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WORLD TRADE REPORT 2015
136
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Yasui,T.(2010),“BenefitsoftheRevisedKyotoConvention”,Brussels:WorldCustomsOrganization(WCO),ResearchPaperNo.6.
Yeaple,S.R.andGolub,S.S.(2007),“InternationalProductivityDifferences,Infrastructure,andComparativeAdvantage”, Review of International Economics15(2):223-242.
Yi,K.-M.(2003),“CanVerticalSpecializationExplaintheGrowthofWorldTrade?”, Journal of Political Economy111(1):52-102.
Yi,K.-M.(2010),“CanMultistageProductionExplaintheHomeBiasinTrade?”, American Economic Review100(1):364-393.
Zaki,C.(2014),“AnEmpiricalAssessmentoftheTradeFacilitationInitiative:EconometricEvidenceandGlobalEconomicEffects”,World Trade Review13(01):103-130.
141
TECHNICAL NOTES
Technical notesComposition of regions and other economic groupingsRegions
North America
Bermuda Canada* Mexico* UnitedStatesofAmerica*
Otherterritoriesintheregionnotelsewherespecified(n.e.s.)
South and Central America and the Caribbean
AntiguaandBarbuda* Chile* ElSalvador* Panama* TrinidadandTobago*
Argentina* Colombia* Grenada* Paraguay* Uruguay*
Aruba,theNetherlandswithrespectto*
CostaRica* Guatemala* Peru* BolivarianRepublicofVenezuela*
Bahamas** Cuba* Guyana* SaintKittsandNevis*
Barbados* Curaçao* Haiti* SaintLucia*
Belize* Dominica* Honduras* SaintVincentandtheGrenadines*
Bolivia,PlurinationalStateof*
DominicanRepublic* Jamaica* SintMaarten*
Brazil* Ecuador* Nicaragua* Suriname*
Otherterritoriesintheregionn.e.s.
Europe
Albania* CzechRepublic* Hungary* Malta* SlovakRepublic*
Andorra** Denmark* Iceland* Montenegro* Slovenia*
Austria* Estonia* Ireland* Netherlands* Spain*
Belgium* Finland* Italy* Norway* Sweden*
BosniaandHerzegovina** France* Latvia* Poland* Switzerland*
Bulgaria* FYRMacedonia* Liechtenstein* Portugal* Turkey*
Croatia* Germany* Lithuania* Romania* UnitedKingdom*
Cyprus* Greece* Luxembourg* Serbia**
Otherterritoriesintheregionn.e.s.
Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS)a
Armenia* Georgia*a Moldova,Republicof* Turkmenistan
Azerbaijan** Kazakhstan*** RussianFederation* Ukraine*
Belarus** KyrgyzRepublic* Tajikistan* Uzbekistan**
Otherterritoriesintheregionn.e.s.
Africa
Algeria** Congo* Guinea* Morocco* SouthAfrica*
Angola* Côted’Ivoire* Guinea-Bissau* Mozambique* Sudan**
Benin* DemocraticRepublicoftheCongo*
Kenya* Namibia* Swaziland*
Botswana* Djibouti* Lesotho* Niger* Tanzania*
BurkinaFaso* Egypt* Liberia,Republicof** Nigeria* Togo*
Burundi* EquatorialGuinea** Libya** Rwanda* Tunisia*
CaboVerde* Eritrea Madagascar* SãoToméandPríncipe** Uganda*
Cameroon* Ethiopia** Malawi* Senegal* Zambia*
CentralAfricanRepublic* Gabon* Mali* Seychelles* Zimbabwe*
Chad* TheGambia* Mauritania* SierraLeone*
Comoros** Ghana* Mauritius* Somalia
Otherterritoriesintheregionn.e.s.
*WTOmembers
**Observergovernments
***WTOmembersformallyadoptedKazakhstan’sWTOtermsofentryinJuly2015.Kazakhstanwillbecomeamember30daysafteritnotifiesitsratificationtotheWTO.
aGeorgiaisnotamemberoftheCommonwealthofIndependentStatesbutisincludedinthisgroupforreasonsofgeographyandsimilaritiesineconomicstructure.
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Middle East
Bahrain,Kingdomof* Israel* LebaneseRepublic** SaudiArabia,Kingdomof* Yemen*
Iran** Jordan* Oman* SyrianArabRepublic**
Iraq** Kuwait,theStateof* Qatar* UnitedArabEmirates*
Otherterritoriesintheregionn.e.s.
Asia
Afghanistan** HongKong,China* Malaysia* PapuaNewGuinea* Timor-Leste
Australia* India* Maldives* Philippines* Tonga*
Bangladesh* Indonesia* Mongolia* Samoa* Tuvalu
Bhutan** Japan* Myanmar* Singapore* Vanuatu*
BruneiDarussalam* Kiribati Nepal* SolomonIslands* VietNam*
Cambodia* Korea,Republicof* NewZealand* SriLanka*
China* LaoPeople’sDemocraticRepublic*
Pakistan* ChineseTaipei*
Fiji* Macao,China* Palau Thailand*
Otherterritoriesintheregionn.e.s.
Other Groups
ACP (African, Caribbean and Pacific countries)
Angola Côted’Ivoire Guyana Nauru Somalia
AntiguaandBarbuda Cuba Haiti Niger SouthAfrica
Bahamas DemocraticRepublicoftheCongo
Jamaica Nigeria Sudan
Barbados Djibouti Kenya Niue Suriname
Belize Dominica Kiribati Palau Swaziland
Benin DominicanRepublic Lesotho PapuaNewGuinea Tanzania
Botswana EquatorialGuinea Liberia,Republicof Rwanda Timor-Leste
BurkinaFaso Eritrea Madagascar SaintKittsandNevis Togo
Burundi Ethiopia Malawi SaintLucia Tonga
CaboVerde Fiji Mali SaintVincentandtheGrenadines
TrinidadandTobago
Cameroon Gabon MarshallIslands Samoa Tuvalu
CentralAfricanRepublic TheGambia Mauritania SãoToméandPríncipe Uganda
Chad Ghana Mauritius Senegal Vanuatu
Comoros Grenada Micronesia Seychelles Zambia
Congo Guinea Mozambique SierraLeone Zimbabwe
CookIslands Guinea-Bissau Namibia SolomonIslands
Africa
North Africa
Algeria Egypt Libya Morocco Tunisia
Sub-Saharan Africa
Western Africa
Benin TheGambia Guinea-Bissau Mauritania Senegal
BurkinaFaso Ghana Liberia,Republicof Niger SierraLeone
CaboVerde Guinea Mali Nigeria Togo
Côted’Ivoire
Central Africa
Burundi CentralAfricanRepublic Congo EquatorialGuinea Rwanda
Cameroon Chad DemocraticRepublicoftheCongo
Gabon SãoToméandPríncipe
Eastern Africa
Comoros Ethiopia Mauritius Somalia Tanzania
Djibouti Kenya Seychelles Sudan Uganda
Eritrea Madagascar
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TECHNICAL NOTES
Southern Africa
Angola Lesotho Mozambique SouthAfrica Zambia
Botswana Malawi Namibia Swaziland Zimbabwe
TerritoriesinAfrican.e.s.
Asia
East Asia (including Oceania)
Australia Indonesia Malaysia Samoa Tuvalu
BruneiDarussalam Japan Mongolia Singapore Vanuatu
Cambodia Kiribati Myanmar SolomonIslands VietNam
China Korea,Republicof NewZealand ChineseTaipei
Fiji LaoPeople’sDemocraticRepublic
PapuaNewGuinea Thailand
HongKong,China Macao,China Philippines Tonga
West Asia
Afghanistan Bhutan Maldives Pakistan SriLanka
Bangladesh India Nepal
OthercountriesandterritoriesinAsiaandthePacificn.e.s.
Least-developed countries (LDCs)
Afghanistan Comoros Kiribati Myanmar Tanzania
Angola DemocraticRepublicoftheCongo
LaoPeople’sDemocraticRepublic
Nepal Timor-Leste
Bangladesh Djibouti Lesotho Niger Togo
Benin EquatorialGuinea Liberia,Republicof Rwanda Tuvalu
Bhutan Eritrea Madagascar SãoToméandPríncipe Uganda
BurkinaFaso Ethiopia Malawi Senegal Vanuatu
Burundi TheGambia Maldives SierraLeone Yemen
Cambodia Guinea Mali SolomonIslands Zambia
CentralAfricanRepublic Guinea-Bissau Mauritania Somalia
Chad Haiti Mozambique Sudan
Six East Asian traders
HongKong,China Malaysia Singapore ChineseTaipei Thailand
Korea,Republicof
Regional Integration Agreements
Andean Community (CAN)
Bolivia,PlurinationalStateof
Colombia Ecuador Peru
ASEAN (Association of South East Asian Nations) / AFTA (ASEAN Free Trade Area)
BruneiDarussalam Indonesia Malaysia Philippines Thailand
Cambodia LaoPeople’sDemocraticRepublic
Myanmar Singapore VietNam
CACM (Central American Common Market)
CostaRica ElSalvador Guatemala Honduras Nicaragua
CARICOM (Caribbean Community and Common Market)
AntiguaandBarbuda Belize Guyana Montserrat SaintVincentandtheGrenadines
Bahamas Dominica Haiti SaintKittsandNevis Suriname
Barbados Grenada Jamaica SaintLucia TrinidadandTobago
CEMAC (Economic and Monetary Community of Central Africa)
Cameroon Chad Congo EquatorialGuinea Gabon
CentralAfricanRepublic
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COMESA (Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa)
Burundi Egypt Libya Rwanda Uganda
Comoros Eritrea Madagascar Seychelles Zambia
DemocraticRepublicoftheCongo
Ethiopia Malawi Sudan Zimbabwe
Djibouti Kenya Mauritius Swaziland
ECCAS (Economic Community of Central African States)
Angola CentralAfricanRepublic DemocraticRepublicoftheCongo
Gabon SãoToméandPríncipe
Burundi Chad EquatorialGuinea Rwanda
Cameroon Congo
ECOWAS (Economic Community of West African States)
Benin Côted’Ivoire Guinea Mali Senegal
BurkinaFaso TheGambia Guinea-Bissau Niger SierraLeone
CaboVerde Ghana Liberia,Republicof Nigeria Togo
EFTA (European Free Trade Association)
Iceland Liechtenstein Norway Switzerland
European Union (28)
Austria Denmark Hungary Malta Slovenia
Belgium Estonia Ireland Netherlands Spain
Bulgaria Finland Italy Poland Sweden
Croatia France Latvia Portugal UnitedKingdom
Cyprus Germany Lithuania Romania
CzechRepublic Greece Luxembourg SlovakRepublic
GCC (Gulf Cooperation Council)
Bahrain,Kingdomof Oman Qatar SaudiArabia,Kingdomof UnitedArabEmirates
Kuwait,theStateof
MERCOSUR (Southern Common Market)
Argentina Brazil Paraguay Uruguay BolivarianRepublicofVenezuela
NAFTA (North American Free Trade Agreement)
Canada Mexico UnitedStates
SAFTA (South Asia Free Trade Agreement)
Bangladesh India Nepal Pakistan SriLanka
Bhutan Maldives
SADC (Southern African Development Community)
Angola Lesotho Mauritius Seychelles Tanzania
Botswana Madagascar Mozambique SouthAfrica Zambia
DemocraticRepublicoftheCongo
Malawi Namibia Swaziland Zimbabwe
WAEMU (West African Economic and Monetary Union)
Benin Côted’Ivoire Mali Senegal Togo
BurkinaFaso Guinea-Bissau Niger
WTOmembersarefrequentlyreferredtoas“countries”,althoughsomemembersarenotcountriesintheusualsenseofthewordbutareofficially“customsterritories”.ThedefinitionofgeographicalandothergroupingsinthisreportdoesnotimplyanexpressionofopinionbytheSecretariatconcerningthestatusofanycountryorterritory,thedelimitationofitsfrontiers,northerightsandobligationsofanyWTOmemberinrespectofWTOagreements.Thecolours,boundaries,denominationsandclassificationsinthemapsofthepublicationdonotimply,onthepartoftheWTO,anyjudgementonthelegalorotherstatusofanyterritory,oranyendorsementoracceptanceofanyboundary.
Throughoutthisreport,SouthandCentralAmericaandtheCaribbeanisreferredtoasSouthandCentralAmerica.
Aruba;theBolivarianRepublicofVenezuela;HongKongSpecialAdministrativeRegionofChina;theRepublicofKorea;andtheSeparateCustomsTerritoryofTaiwan,Penghu,KinmenandMatsuarereferencedas:Aruba,theNetherlandswithrespectto;BolivarianRep.ofVenezuela;HongKong,China;Korea,Republicof;andChineseTaipeirespectively.
ThedatasuppliedintheWorldTradeReport2015arevalidasof31July2015.Thestatisticaldatainthispublicationaresuppliedbyandundertheresponsibilityoftherelevantstatisticalauthorities.TheuseofsuchdatabytheWTOiswithoutprejudicetothestatusoforsovereigntyoveranyterritory,ortothedelimitationofinternationalfrontiersandboundaries.2014datafortheRussianFederationareprovisional.
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ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS
Abbreviations and symbolsADB AsianDevelopmentBank
AfDB AfricanDevelopmentBank
APEC Asia-PacificEconomicCooperation
APTFF Asia-PacificTradeFacilitationForum
ASYCUDA AutomatedSystemforCustomsData
CAREC CentralAsiaRegionalEconomicCoperation
CFTA AfricanContinentalFreeTradeArea
CGE computablegeneralequilibrium
CIS CommonwealthofIndependentStates
CPIA country,policyandinstitutionalassessment
CRS creditorreportingsystem
CVA CustomsValuationAgreement
DB DoingBusiness
ECOWAS EconomicCommunityofWestAfricanStates
EDIFACT ElectronicDataInterchangeforAdministration,CommerceandTransport
ETI EnablingTradeIndex
EU EuropeanUnion
FDI foreigndirectinvestment
GATS GeneralAgreementonTradeinServices
GATT GeneralAgreementonTariffsandTrade
GDP grossdomesticproduct
GTAP GlobalTradeAnalysisProject
GVCs globalvaluechains
HS harmonizedsystem
ICAO InternationalCivilAviationOrganization
ICT informationandcommunicationtechnology
IDB Inter-AmericanDevelopmentBank(IDB)
IMO InternationalMaritimeOrganization
IRU InternationalRoadTransportUnion
ITC InternationalTradeCentre
LDCs least-developedcountries
LPI LogisticsPerformanceIndex
MTEC MicronesianTradeandEconomicCommunity
NAFTA NorthAmericanFreeTradeAgreement
OECD OrganisationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopment
OECS OrganizationofEasternCaribbeanStates
OSBP one-stopborderpost
PCA PrincipalComponentAnalysis
PPD public-privatedialogue
PPP purchasingpowerparity
PTA preferentialtradeagreement
RECs RegionalEconomicCommunities
RTAs regionaltradeagreements
S&D specialanddifferentialtreatment
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SME smallandmedium-sizedenterprises
SPS sanitaryandphytosanitary
TBT technicalbarrierstotrade
TFA TradeFacilitationAgreement
TFIs TradeFacilitationIndicators
TFP totalfactorproductivity
TIACA TheInternationalAirCargoAssociation
UN UnitedNations
UNCTAD UnitedNationsConferenceonTradeandDevelopment
UNECA UnitedNationsEconomicCommissionforAfrica
UNECE UnitedNationsEconomicCommissionforEurope
UNESCAP UnitedNationsEconomicandSocialCommissionforAsiaandthePacific
UNNExT UnitedNationsNetworkofExpertsforPaperlessTrade
VAT value-addedtax
WAEMU WestAfricanEconomicandMonetaryUnion
WCO WorldCustomsOrganization
WEF WorldEconomicForum
WTO WorldTradeOrganization
WTR WorldTradeReport
Thefollowingsymbolsareusedinthispublication:
… notavailable
0 figureiszeroorbecamezeroduetorounding
- notapplicable
US$ UnitedStatesdollars
UK£ UKpound
147
LIST OF FIGURES, TABLES AND BOXES
List of figures, tables and boxesPartI Theworldeconomyandtradein2014andearly2015
Figures
Figure1: GrowthinvolumeofworldmerchandisetradeandrealGDP,2007-14 14
Figure2: Merchandiseexportandimportvolumebylevelofdevelopment,2010Q1-2015Q1 16
Figure3: MerchandiseexportandimportvolumeoftheEuropeanUnion,2010Q1-2015Q1 16
Figure4: Merchandiseexportandimportvolumebyregion,2010Q1-2015Q1 17
Figure5: Quarterlyworldexportsofmanufacturedgoodsbyproduct,2012Q1-2014Q4 18
Figure6: Trade-weightedUSdollarindex:broad,January2012–June2015 18
Figure7: Growthinthevalueofcommercialservicesexportsbyregion,2011-14 19
Figure8: Pricesofprimarycommodities,January2012–May2015 20
Figure9: ElasticityofworldmerchandisetradevolumewithrespecttoworldGDPatmarketexchangerates,1980-2014 21
Tables
Table1: MerchandisetradevolumeandrealGDPatmarketexchangerates,2010-14 21
Appendix figure
AppendixFigure1: Merchandiseexportsandimportsofselectedeconomies,January2010–April2015 22
Appendix tables
AppendixTable1: Worldmerchandisetradebyregionandselectedeconomies,2014 24
AppendixTable2: Worldcommercialservicestradebyregionandselectedcountry,2014 25
AppendixTable3: Leadingmerchandiseexportersandimporters,2014 26
AppendixTable4: Leadingmerchandiseexportersandimportersexcludingintra-EU(28)trade,2014 27
AppendixTable5: Leadingexportersandimportersofcommercialservices,2014 28
AppendixTable6: Leadingexportersandimportersofcommercialservicesexcludingintra-EU(28)trade,2014 29
PartII Speedinguptrade:benefitsandchallengesofimplementingtheWTOTradeFacilitationAgreement
A Introduction
Tables
TableA.1: Definitionsoftradefacilitation 36
B Tradefacilitationincontext
Figures
FigureB.1: TotalnumberofRTAsandRTAswithtradefacilitationprovisions 46
FigureB.2: PercentageofRTAswithtradefacilitationprovisions 47
FigureB.3: EvolutionofthenumberoftradefacilitationprovisionsinRTAs 47
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FigureB.4: TotalnumberofNorth-North,North-SouthandSouth-Southagreementswithtradefacilitation 48
FigureB.5: Histogramofcoveragedistribution 49
Tables
TableB.1: OverviewofdisciplinesprescribedbytheTradeFacilitationAgreement 41
TableB.2: TradefacilitationmeasurescontainedinRTAsbyfrequencyofoccurrence 45
C Thetheoryandmeasurementoftradefacilitation
Figures
FigureC.1: Icebergpartialequilibriummodel 58
FigureC.2: Impactofinefficientcustomproceduresonwelfare 63
FigureC.3: AverageTFIs,EnablingTradeIndexandLogisticsPerformanceIndex 70
Tables
TableC.1: CoordinationproblembetweenMikeandLucy 64
TableC.2: CoordinationproblembetweenCountry1andCountry2 65
TableC.3: Listofindicatorsandindexes 66
TableC.4: TFIsandTFAarticles 68
TableC.5: CorrelationbetweenDoingBusinessIndicators,theLogisticsPerformanceIndex,theEnablingTradeIndexandtheTradeFacilitationIndicators 69
Boxes
BoxC.1: The“iceberg”model 58
BoxC.2: Theeffectsoftradecostsinclassicaltrademodels 59
BoxC.3. Theeffectofinefficientcustomsproceduresonaneconomy 63
BoxC.4: Coordinationproblemsexplained 64
BoxC.5: Whatisanindicatorandwhatmakesforagoodindicator? 65
D EstimatingthebenefitsoftheTradeFacilitationAgreement
Figures
FigureD.1: Compositionoftradecostsindevelopingcountries 75
FigureD.2: Dimensionsoftimeinvaluechains 76
FigureD.3: Ad valoremtariffequivalentsofexportandimporttimes 76
FigureD.4: Ad valoremtariffequivalentsoftradecostswiththemainworldimporters,2010orlatestavailableyear 77
FigureD.5: Ad valoremtariffequivalentsoftradecostsbyregionandlevelofdevelopment,2008 77
FigureD.6: Estimatedreductionsinad valoremtariffequivalenttradecostsduetoTFAimplementation 78
FigureD.7: Estimatedreductionsinad valoremtariffequivalenttradecostsduetoTFAimplementationbyregionandlevelofdevelopment 79
FigureD.8: Projectedexports2015-30,bycountrygroup 89
FigureD.9: Relationshipbetweenminimumexportsale(percountry)andtimetoexport 91
149
LIST OF FIGURES, TABLES AND BOXES
FigureD.10: SizedistributionofexportingColombianfirmsinagriculture,byleveloftransportcoststoport 92
FigureD.11: CorrelationbetweenTFIs,customstransparencyandtimepredictabilityofimportprocedures 98
Tables
TableD.1: Selectedstudiesontheeffectoftradefacilitationontradeflows 80
TableD.2: EstimatedtradeandGDPimpactsofTFAimplementation 82
TableD.3: EstimatedincreasesinexportsbylevelofdevelopmentundervariousTFAimplementationscenariosfromregression-basedsimulations 83
TableD.4: Descriptivestatisticsonexportdiversificationbylevelofdevelopment 84
TableD.5: EstimatedincreasesinthenumberofproductsbydestinationduetoTFAimplementationbylevelofdevelopment 85
TableD.6: EstimatedincreasesinthenumberofdestinationsbyproductduetoTFAimplementationbylevelofdevelopment 86
TableD.7: AdditiontoannualexportandGDPgrowthduetoTFAimplementation,byscenario 88
TableD.8: Evaluationofcustomsandtraderegulationsasobstaclestotrade,bysizeofexporter 91
TableD.9: Delayedentryofcustomsassessments 97
Boxes
BoxD.1: Derivingtradecostsfromtradeflows 74
BoxD.2: MainelementsofMIRAGE 87
BoxD.3: Tradefacilitation,FDIandmarketsize 94
BoxD.4: ASYCUDAandtheimpactofcustomsperformancemeasurement 96
Appendix tables
AppendixTableD.1: Intensivemargin:regressionresults 101
AppendixTableD.2: Extensivemargin:regressionresults 102
AppendixTableD.3: EstimatedincreasesinthenumberofproductsbydestinationduetoTFAimplementationbygeographicregion 103
AppendixTableD.4: EstimatedincreasesinthenumberofdestinationsbyproductduetoTFAimplementationbygeographicregion 104
AppendixTableD.5: Foreigndirectinvestmentandtradefacilitationregressionresults 105
AppendixTableD.6: TFI,customstransparencyandtimepredictabilityofimportproceduresregressionresults 105
E ThechallengesofimplementingtheTradeFacilitationAgreement
Figures
FigureE.1: TopfivemostandleastnotifiedTFAprovisionsunderCategoryAcommitments 110
FigureE.2: LevelsofTFAimplementationimpliedbyCategoryAcommitments 111
FigureE.3: RankingoftradefacilitationinAidforTradeprioritiesoflandlockedcountriesandsmallislanddevelopingstates,2015 112
FigureE.4: RankingoftradefacilitationinAidforTradeprioritiesofpartnercountriesbygeographicregion,2015 112
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FigureE.5: RankingoftradefacilitationinAidforTradeprioritiesofpartnercountriesbyincomegroup,2015 113
FigureE.6: Tradefacilitationcommitmentsanddisbursementsofaiddonorsbypartnercountrygroup,2005-13 113
FigureE.7: AnticipatedimpactofTFAimplementationontradecosts,alldevelopingcountryrespondents 114
FigureE.8: ImpactofTFAontradecostsanticipatedbylandlockedandsmallislandstates,surveyresponses 115
FigureE.9: WhichdisciplinesoftheTradeFacilitationAgreementwillprovehardesttoimplement? 115
FigureE.10: Tradefacilitationandbroaderpolicyinitiatives 117
FigureE.11: Distributionofthedataontradefacilitationimplementationcostsbyregionandarea 119
FigureE.12: Implementationcostsoftradefacilitation,customsandtransportfacilitationreforms 120
FigureE.13: Implementationcostsoftradefacilitationreformrelatedtotransparencyandpredictability 120
FigureE.14: Implementationcostsoftradefacilitationreformrelatedtoreleaseandclearanceofgoods 121
FigureE.15: Implementationcostsoftradefacilitationreformrelatedtoformalitiesanddocumentationrequirements 122
FigureE.16: Implementationcostsoftradefacilitationreformsrelatedtocustomsandborderagencycooperation 123
FigureE.17: Distributionofthetradefacilitationcasestoriesbyregionsandareas 128
FigureE.18: Mainsuccessfactorsreportedincasestoriesontradefacilitation 128
FigureE.19: Stakeholdersintradefacilitationreform 130
Boxes
BoxE.1: CategoryAcommitmentsundertheTFA 110
BoxE.2: ObstaclestoestimatingtheimplementationcostoftheTFA 124
BoxE.3: Theeconomicrationaleforspecialanddifferentialtreatment 125
BoxE.4: WhattheTradeFacilitationAgreementFacilitydoes 126
151
WTO MEMBERS
WTO members*
(Asof7August2015)
AlbaniaAngolaAntiguaandBarbudaArgentinaArmeniaAustraliaAustriaBahrain,KingdomofBangladeshBarbadosBelgiumBelizeBeninBolivia,PlurinationalStateofBotswanaBrazilBruneiDarussalamBulgariaBurkinaFasoBurundiCaboVerdeCambodiaCameroonCanadaCentralAfricanRepublicChadChileChinaColombiaCongoCostaRicaCôted’IvoireCroatiaCubaCyprusCzechRepublicDemocraticRepublicoftheCongoDenmarkDjiboutiDominicaDominicanRepublicEcuadorEgyptElSalvadorEstoniaEuropeanUnionFijiFinlandFranceGabonTheGambiaGeorgiaGermanyGhana
GreeceGrenadaGuatemalaGuineaGuinea-BissauGuyanaHaitiHondurasHongKong,ChinaHungaryIcelandIndiaIndonesiaIrelandIsraelItalyJamaicaJapanJordanKenyaKorea,RepublicofKuwait,theStateofKyrgyzRepublicLaoPeople’sDemocraticRepublicLatviaLesothoLiechtensteinLithuaniaLuxembourgMacao,ChinaMadagascarMalawiMalaysiaMaldivesMaliMaltaMauritaniaMauritiusMexicoMoldova,RepublicofMongoliaMontenegroMoroccoMozambiqueMyanmarNamibiaNepalNetherlandsNewZealandNicaraguaNigerNigeriaNorwayOman
PakistanPanamaPapuaNewGuineaParaguayPeruPhilippinesPolandPortugalQatarRomaniaRussianFederationRwandaSaintKittsandNevisSaintLuciaSaintVincentandtheGrenadinesSamoaSaudiArabia,KingdomofSenegalSeychellesSierraLeoneSingaporeSlovakRepublicSloveniaSolomonIslandsSouthAfricaSpainSriLankaSurinameSwazilandSwedenSwitzerlandChineseTaipeiTajikistanTanzaniaThailandTheformerYugoslavRepublic ofMacedonia(FYROM)TogoTongaTrinidadandTobagoTunisiaTurkeyUgandaUkraineUnitedArabEmiratesUnitedKingdomUnitedStatesofAmericaUruguayVanuatuVenezuela,BolivarianRepublicofVietNamYemenZambiaZimbabwe
*WTOmembersformallyadoptedKazakhstan’sWTOtermsofentryinJuly2015.Kazakhstanwillbecomeamember30daysafteritnotifiesitsratificationtotheWTO.
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Previous World Trade ReportsTrade and development: recent trends and the role of the WTO
2014
ISBN 978-92-870-3912-5
The World Trade Report 2014 looks at four major trends that have changed the relationship between trade and development since the start of the millennium: the economic rise of developing economies, the growing integration of global production through supply chains, the higher prices for agricultural goods and natural resources, and the increasing interdependence of the world economy.
Many developing countries have experienced unprecedented growth and have integrated increasingly into the global economy, thereby opening opportunities for countries still lagging behind. However, important barriers still remain.
Integration into global value chains can make industrialization in developing countries easier to achieve. Upgrading to higher-value tasks within these supply chains can support further growth. But competitive advantage can be lost more easily, and achieving such upgrading can be challenging.
Higher prices for agricultural goods and natural resources have helped some developing countries achieve strong growth. But higher prices can cause strains for net importers of these goods.
Growing interdependence within the global economy allows countries to benefit more quickly from growth in other parts of the world. But it can also cause challenges as crises can be quickly transmitted across borders.
Many developing countries still have a long way to go in addressing their development challenges. The multilateral trading system provides developing countries, and particularly least-developed countries, with unique opportunities to do so. Further progress in the Post-Bali Agenda would therefore be important to making trade work more effectively for development.
World Trade Report 2014
World
Trad
e Rep
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T
rade an
d d
evelopm
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s and
the role of th
e WT
OImages (front and back covers)
Jean-Claude Prêtre, DANAÉ WORLD SUITE, 2001.In this series (from which two prints are reproduced here), the artist wishes symbolically to portray a “movement” towards geopolitical peace. The full collection of 49 works is on display at the WTO. For more information, please visit the artist’s website at www.jcpretre.ch.
World Trade Report 2014
Trade and development: recent trends and the role of the WTO
The World Trade Report 2014 looks at four major trends that have changed therelationship between trade and development since the start of the millennium:the economic rise of developing economies, the growing integration of globalproduction through supply chains, the higher prices for agricultural goods andnaturalresources,andtheincreasinginterdependenceoftheworldeconomy.
Factors shaping the future of world trade
2013
World Trade Report
2013 Factors shaping the future of world trade
ISBN: 978-92-870-3859-3
9 7 8 9 2 8 7 0 3 8 5 9 3
ISBN 978-92-870-3859-3
The world is changing with extraordinary rapidity, driven by many influences, including shifts in production and consumption patterns, continuing technological innovation, new ways of doing business and, of course, policy. The World Trade Report 2013 focuses on how trade is both a cause and an effect of change and looks into the factors shaping the future of world trade.
One of the most significant drivers of change is technology. Not only have revolutions in transport and communications transformed our world but new developments, such as 3D printing, and the continuing spread of information technology will continue to do so. Trade and foreign direct investment, together with a greater geographical spread of income growth and opportunity, will integrate a growing number of countries into more extensive international exchange. Higher incomes and larger populations will put new strains on both renewable and non-renewable resources, calling for careful resource management. Environmental issues will also call for increasing attention.
Economic and political institutions along with the interplay of cultural customs among countries all help to shape international cooperation, including in the trade field. The future of trade will also be affected by the extent to which politics and policies successfully address issues of growing social concern, such as the availability of jobs and persistent income inequality. These and other factors are all examined in the World Trade Report 2013.
World Trade Report 2013
Images (front and back covers)
Jean-Claude Prêtre, DANAÉ WORLD SUITE, 2001.In this series (from which two prints are reproduced here), the artist wishes symbolically to portray a “movement” towards geopolitical peace. The full collection of 49 works is on display at the WTO. For more information, please visit the artist’s website at www.jcpretre.ch.
World
Trad
e Rep
ort 20
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Factors sh
apin
g th
e futu
re of world
trade
TheWorld Trade Report 2013 looksatwhathasshapedglobal trade in thepastand reviews how demographic change, investment, technological progress,developments in the transport and energy/natural resource sectors, as well astrade-relatedpoliciesandinstitutions,willaffectinternationaltrade.
Trade and public policies: a closer look at non-tariff measures in the 21st century
2012
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World Trade Report 2012
The World Trade Report 2012 ventures beyond tariffs to examine other policy measures that can affect trade. Regulatory measures for trade in goods and services raise new and pressing challenges for international cooperation in the 21st century. More than many other measures, they reflect public policy goals (such as ensuring the health, safety and well-being of consumers) but they may also be designed and applied in a manner that unnecessarily frustrates trade. The focus of this report is on technical barriers to trade (TBT), sanitary and phytosanitary (SPS) measures (concerning food safety and animal/plant health) and domestic regulation in services.
The Report examines why governments use non-tariff measures (NTMs) and services measures and the extent to which these measures may distort international trade. It looks at the availability of information on NTMs and the latest trends concerning usage. The Report also discusses the impact that NTMs and services measures have on trade and examines how regulatory harmonization and/or mutual recognition of standards may help to reduce any trade-hindering effects.
Finally, the Report discusses international cooperation on NTMs and services measures. It reviews the economic rationale for such cooperation and discusses the efficient design of rules on NTMs in a trade agreement. It examines how cooperation has occurred on TBT/SPS measures and services regulation in the multilateral trading system, and within other international forums and institutions. A legal analysis is provided regarding the treatment of NTMs in WTO dispute system and interpretations of the rules that have emerged in recent international trade disputes. The Report concludes with a discussion of outstanding challenges and key policy implications.
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World Trade Report 2012
Trade and public policies: A closer look at non-tariff measures in the 21st century Regulatory measures for trade in goods and services raise challenges for
internationalcooperationinthe21stcentury.TheWorld Trade Report 2012examineswhygovernmentsusenon-tariffmeasuresandservicesmeasuresandtheextenttowhichthesemeasuresmaydistortinternationaltrade.
The WTO and preferential trade agreements: from co-existence to coherence
2011
World Trade Report 2011
The WTO and preferential trade agreements: From co-existence to coherence
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World Trade Report
The ever-growing number of preferential trade agreements (PTAs) is a prominent feature of international trade. The World Trade Report 2011 describes the historical development of PTAs and the current landscape of agreements. It examines why PTAs are established, their economic effects, and the contents of the agreements themselves. Finally it considers the interaction between PTAs and the multilateral trading system.
Accumulated trade opening – at the multilateral, regional and unilateral level – has reduced the scope for offering preferential tariffs under PTAs. As a result, only a small fraction of global merchandise trade receives preferences and preferential tariffs are becoming less important in PTAs.
The report reveals that more and more PTAs are going beyond preferential tariffs, with numerous non-tariff areas of a regulatory nature being included in the agreements.
Global production networks may be prompting the emergence of these “deep” PTAs as good governance on a range of regulatory areas is far more important to these networks than further reductions in already low tariffs. Econometric evidence and case studies support this link between production networks and deep PTAs.
The report ends by examining the challenge that deep PTAs present to the multilateral trading system and proposes a number of options for increasing coherence between these agreements and the trading system regulated by the WTO.
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Theever-growingnumberofpreferential tradeagreements(PTAs) isaprominentfeature of international trade. The Report describes the historical developmentof PTAs and the current landscape of agreements. It examines why PTAs areestablished, their economiceffects, the contentsof theagreements themselves,andtheinteractionbetweenPTAsandthemultilateraltradingsystem.
Trade in natural resources
2010
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World Trade Report
The World Trade Report 2010 focuses on trade in natural resources, such as fuels, forestry, mining and fisheries. The Report examines the characteristics of trade in natural resources, the policy choices available to governments and the role of international cooperation, particularly of the WTO, in the proper management of trade in this sector.
A key question is to what extent countries gain from open trade in natural resources. Some of the issues examined in the Report include the role of trade in providing access to natural resources, the effects of international trade on the sustainability of natural resources, the environmental impact of resources trade, the so-called natural resources curse, and resource price volatility.
The Report examines a range of key measures employed in natural resource sectors, such as export taxes, tariffs and subsidies, and provides information on their current use. It analyses in detail the effects of these policy tools on an economy and on its trading partners.
Finally, the Report provides an overview of how natural resources fit within the legal framework of the WTO and discusses other international agreements that regulate trade in natural resources. A number of challenges are addressed, including the regulation of export policy, the treatment of subsidies, trade facilitation, and the relationship between WTO rules and other international agreements.
“I believe not only that there is room for mutually beneficial negotiating trade-offs that encompass
natural resources trade, but also that a failure to address these issues could be a recipe for
growing tension in international trade relations. Well designed trade rules are key to ensuring
that trade is advantageous, but they are also necessary for the attainment of objectives such as
environmental protection and the proper management of natural resources in a domestic setting.”
Pascal Lamy, WTO Director-General
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World Trade Report 2010Trade in natural resources
TheWorld Trade Report 2010focusesontradeinnaturalresources,suchasfuels,forestry, mining and fisheries. The Report examines the characteristics of tradeinnatural resources, thepolicy choicesavailable togovernmentsand the roleofinternational cooperation, particularly of the WTO, in the proper management oftradeinthissector.
Trade policy commitments and contingency measures
2009
WORLD TRADE REPORT 2009
World Trade Report The World Trade Report is an annual publication that aims to deepen understanding about trends in trade, trade policy issues and the multilateral trading system. The theme of this year’s Report is “Trade policy commitments and contingency measures”. The Report examines the range of contingency measures available in trade agreements and the role that these measures play. Also referred to as escape clauses or safety valves, these measures allow governments a certain degree of flexibility within their trade commitments and can be used to address circumstances that could not have been foreseen when a trade commitment was made. Contingency measures seek to strike a balance between commitments and flexibility. Too much flexibility may undermine the value of commitments, but too little may render the rules unsustainable. The tension between credible commitments and flexibility is often close to the surface during trade negotiations. For example, in the July 2008 mini-ministerial meeting, which sought to agree negotiating modalities – or a final blueprint – for agriculture and non-agricultural market access (NAMA), the question of a “special safeguard mechanism” (the extent to which developing countries would be allowed to protect farmers from import surges) was crucial to the discussions. One of the main objectives of this Report is to analyze whether WTO provisions provide a balance between supplying governments with necessary flexibility to face difficult economic situations and adequately defining them in a way that limits their use for protectionist purposes. In analyzing this question, the Report focuses primarily on contingency measures available to WTO members when importing and exporting goods. These measures include the use of safeguards, such as tariffs and quotas, in specified circumstances, anti-dumping duties on goods that are deemed to be “dumped”, and countervailing duties imposed to offset subsidies. The Report also discusses alternative policy options, including the renegotiation of tariff commitments, the use of export taxes, and increases in tariffs up to their legal maximum ceiling or binding. The analysis includes consideration of legal, economic and political economy factors that influence the use of these measures and their associated benefits and costs.
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ISBN 978-92-870-3513-4
WORLD TRADE REPORT 2009 - Trade Policy Com
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Trade Policy Commitments and Contingency Measures
Cover photos (from left to right): Image copyright Quayside, 2009; Image copyright Christian Lagerek, 2009; Image copyright Guido Vrola, 2009;
The2009Reportexaminestherangeandroleofcontingencymeasuresavailableintradeagreements.OneoftheReport’smainobjectivesistoanalysewhetherWTOprovisionsprovideabalancebetweensupplyinggovernmentswith thenecessaryflexibility to facedifficulteconomicsituationsandadequatelydefining these inawaythatlimitstheiruseforprotectionistpurposes.
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Trade in a globalizing world
2008
Trade in a Globalizing World
WORLD TRADE REPORT 2008
World Trade Report The World Trade Report is an annual publication that aims to deepen understanding about trends in trade, trade policy issues and the multilateral trading system.
International trade is integral to the process of globalization. Over many years, governments in most countries have increasingly opened their economies to inter-national trade, whether through the multilateral trading system, increased regional cooperation or as part of domestic reform programmes. Trade and globalization more generally have brought enormous benefits to many countries and citizens. Trade has allowed nations to benefit from specialization and to produce more efficiently. It has raised productivity, supported the spread of knowledge and new technologies, and enriched the range of choices available to consumers. But deeper integration into the world economy has not always proved to be popular, nor have the benefits of trade and globalization necessarily reached all sections of society. As a result, trade scepticism is on the rise in certain quarters.
The purpose of this year’s Report, whose main theme is “Trade in a Globalizing World”, is to remind ourselves of what we know about the gains from international trade and the challenges arising from higher levels of integration. The Report addresses a range of interlinking questions, starting with a consideration of what constitutes globalization, what drives it, what benefits does it bring, what challenges does it pose and what role does trade play in this world of ever-growing inter-dependency. The Report asks why some countries have managed to take advantage of falling trade costs and greater policy-driven trading opportunities while others have remained largely outside international commercial relations. It also considers who the winners and losers are from trade and what complementary action is needed from policy-makers to secure the benefits of trade for society at large. In examining these complex and multi-faceted questions, the Report reviews both the theoretical gains from trade and empirical evidence that can help to answer these questions.
ISBN 978-92-870-3454-0
WORLD TRADE REPORT 2008 - Trade in a Globalizing W
orld
The 2008 Report provides a reminder of what we know about the gains frominternational trade and highlights the challenges arising from higher levels ofintegration.Itaddressesthequestionofwhatconstitutesglobalization,whatdrivesit,whatbenefitsitbrings,whatchallengesitposesandwhatroletradeplaysinthisworldofever-growinginter-dependency.
Sixty years of the multilateral trading system: achievements and challenges
2007
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2007WORLD TRADE REPORT On1January2008themultilateraltradingsystemcelebratedits60thanniversary.
TheWorld Trade Report 2007celebratesthislandmarkanniversarywithanin-depthlookattheGeneralAgreementonTariffsandTrade(GATT)anditssuccessortheWorldTradeOrganization—theirorigins,achievements,thechallengestheyhavefacedandwhatthefutureholds.
Exploring the links between subsidies, trade and the WTO
2006
2006WORLD TRADE REPORT
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The World Trade Report 2006 focuses on how subsidies are defined, whateconomictheorycantellusaboutsubsidies,whygovernmentsusesubsidies,themost prominent sectors in which subsidies are applied and the role of the WTOAgreementinregulatingsubsidiesininternationaltrade.TheReportalsoprovidesbriefanalyticalcommentariesoncertaintopicaltradeissues.
Trade, standards and the WTO
2005
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The World Trade Report 2005 seeks to shed light on the various functions andconsequencesofstandards,focusingontheeconomicsofstandardsininternationaltrade,theinstitutionalsettingforstandard-settingandconformityassessment,andtheroleofWTOagreementsinreconcilingthelegitimatepolicyusesofstandardswithanopen,non-discriminatorytradingsystem.
Coherence
2004
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TheWorld Trade Report 2004focusesonthenotionofcoherenceintheanalysisofinterdependentpolicies:theinteractionbetweentradeandmacroeconomicpolicy,the role of infrastructure in trade and economic development, domestic marketstructures,governanceandinstitutions,andtheroleofinternationalcooperationinpromotingpolicycoherence.
Trade and development
2003
2003WORLD TRADE REPORT
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The World Trade Report 2003 focuses on development. It explains the origin ofthis issue and offers a framework within which to address the question of therelationshipbetweentradeanddevelopment,therebycontributingtomoreinformeddiscussion.
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