
• Set up a social interactive learning environment
• Challenge each student and keep them safe
• Offer choices across the learning environment to foster intrinsic motivation and respect student choices
• Communicate in ways that inspire students to do more
• Celebrate all accomplishments, big and small!
Learning Environment
• Provide cognitive strategies, scaffolds, and tools that support individual success
• Identify abilities and needs
• Find out what each student loves
• Provide cognitive strategies, scaffolds, and tools that support individual success
• Identify abilities and needs
• Find out what each student loves
Student Centered
The Power of Writing
“When I write I feel free!”
Comment from an adolescent with severe speech and physical impairments who was one of the first students who used the First
Author software. As she developed as an author she enjoyed writing fictional narratives with herself as the central character.
References
Asaro-Saddler, K. & Bak, N. (2012). Teaching children with high
functioning autism spectrum disorders to write persuasive
essays. Topics in Language Disorders.
Asaro-Saddler, K. & Saddler, B. (2010). Planning instruction and
self-regulation training: Effects on writers with autism
spectrum disorders, Council for Exceptional Children, 77(1),
107-124.
Atwell, N. (1987). In the middle: Writing, reading, and learning
with adolescents. Portsmouth, NH: Boynton/Cook Publishers,
Inc.
Calkins, L.M. (1983). Lessons from a child: On the teaching and
learning of writing. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
References
Calkins, L. M. (1986). The art of teaching writing (1st). Portsmouth,
NH: Heinemann Educational Books, Inc.
Calkins, L.M. (1991). Living between the lines. Portsmouth, NH:
Heinemann.
Calkins, L. M. (1994). The art of teaching writing (New edition).
Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann Educational Books, Inc.
Calkins, L., Ehrenworth, M. & Lehman, C. (2012). Pathways to the
Common Core: Accelerating Achievement. Portsmouth, NH:
Heinemann Educational Books, Inc.
Clendon, S. A. & Erickson, K. (2008). The vocabulary of beginning
writers: Implications for children with complex communication
needs. Augmentative and Alternative Communication, 24, 281-293.
Clendon, S. A., Sturm, J. M., & Cali, K. S. (2013). Vocabulary use across
genres: Implications for students with complex communication
needs. Language Speech and Hearing Services in Schools, 44, 61-72.
References
Common Core State Standards Initiative (2010). Common core
state standards for English language arts & literacy in
history/social studies, science, and technical subjects.
Washington, DC: National Governors Association Center for
Best Practices and the Council of Chief State School Officers.
Graham, S., Kiuhara, S., McKeown, D. & Harris, K. (2012). A meta-
analysis of writing instruction for students in the elementary
grades. Manuscript submitted for publication.
Harris, K. R., & Graham, S. (1996). Making the writing process
work: Strategies for composition and self-regulation.
Cambridge, MA: Brookline Books.
International Reading Association (2002). What is evidence-
based reading instruction? Retrieved from
http://www.reading.org/General/AboutIRA/PositionState
ments/EvidencedBasedPosition.aspx
2/7/2014
16
References
Koppenhaver , D. & Williams, A. (2010). A Conceptual Review of
Writing Research in Augmentative and Alternative
Communication, Augmentative and Alternative
Communication, 26 (3), pp. 158–176.
National Institute for Literacy (2012). What is scientifically-based
research: A guide for teachers. Retrieved from
http://lincs.ed.gov/publications/pdf/science_research.pdf.
Joseph, L. M. & Conrad (2009), Teaching students with
intellectual or developmental disabilities to write: A review of
the literature, Research in Developmental Disabilities, 30, 1–
19.
References
Pressley, M., & Woloshyn, V., & Associates. (1995). Cognitive
strategy instruction that really improves academic
performance (2nd Ed.). Cambrridge, MA: Brookline Books.
Pritchard, R. J. & Honeycutt, R. L. (2007). Best practices in
implementing a process approach to teaching writing. In
S. Graham, C. A. MacArthur, & J. Fiztgerald (Eds.), Best
Practices in Writing Instruction (pp. 28-49). New York: The
Guilford Press.
Reif, L. (1992). Seeking diversity: Language arts with
adolescents. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
References
Sturm, J. (2012). An enriched writers’ workshop for beginning
writers with developmental disabilities. Topics in Language
Disorders, 32(4), 335-360.
Sturm, J., Cali, K., Nelson, N. & Staskowski, M. (2012). The
developmental writing scale: A new progress monitoring tool
for beginning writers. Topics in Language Disorders, 32(4),
297-318.
Sturm, J. M., Knack, L., Hall, J. (November, 2011). Writing
Instruction in Primary Classrooms: Implications for Students
with Disabilities. Poster session presented at the American
Speech-Language-Hearing Convention, SanDiego, CA.
References
U.S. Department of Education (2010). ESEA: A complete
education. Retrieved from
http://www2.ed.gov/policy/elsec/leg/blueprint/complet
e-education.pdf
top related