world music’s role in the construction of a

WORLDMUSIC’SROLEINTHECONSTRUCTIONOFA

HYPERREALISTICAFRICAINDISNEY’STHELIONKING

by

CAMERONJORDAN

SubmittedtotheFacultyGraduateDivisionCollegeofFineArts

TexasChristianUniversityinpartialfulfillmentofthe

requirementsforthedegreeof

MASTEROFMUSIC

December,2015

Copyright© 2015byCameronJordanAllrightsreserved

CONTENTS

WORLDMUSIC’SROLEINTHECONSTRUCTIONOFA

HYPERREALISTICAFRICAINDISNEY’STHELIONKING

ChapterOne:Hyperreality,Disney,andAfrica 1

ChapterTwo:AfricanMusicalElementsinMusicalNumbers 20

“CircleofLife” 20

“BePrepared” 28

ChapterThree:AfricanMusicalElementsinUnderscoring 37

Conclusion 45

Bibliography 48

iii

LISTOFFIGURESANDEXCERPTS

WORLDMUSIC’SROLEINTHECONSTRUCTIONOFA

HYPERREALISTICAFRICAINDISNEY’STHELIONKING

Figure1:MainStreet,USAatDisneyland 5

Figure2:ThesunrisesoverMt.Kilimanjaro 13

Figure3:RafikipresentsSimbaonthetopofPrideRock 27

Figure4:Scarandoneofhisminionsinhiscavernouslair 29

Figure5:Ahyenaplaysalargeribcageasifitwereamarimba 31

Excerpt1:Themotivefrom“ThisLand”whichisusedthroughout 42 TheLionKing

iv

LISTOFTABLES

WORLDMUSIC’SROLEINTHECONSTRUCTIONOFA

HYPERREALISTICAFRICAINDISNEY’STHELIONKING

Table1:SevenofthefirstgroupstodebutontheBillboard 13 WorldMusicCharts

Table2:Analysisofvisualandauraleventsduring“Circle 21 ofLife”

Table3:Analysisofvisualandauraleventsduring“Be 29 Prepared”

v

1

ChapterOne:

Hyperreality,Disney,andAfrica

EarlyintheTonyAward-winningmusicalTheBookofMormon(2011),thetwomain

characters,EldersPriceandCunningham,learnthattheywillbetravelingto

Uganda.“Ohboy⎯LikeLionKing!”ElderCunninghamexclaims,onlytofindoutlater

thatTheLionKingseemstohavetaken“alotofartisticlicense.”1Likemanyjokesin

TheBookofMormon,thesereferencestoTheLionKingplayonthecharacters’

naïvetéabouttheworldaroundthem.Theirexaggerated,childlikeignorancesends

BookofMormonaudiencesintofitsoflaughter,butinrealitythetwoMormons’

Disney-basedideasarenotsodifferentfromhowAmericansoftenperceiveother

cultures⎯particularlyAfricancultures.

AfteritsJune15,1994release,theanimatedDisneyfilmTheLionKing

provedtobeabox-officepowerhousebothabroadandintheUnitedStates,grossing

over$400,000,000inthedomesticmarketalone.2Thefilmwonaccoladesduring

the1995awardsseason,winningthreeoutoffourGoldenGlobeAwardsforwhichit

wasnominated,includingBestMotionPicture,BestOriginalScore,andBestOriginal

Song(EltonJohn’s“CanYouFeeltheLoveTonight”).3TheLionKing’sscoreand

soundtrackwonrecognitionfromtheAcademyAwardsandtheGrammysaswell,

1TreyParker,RobertLopez,MattStone,TheBookofMormon(NewYork:NewmarketPressforITBooks,2011),10,44.2“TheLionKing,”BoxOfficeMojo,accessedJune20,2015,www.boxofficemojo.com/movies/?id=lionking.htm.3TheLionKing’sotherGoldenGlobesnominationwasalsointheBestOriginalSongcategory,forEltonJohn’s“CircleofLife.”

2

earningOscarsforBestOriginalSong(“CanYouFeeltheLoveTonight”)andBest

OriginalScore,andGrammysforBestMalePopVocalPerformance(“CanYouFeel

theLoveTonight”),BestMusicalAlbumforChildren,andBestInstrumental

ArrangementwithAccompanyingVocals(“CircleofLife”).TheLionKinghas

continuedtobefinanciallysuccessfulandculturallyinfluentialsinceitspremiere,

spawningtwosequels(TheLionKing2[1998]andTheLionKing1½[2004]),two

subsequenttheatricalre-releases(inIMAXin2002andin3Din2011),anda

blockbusterBroadwaymusicalthathasrunsince1997withover7,300

performances.4

BecauseTheLionKing(likeDisneymoviesingeneral)issowidelypopular,it

hasplayedacriticalroleinformingandmaintainingAmericans’perceptionsof

Africasincethe1990s.EdwardBrunerhasfoundthatthe“Americanimageof

Africanculture”thatTheLionKingpresentsevenovertakesactualexperiencesof

AfricanculturefortouristsinAfricancountries.5TheSwahiliphrasehakunamatata

(“noworries,noproblems”),forexample,wasusedinUgandainthe1970sto

combatgrowingpoliticalturmoilthroughoutthecountry.6Now,however,hakuna

matatamainlyremindstouriststoUgandaofTheLionKing’sAmericanizedversion

ofAfrica⎯aversionwithwhichtheyarebothmorefamiliarandmorecomfortable.

TheLionKing,inshort,isoneofveryfewsources⎯andarguablythemost

4“TheLionKing,”InternetBroadwayDatabase,accessedJune20,2015,www.ibdb.com/production.php?id=4761.5EdwardBruner,“TheMaasaiandtheLionKing:Authenticity,Nationalism,andGlobalizationinAfricanTourism,”AmericanEthnologist28,no.4(November2001),893.6Ibid,893.

3

memorable⎯ofexposuretoAfricaformanyAmericans.Intheirattemptsto

encouragetheteachingofaccurateinformationaboutAfricancountries,for

instance,BrendaRandolphandElizabethDeMulderfoundthatelementarystudents

andteachersalikewereexposedtoinaccurateandstereotypicalinformationabout

AfricathroughTheLionKingandothermedia.7Duetohowdeeplyengrainedthis

exampleofpopcultureisincontemporaryAmericansociety,TheLionKing’s

fictionalizedversionofAfrica(anditsmusic)essentiallybecomesthe“real”and

“true”versionofAfricaforAmericans⎯evenmorethanwhatactuallyisrealand

true.

Thisdividebetweenrealityandtheperceptionofrealitycanbeexplainedby

theconceptof“hyperreality.”JeanBaudrillardcoinedtheterm“hyperreality”inhis

1981treatiseSimulacraandSimulation,definingitas“arealwithoutoriginor

reality.”8Simplyput,thisdefinitionstatesthatanobjectorideaishyperrealifitis

designedtoemulatesomethingthatneveractuallyexisted.JohnTiffinexpanded

Baudrillard’sdefinition,suggestingthathyperrealityis“aconditioninwhichwhatis

realandwhatisfictionareseamlesslyblendedtogether,sothatthereisnoclear

distinctionbetweenwhereoneendsandtheotherbegins,”resultingin“theinability

todistinguishrealityfromasimulationofreality.”9UmbertoEcousestheCalifornia-

basedthemeparkDisneyland,viewedasamicrocosmofAmericanlife,todiscuss

7BrendaRandolphandElizabethDeMulder,“IDidn’tKnowThereWereCitiesinAfrica!”TeachingToleranceno.34(Fall2008),36–38.8JeanBaudrillard,SimulacraandSimulation,trans.SheilaFariaGalser(AnnArbor:TheUniversityofMichiganPress,1994),1.9JohnTiffin,IntroductiontoHyperreality:ParadigmfortheThirdMillennium,ed.NobuyoshiTerashimaandJohnTiffin(London:Routledge,2001),1.

4

hyperreality;Ecoclaimsthatthepark“notonlyproducesillusion,but...stimulates

thedesireforit”byprovingthatthefalsifiedexperienceofDisneyland“corresponds

muchmoretoourdaydreamdemands.”10Inotherwords,actualrealitywillalways

haveitsshareofflawsanddisappointments,butthecarefullyconstructed

perfectionfoundthroughoutthethemeparkgivesaudiencesamoredesirable,more

perfectversionofreality.11

Forexample,Disneyland’s“MainStreet,USA”area,picturedinFigure1,

representsquintessentialsmall-townAmericaintheearlytwentiethcentury.Walt

Disneyhimselfsaidofthepark:

Forthoseofuswhorememberthecarefreetimeitrecreates,MainStreetwillbringbackhappymemories.Foryoungervisitors,itisanadventureinturningbackthecalendartothedaysofgrandfather’syouth.12

Therearecertainlymanyreasonstobenostalgicforthis“simpler”timeinAmerican

history.YetalthoughMainStreet,USAportrayssome(moreorless)historically

accuratepositiveaspectsfromthistimeperiod,theparkconvenientlyomitsany

mentionofthemyriadnegativeaspectsthatplaguedthefirsthalfofthetwentieth

century,fromWorldWarsandtheGreatDepressiontodivisivesocialissuesand

yet-to-be-eradicateddiseases.BycreatingavisionofMainStreet,USAseenthrough10UmbertoEco,TravelsinHyperreality,trans.WilliamWeaver(SanDiego:HarcourtBraceJovanovich,1983),44.11Disneylandevengoessofarastoexertmilitary-likestandardsforitsemployees’appearanceandbehavior;forexample,employeesmustadheretorestrictionsonhairandfingernaillength,andarenotallowedtofrownorhavebadposturewhileinfrontofparkguests.http://cp.disneycareers.com/en/about-disney-college-program/disney-look/12TravisL.Cox,“TurningBacktheCalendar:AnAnalysisofMainStreetUSA’suseofNostalgia”(M.A.Thesis,OregonStateUniversity,2008),42.

5

thelensofselectivememory,Disneyland’screatorsproducedasortofalternate

reality,whichispresentedtoparkguestsasentirelyandunironicallyauthentic.This

newreality,ofcourse,doesnotquitemakehistoricalsense.Withoutthenegative

aspectsfromthistimeperiod,thepositiveaspectswouldnothavedevelopedinthe

sameway,makingMainStreet,USA’srealityimpossible.Inshort,MainStreet,USAis

basedonarealitythatdoesnotactuallyexist,orinBaudrillard’swords,“areal

withoutoriginorreality.”

Figure1:MainStreet,USAatDisneyland

Thoughmostcommonlyusedtodiscussvisualormaterialsituations,the

theoryofhyperrealityisapplicabletothetextualandauralaspectsofmusicaswell.

AaronFox,forexample,usesthedichotomyofrealandhyperrealtoexaminethe

lyricsincountrymusic.Foxarguesthatthereisno“‘authentic’countrymusictext...

6

onewhichrepresentsthe‘real’lifeofa‘real’communitywithoutalienatednostalgia,

falseconsciousnessorkitschycommodification.”13HereFoxmakesthesame

argumentBaudrillardandEcodowithregardtoDisneyland;justasMainStreet,

USAcreatesanalternate,pristineversionoflifeintwentieth-century,small-town

America,countrymusiccreatesahyperrealisticversionofthestereotypicalcountry

lifestyle.Thisoccursthroughtheprocessofde-andre-naturalization,inwhichideas

andsubjectslosetheiroriginalmeaningandcontext,andlateracquirenewmeaning

inadifferentcontext.14Inthecaseofcountrymusiclyrics,thede-andre-

naturalizationprocessofteninvolvesremovingcommonlyusedcolloquialismsand

clichésfromtheirnormal,everydayapplicationsandelevatingthemsothatthey

serveamorepoeticandextraordinaryfunction.Thisargumentfurtherimpliesthat

allpoetrycouldbeinterpretedashyperrealistic.Foxalsotouchesontheideathat

thecommodificationofalifestyleorcultureis,initself,aformofhyperreality,

sayingthat“the‘authentic’languageofemotioniscontrastedwiththe‘false’

languageofthemarket,transformingeachinthedirectionoftheother.”15

WhileFoxfocusesonthehyperrealityofmusictexts,VytisPuronasfocuses

ontheactualsounditself,usingtheterm“sonichyperrealism.”Puronasinfact

arguesthatallrecordedsoundishyperreal,because“arecordedsoundcanbe

separatedfromreality,archivedandreanimatedlongafteritsrealcounterparthas

13AaronA.Fox,“TheJukeboxofHistory:NarrativesofLossandDesireintheDiscourseofCountryMusic,”PopularMusic11no.1(Jan,1992),53.14Ibid,53.15Ibid,58.

7

disappeared.”16Puronasalsodiscussessonichyperrealismspecificallyinthecontext

offilm,saying:

Avarietyofrecorded(collected)realsoundsources…arecombinedtogetherinordertosimulateacertainsituation.Thisissoundmontage.…Thesesoniccreaturesarereshaped,repaired,andrelocatedintounnaturalcontexts,whetherinsynchronicitywithamovingimage,whichgivescluestotheirmeaning,orincompleteisolation.Thepartsthatarefoundunsuitablearereplacedorenhancedinordertomakethemappearmorepleasing.17

Here,PuronasusesanotherargumentthatissimilartoBaudrillardandEco’sclaims

aboutDisneyland:reality,asitactuallyis(orinthiscase,asitactuallysounds),is

notenough.Theoriginalsounds⎯andtheactualreality⎯aremanipulateduntil

theyresemblewhataudiencesexpectrealitytosoundlike.Becausethesoundshave

becomemoreidealthanisrealisticallypossible,however,theyhavecrossedintothe

realmofhyperreality.

VeitErlmannarguesthatthelabel“worldmusic”representsasimilarkindof

realwithoutoriginorreality⎯a“proliferationofvalueswithoutanyreferencepoint

atall.”18InMusicalExoticism:ImagesandReflections,RalphLocketracesWestern

fascinationwiththemusicalexoticbackforcenturies;intheBaroqueera,prominent

composerslikeHandelwroteoperasandoratoriosthatfeaturedexoticsettingsand

characters,thoughthemusiccomposedforthese“Easterndramas”wasofa

16VytisPuronas,“SonicHyperrealism:IllusionsofaNon-ExistentAuralReality,”TheNewSoundtrack4no.2(2014),183.17Ibid,183.18VeitErlmann,“TheAestheticsofGlobalImagination:ReflectionsonWorldMusicinthe1990s,”PublicCulture8(1996),475.

8

decidedlyEuropeancharacter.19After1750,composersbegantoincorporateexotic

elementsintotheirmusic.Mozart,forexample,usedaTurkishstyleinseveralofhis

works,includinghisoperaTheAbductionoftheSeraglioandinthe“Rondoalla

turca”attheendofhisPianoSonatainAMajor,K.331.20Simpleforms,harmonies,

andkeys(i.e.keyswhichfeaturedveryfewsharpsandflats),andemphasison

percussiveinstruments,likethebassdrum,cymbal,andtriangle,often

characterizedthisTurkishstyle.21WhilecomposerslikeMozartusedtheseexotic

musicalelementsasawaytoadddistinctivecharactertotheirmusic,worldmusic

alsofunctionedasmethodofcreatingpublicspectacle.The1889World’sFairin

Paris,forexample,fedoffofthisfascinationwiththeexotic,andcontributedtoitas

well;musicfromregionsasfar-rangingasChina,Java,andtheMiddleEastbecame

partofanall-encompassing“exoticspectacle,”whichtransformedandclashedwith

“horizonsofexpectationformedthroughdecadesofmusicalexoticism.”22

ComposerslikeDebussywereinspiredbytheexoticpresentations,andbeganto

incorporatenon-WesternelementsintootherwiseEuropean-influenced

compositions.23

AlthoughAmericanandEuropeanlistenershavebeeninterestedinmusic

fromexoticlocalesforcenturies,“worldmusic,”ascontemporaryaudiencesknowit,

19RalphLocke,MusicalExoticism:ImagesandReflections(NewYork:CambridgeUniversityPress,2009),88–89.20Ibid,113.21Ibid,120–121.22AnnegretFauser,MusicalEncountersatthe1889ParisWorld’sFair(Rochester:UniversityofRochesterPress,2005),163.23Ibid,205.

9

didnotexistuntilthelate1980sandearly1990s.24Thiscategoryineffect

originatedwithPaulSimon’shugelysuccessfulalbumGraceland(1986),which

featuredSouthAfricanensemblesLadysmithBlackMambazo,TheBoyoyoBoys,and

GeneralM.D.ShirindaandtheGazaSisters.25TheAfricanstylesusedinseveralof

Graceland’ssongs,suchas“IKnowWhatIKnow,”“Gumboots,”and“Homeless,”as

wellasotherworldmusicelementsfeaturedinsongsbyothersongwriters,suchas

PeterGabrielandRyCooder,sparkedanewfoundinterestininternationalmusics,

evenwithinmainstreamAmericanpopculture.

Withinayear,twenty-fiverepresentativesfromdifferentsectorsofthemusic

industryhadconvenedonseveraloccasionstodiscusswhattocallthisnewmusical

category,bouncingbetweenlabelslike“ethnic,”“folk,and“international”before

finallysettlingon“worldmusic.”26ByMayof1990,thestylehadsecureditsown

spotintheBillboardmagazineandcharts,andeventhoughitwaslumpedunderthe

broaderheadingof“TopAdultAlternativeAlbums”withseveralothermusical

styles,therecognitionamongtheBillboardchartsremainsasymbolofworld

music’sburgeoningpopularity.27Throughouttheearly1990s,thetermwasmainly

associatedwithmusicfromsub-SaharanAfricaandtheCaribbean,andevenwhen

24DavidBrackett,Introductionto“‘WeAretheWorld’?”inThePop,Rock,andSoulReader:HistoriesandDebates,ThirdEdition,ed.DavidBrackett(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,2014),479.25Ibid,480.26TimTaylor,GlobalPop:WorldMusic,WorldMarkets(London:Routledge,1997),2.27Ibid,5–6.

10

thetermbecamemoreinclusiveofothermusics,AfricanandCaribbeanmusics

remainedthemostpopular.28

Thephrase“worldmusic”isofcourseambiguoustothepointof

meaninglessness,andcanindicatemanydifferentthings.JanFairleypointsoutthat

“worldmusic”couldincludemusiciansoutsideofthecircleofAnglo-American

influencewhoincorporateWesternstylesintotheirwork,orWesternmusicians

whoappropriateoradoptaspectsofglobalmusic.29Manypeopleinthemusic

industryfindthetermproblematictothepointofoffensiveness;DavidByrne,

formersingerforTalkingHeads,assertsthatthelabel“ghettoizesmostofthe

world’smusic”andactsas“adistancingmechanismthatoftenallowsfor

exploitationandracism.”30HerbertMattelart,oftheonlinemagazineTheBaffler,

complainssimilarly,claimingthattheterm“worldmusic”is“markedlyinsensitive”

and“createsseparatespheresofAnglicandnon-Anglicexistence.”31Forthe

purposesofmywork,IhavechosentoadoptJocelyneGuilbault’sbroaddefinition:

worldmusicis“theblendingofmodernandtraditionalmusics...usuallyassociated

28Brackett,Introductionto“‘WeAretheWorld’?,”481.FormoreinformationontherepresentationofdifferentregionsintheWorldMusicBillboardchart,seeAppendix1ofTaylor’sGlobalPop.29JanFairley,“The‘Local’and‘Global’inPopularMusic,”inTheCambridgeCompaniontoPopandRock,ed.SimonFrith,WillStrawandJohnStreet(CambridgeandNewYork:CambridgeUniversityPress,2001),273.30DavidByrne,“CrossingMusic’sBorders:‘IHateWorldMusic,’”NewYorkTimes(October3,1999).31HerbertMattelart,“LifeasStyle:Puttingthe‘World’intheMusic,”Baffler5(1993),accessedJune20,2015,http://thebaffler.com/salvos/life-as-style

11

with,respectively,themusicsofthefirstandthethirdworlds.”32Guilbaultgoeson,

however,tocriticizetheterm“worldmusic”aswell,sayingthat

Thelabel“worldmusic”inandbyitselfisareminderofthehierarchythedominantmusicindustriesimposeonthemusicmarketstheycontrol:byusingtheindescribableappellation“worldmusic,”theykeepatbayanymusic⎯andbyextensionitsartistsandfans⎯whichfallsoutsidetheso-calledmainstream.33

LikeByrneandMattelart,Guilbaultarguesthattheclassification“worldmusic”

distancesandseparatesanymusic,culture,orpeoplethatdonotfittheconventions

oftheAnglo-Americanmainstream.

TheLionKingappearedatatimewhenAfricancultureandsocialissueswere

prominentinbothAmericanentertainmentandnewsmedia.ThoughJeffrey

Katzenberg,RoyE.Disney,andPeterSchneider,theoriginalwritersofTheLion

King’splot,claimthattheideaforanAfricanstoryjust“cameup”oneday,the

concurrentriseininterestinAfricaatthetimemusthavehadsomeinfluenceon

theircreativedecisions,whethertheywereconsciousofitornot.34Foronething,

theworldwatchedaspoliticalunrestthathadbeenbuildingfordecadesinSouth

AfricacametoaheadwhenNelsonMandelawaselectedpresidentonApril27,

1994—ameremonthandahalfbeforeTheLionKing’sJune15premiere.

Perhapsbecauseofthecontinent’sprominenceinthenews,andthe

increasingglobalizationthataroseconcomitantlywiththeinternet,interestin32JocelyneGuilbault,“WorldMusic,”inTheCambridgeCompaniontoPopandRock,ed.SimonFrith,WillStrawandJohnStreet(CambridgeandNewYork:CambridgeUniversityPress,2001),177.33Ibid,191.34“BonusFeatures,”TheLionKing:DiamondEdition,directedbyRogerAllersandRobMinkoff(1994;Burbank,CA:DisneyDVD,2011),DVD.

12

Africanmusicwasatanall-timehighintheearly1990s.Worldmusicwasatits

mostpopularduringthistime,whichencouragedWesternmusicianstocollaborate

withinternationalmusiciansandexperimentwithglobalstyles.Acursoryglanceat

theearliestBillboardWorldMusicChartsshowsthat“thelargestpercentageof

recordsarecertainly,inmusicologicalterms,African.”35

ThenumberofAfricanmusiciansrecognizedbytheBillboardChartsisfar

higherthanthenumberofmusiciansfromanyothernon-Westernregion.Themost

popularandsuccessfuloftheseAfricanmusicians,suchasLadysmithBlack

MambazoandJohnnyClegg&Savuka,tendedtocomefromsouthernAfrica,as

showninTable1.BasedonasceneduringtheTheLionKing’sopeningsequencein

whichMountKilimanjaroisfeaturedinthebackground,seeninFigure2,thefilmis

ostensiblysetinTanzania,acountryonAfrica’seastcoast,justsouthoftheHornof

Africa.MusicalelementsfoundinsouthernAfricanculture,however,arewhat

characterizeTheLionKing’ssoundtrack,andWesternsociety’sideaof“African

music”asawhole.Thesestylisticelementsprovidethemuch-neededexoticismtoa

scoreprimarilycomposedbytwomenwhosemusicwasnormallysteepedin

Westernmusicaltradition—HansZimmerandSirEltonJohn.

35JanFairley,“The‘Local’and‘Global’inPopularMusic,”inTheCambridgeCompaniontoPopandRock,ed.SimonFrith,WillStrawandJohnStreet(CambridgeandNewYork:CambridgeUniversityPress,2001),281.

13

Table1:SevenofthefirstgroupstodebutontheBillboardWorldMusicCharts

Figure2:ThesunrisesoverMt.Kilimanjaro.

AlthougheachAfricanmusicalcultureisuniqueanddistinctfromothers

throughoutthecontinent,therearemusicelementscommontomultipleAfrican

culturesandregions.ScholarsofAfricanmusicalculturescallsuchsharedelements

Artist AlbumTitle DebutDate WeeksonChart

Region

MiriamMakeba

Welela 5/19/1990 3 SouthernAfrica

JohnnyClegg&Savuka

Cruel,Crazy,BeautifulWorld

5/19/1990 43 SouthernAfrica

HughMasekela Uptownship 5/19/1990 9 SouthernAfricaThomasMapfumo

Corruption 5/19/1990 3 SouthernAfrica

various Passion-Sources 5/19/1990 7 NorthAfrica/MiddleEast

FusionLadysmithBlack

Mambazo

TwoWorldsOneHeart

6/16/1990 35 SouthernAfrica

TheBhunduBoys

Pamberi! 6/16/1990 1 SouthernAfrica

14

“musicalAfricanisms.”PortiaMaultsbymaintainsthatmusicalAfricanismsarepart

ofa“conceptualframework[that]links[African]musictraditionstoeachother,”as

wellastoAfrican-Americanmusictraditions.36Thesemusicalelementsincludea

widearrayofcomplextimbres,call-and-responsestyles,andpolyrhythmic

structures.37Theterm“Africanmusic,”however,mayitselfbeindicativeofa

stereotypedviewofthecontinent.38Africaissolarge,andishometosomany

diversecultures(andthus,musicaltraditions),thattogroupallofthesemusics

underneathonevaguedescriptionisatbestignorantofthediverseintricaciesofthe

richlyvariedAfricancultures,andatworstintentionallymisleadingorexclusionary

towardsanyAfricanculturethatfallsoutsideofthemainstreamideaofwhatthe

culture“should”be.

Oneofthemostwidelyheld—andinaccurate—stereotypesaboutAfrican

musicisthattheonlyimportantelementofthemusicisrhythm.Thegeneralpublic

oftenconsiders“theconstructionofAfricanrhythm[tobe]complex,superior,yet

ultimatelyincomprehensible”toanyonewhodoesnotbelongtothisculture.39This

beliefisoftenechoedinliteratureonAfricanmusic.InKwabenaNketia’sinfluential

1974bookTheMusicofAfrica,forexample,theauthorclaimsthatbecause“African

musicispredisposedtowardspercussionandpercussivetextures,thereisan

36PortiaK.Maultsby,“AfricanismsinAfrican-AmericanMusic”inAfricanismsinAmericanCulture(Bloomington:IndianaUniversityPress,1990),185–6.37Ibid,191–3.38Ofcourse,“Africanmusic”canalsobeusedinawaythatislessimplicitlystereotypical⎯forexample,inreferencetoallofthemusicaltraditionsthatmakeupthecontinent.39KofiAgawu,RepresentingAfricanMusic(NewYork:Routledge,2003),55.

15

understandableemphasisonrhythm.”40Thesameideaisequallyapparentinless

scholarlyworks,aswell;inajudges’guideforanAfricanmusicfestival,citedinKofi

Agawu’sbookRepresentingAfricanMusic,judgeswereinformedthat“complexityof

rhythmisoftenafairguidetotheauthenticityofanAfricansong.”41Unfortunately,

alltoooften,suchasweepinggeneralizationaboutAfricanmusicgiveswayto

racializedstereotypesoftheAfricanpeoplethemselves.Asearlyastheeleventh

century,scholarsfrombothWesternandnon-Westerncultureshaveclaimedthat

Africansmusthaveaninnatesenseofrhythmtobeabletocreatesuchrhythmically

complexmusic.Eleventh-centuryArabscholarIbnButlan,forexample,wrote,“Ifa

blackweretofallfromtheskytotheearth,hewouldfallinrhythm.”42

AnotherstereotypeaboutAfricanmusiccomesfromanequallyracialized

belief:thatAfricans,andpeopleofAfricandescent,havedeeperandwarmervoices

thanthoseofpeopleofEuropeandescent.Suchtimbralstereotypestracebackat

leastasfarasthelatenineteenthcentury,whenwhiteteachersanddirectorsoften

chastisedblacksingersforsinginginthechestregister,whichproduceda“thick”

and“throaty”sound.43Thebeliefthattheblackvoiceisinherentlydifferentfrom

thewhitevoicepervadesWesternthought;notableproductsofthisbeliefinclude

VirgilThompson’sinsistenceoncastingAfricanAmericansinhisoperaFourSaints

40KwabenaNketia,TheMusicofAfrica(NewYork:W.W.Norton,1974),125.41Agawu,RepresentingAfricanMusic,57.42Ibid,55.43GrantOlwage,“TheClassandColourofTone:AnEssayontheSocialHistoryofVocalTimbre,”EthnomusicologyForum13no.2(November2004),215.

16

inThreeActs(1934)andtheentirelyAfricanAmericancastofGeorgeGershwin’s

PorgyandBess(1935).44

Assoonasanimatedfilmsandshortsbegantofeaturesound,thesecartoons

oftenusedmusicthatwasassociatedwithblackcommunitiesandculture.Ofthe

severalcartoonproducersintheindustryatthetime,includingWarnerBrothers

PicturesandMetro-Goldwyn-Mayer(MGM),WaltDisneywasoneofthefirsttorely

“ontheminstrelsytraditionfor[cartoon]music.”45Otherproducers,likeAmadee

VanBeuren,soonfollowedsuit,“usingbothminstrelsongsandjazztoaccompany

depictionsofAfricanAmericancharacters.”46Thispracticebecamesowidespread

that,insomecartoons,theonlyattributethatdistinguishedcharacters“fromone

anotherethnically”were“thesongsaccompanyingeachcharacter’sscenes.”47Black

stylesofmusicwerealsousedincartoonstoimplylowmoralstandardsorsocial

class;forexample,intheBettyBoopcartoons,“AfricanAmericanmusicand

suggestivecontentbecameinextricablylinked.”48Jazzspecificallycametorepresent

“sleaziness”and“subjectssuchasdrugaddiction.”49

44Formoreinformationaboutracialissuesintheseworks,seeLisaBarg’s“BlackVoices/WhiteSounds:RaceandRepresentationinVirgilThomson’sFourSaintsinThreeActs,”inAmericanMusic18no.2(Summer,2000):121–161;andRayAllen’s“AnAmericanFolkOpera?TriangulatingFolkness,Blackness,andAmericanessinGershwinandHeyward’sPorgyandBess,”inJournalofAmericanFolklore117no.465(Summer,2004):243–61.45ChristopherP.Lehman,TheColoredCartoon:BlackRepresentationinAmericanAnimatedShortFilms,1907–1954(Amherst:UniversityofMassachusettsPress,2007),16.46Ibid,19.47Ibid,20.48Ibid,33.49BarryKeithGrant,“‘JungleNightsinHarlem’:Jazz,Ideology,andtheAnimatedCartoon”PopularMusicandSociety13no.4(1989),49.

17

TheLionKingwasthefirstDisneymovietoincorporatesignificantamounts

ofmusicwritteninanon-Westernstyle.Africanmusicalelementspermeatethe

film’ssoundtrackwithaprominencethathasyettobereplicatedinDisney’sprolific

output.50Thisconspicuousglobalizationcreatedanewanddifferentmusicalstyle

foranimatedmovie-musicals.AlthoughTheLionKingincorporatesstylisticaspects,

ofAfricanmusicsthroughoutthefilminaseeminglypositivelight⎯forexample,

throughtheuseoftraditionalinstrumentalandvocalensembles⎯theseelements

alsoreinforce(andcreate)problematicallyhyperrealaudienceexpectationsof

“African”musicinanefforttobuildaconnectionbetweenthelistenersandthe

film’ssetting.

TheLionKing’sdirectors,RogerAllersandRobMinkoff,citeShakespeare’s

HamletandtheBiblicalstoriesofMosesandJosephassourcesofinfluenceforthe

movie’splot.51Thefilm’sbeginningfocusesonthedeeplyrootedrivalryand

jealousybetweenMufasa,thekingofthePrideLands(thefictionalAfricansavanna

inwhichthefilmisset),andhisyoungerbrother,Scar.Bitterthattherecentbirthof

Mufasa’ssonSimbameansheisnolongerheirtothethrone,Scarandhishyena

cohortslureSimbaintoapotentiallyfataltrap.Mufasarescueshisson,butis

betrayedandkilledbyScar.ScarthenmanipulatestheyoungSimbaintobelieving

50OtherDisneymoviemusicalsreleasedaroundthesametimeasTheLionKing,suchasAladdin(1992),Pocahontas(1995),Mulan(1998)andTarzan(1999),featuredworldmusicelementsaswell,buttheseelementsarenotincorporatedintothefilmasthoroughlyasinTheLionKing;thesoundtrackstothesefilmsaremoreoftenstylisticallyWestern.Disney/Pixar’sBrave(2012)featuresCelticmusicthroughout,butasthefilmisnotamusical,theworldmusicelementsarenotasprominentastheyareinTheLionKing.51“BonusFeatures,”TheLionKing:PlatinumEdition,directedbyRogerAllersandRobMinkoff(1994;Burbank,CA:DisneyDVD,2003),DVD.

18

himselfresponsibleforhisfather’sdeath;ingriefandshame(andatScar’surging),

SimbafleesthePrideLands.

Withallobstacleseliminated,ScardeclareshimselfkingofthePrideLands,

whichunderhisruletransformsintoabarrenwasteland.Later,asafull-grownlion

livingfarfromthePrideLands,Simbaencountersahungrylioness,whohe

discoversishischildhoodfriend,Nala.ShetriestoconvinceSimbatoreturntothe

PrideLands,butheremainsunconvinceduntilvisitedbythecrypticmandrill,Rafiki,

wholeadshimtoMufasa’sspirit.Suitablymotivated,Simbareturnstothenow

desolatePrideLandstoconfrontandultimatelydefeathistraitorousuncle.Atthe

film’striumphantconclusion,SimbaclaimshisrightfulplaceaskingofthePride

Landsandhasacubofhisown,continuingthecircleoflife.

TheLionKingisausefulcasestudyofaudiovisualhyperrealityforseveral

reasons.Fromanentertainmentperspective,asaDisneyproduct,TheLionKing

createsclearconnectionsbetweenthefilmandtheDisneylandthemepark,often

citedasaprimeexampleofhyperrealityasdiscussedearlierinthechapter.Inmy

thesis,IexplorenewwaysinwhichthishyperrealityextendstootherDisney

products,aswell.Moreover,fromananthropologicalstandpoint,thefilm’s

significationofAfricanlandscapes,music,andcultureprovidesaperfectbackdrop

forhyperreality.ByusingTheLionKingasacasestudy,Icananalyzespecificallythe

waysmusicandsoundbothaffectandreflectsociety’sviews,andexaminethe

myriadwaysinwhichTheLionKing’screatorsconstructahyperrealisticversionof

Africathroughthefilm’smusic.AfterprovidingabriefsummaryofTheLionKing’s

plot,Iwillanalyzeboththeauralandvisualaspectsofmultiplemusicalnumbers

19

andsectionsofthesoundtrackindetail.Indoingso,Iwilldeterminehowthemusic

createsandcontributestothefilm’shyperrealityandexaminewhataffectsthismay

haveonaudiences.

20

ChapterTwo:

AfricanMusicalElementsinMusicalNumbers

Asamoviemusical,TheLionKingfeaturesmultiplemusicalnumbersthroughout

thefilm.Forthepurposesofthiswork,Idefineamusicalnumberasascenein

whichcharactersbreakintosonganddance,brieflykeepingtheplotfrom

advancing.TherearefivemusicalnumbersinTheLionKing:“CircleofLife,”“IJust

Can’tWaitToBeKing,”“BePrepared,”“HakunaMatata,”and“CanYouFeeltheLove

Tonight.”1WhilethestyleofeachofthesesongsischaracterizedbyAfrican

influences,hereIwillfocusmainlyon“CircleofLife”and“BePrepared,”whichoffer

themostprominentexamplesoftherhythmic,textural,andinstrumentalelements

thatAmericansoftenassociatewithAfricanmusicalcultures.Furthermore,these

songs,morethantheothers,emphasizeTheLionKing’sAfricansettingduring

severalofthefilm’smostintegralscenes,eitherthroughenhancingtheAfrican

elementsalreadyvisibleonscreen(asin“CircleofLife”),orbycompensating

musicallyforalackofvisibleAfricanelements(asin“BePrepared”).

“CircleofLife”

The“CircleofLife”scene,whichisdescribedinTable2,isintegralinestablishing

thesettingofTheLionKing.Whileobviouslycontainingelementsoffantasy,itisby

farthemostrealistically“African”sceneinthefilm;nosongcomesclosertoan

“authentic”Africanensemble,noscenefeaturesanimalsthatappearless

1Mycountdoesnotinclude“TheMorningReport,”whichwasonlyaddedtotheSpecialEditionreleasein2003afterthesong’ssuccessintheBroadwaymusical.

21

anthropomorphized.Inadditiontointroducingseveralplotthemes,theopening

sceneunmistakablyestablishestheAfricansavannaasthefilm’ssetting.Because

thisfirstscenesoeffectivelysolidifiesthefilm’slocation,viewersaremoreeasily

abletosuspendtheirdisbeliefinregardtotheintroductionofWesterninstruments

suchasguitarandpiano,Englishdialogue,andadistinctlackofanyAfricanaccent

amongmostofthecharacters(nottomentionthattheanimalsaretalkingatall).

Table2:Analysisofvisualandauraleventsduring“CircleofLife”

“Nantsingonyamabigithibaba”—Zulufor“herecomesalion,father”⎯isthe

firstthingaudienceshearatthebeginningofTheLionKing,andhasbecomethe

film’smosticonicmusicalmoment.2SungbySouthAfricancomposerandchoral

directorLeboM,thisphraseaccompaniesthesun’sappearanceoverthehorizonof

thePrideLands.Thisbriefopeningsceneintroducesthemostimportantthemesof

thefilm:thebondbetweenfatherandchild,thesignificanceofnature,andthe

delicatebalanceoftheAfricanecosystem.Thesceneimmediatelyfeaturesseveral

2“‘CircleofLife’Lyrics,”TheLionKingUnofficialWWWArchive,accessedDecember12,2015,http://lionking.org/lyrics/OMPS/CircleOfLife.html.

Time Plot Music0:00 Thesunappearsonthe

horizonLeboMsingstheopeningphrase;callandresponse

0:27 Variousanimalsbegintheirmornings

ChoirbeginschantinginZulu

0:51 Animalscontinuetobegintheirmornings

Mainmelodyenters,sungbyCarmenTwillie

1:35 AudiencefirstseesPrideRock

Firstchorus

2:23 AudiencefirstseesSimba Instrumentalinterludewithflutesolo

3:08 RafikiliftsSimbainfrontoftheotheranimals

Secondchorus

22

elementsthatWesternaudiencesoftenconsidertypicalofAfricanmusic.AfterLebo

Mintroducesthefirstphrase,achoirrespondstohim,singing“sithiumingonyama,”

or“yes,alion.”3Thistypeofcall-and-response,whichcontinuesthroughoutthe

introductionto“CircleofLife,”isatechniqueoftenfoundinmusicfromvarious

Africancultures,asseeninthepreviouschapter.Thesong’sintroductionalso

includesadistinctlyhomophonictextureinthechoir’sresponses,astylisticelement

commonlyheardinSouthAfricanmusic.Thishomophonic,acappellamusicalstyle

hasrootsinisicathamiya,a“bodyofdancedsongandsungdance”indigenoustothe

Zulu,Xhosa,andSwazipeoplesofSouthAfrica.4Isicathamiyabecamepopularwith

WesternlistenersthroughgroupssuchasLadysmithBlackMambazo,whofocused

mainlyonacappellasettingsofbothWesternandAfricanmelodies.

OnlymomentsintoTheLionKing,viewersarealreadyimmersedinDisney’s

hyperrealisticversionofAfrica.Thismostobviousexampleofhyperrealityemerges

fromtheassumptionofculturalhomogeneity⎯thecommonmisconceptionthatthe

peoples,cultures,andmusicsfoundthroughoutAfricaareidenticalor

interchangeable.Ratherthanasonicreflectionofthewidevarietyanddiversityof

musicthatonewouldactuallyexperienceinAfrica,audiencesexperiencean

amalgamationofseveralAfricanandWesternmusicalstylessimultaneously.5This

stylistichodgepodgemayseemauthentictomanyAmericans,however⎯its

3“‘CircleofLife,’”TheLionKingUnofficial,accessedDecember12,2015,http://lionking.org/lyrics/OMPS/CircleOfLife.html.4VeitErlmann,“HowBeautifulisSmall?Music,GlobalizationandtheAestheticsoftheLocalAuthor(s),”YearbookforTraditionalMusic30(1998),14. 5Africanmusicalstyles,suchasisicathamiya,arethemselvesofteninfluencedbyWesternmusicalstyles,suchasvaudevilletheatreandblackgospel,tobeginwith,resultinginmultiplelevelsofstylisticmixtureinmanyexamplesofworldmusic.

23

hyperrealsoundtetheredtotheirownreferencepointsandexperienceswith

Africanperformers,whowereconnectedtoWesternmusicthemselves.6Because

manyWesternlistenersfindDisney’sversionofAfricanmusiceasilyaccessible,it

notonlybecomesanacceptableversion,butthepreferredversion.7Thispreference

towardsafalsifiedversionofrealityisreminiscentofUmbertoEco’sclaimthat

Disney“notonlyproducesillusion,but...stimulatesthedesireforit.”Daniel

Boorstinexplainsthisphenomenonthroughaconcepthecalls“extravagant

expectations”⎯usingtheword“extravagant”toimplythattheseexpectationsare

“largerthanlife,”andnotactuallyattainable.8Heclaimsthatbyholdingontothese

extravagantexpectations,Americans“createthedemandfortheillusionswith

which[they]deceive”themselves.9Becausetheseexpectationsgrowincreasingly

moreextravagant,Americanseventuallyreachapointatwhichrealitysimplyisnot

goodenough.Theonlywaytofulfilltheirexpectationsisthroughaversionofevents

thatisbetterandmorerealthanreality⎯ahyperrealisticillusion.

Duringtheintroductionto“CircleofLife,”theonlyinstrumentaccompanying

LeboMandhischoirisasoft,low-pitcheddrumduringthesecondsungphrase.

Thisinstrumentationcontributestothe“African”styleduetotheperceptionthat

Africanmusicmainly(orexclusively)consistsofdrumsandotherrhythmic

6LadysmithBlackMambazo,forexample,originallygainedcelebrityintheWestthroughtheircollaborationwithPaulSimon.7Formoreinformationaboutaudiencesandculturaltouristsseekingoutinauthenticversionsofreality,seeNicolaMacLeod’s“CulturalTourism:AspectsofAuthenticityandCommodification”inCulturalTourisminaChangingWorld:Politics,Participationand(Re)presentation(Bristol:ChannelViewPublications,2006).8DanielBoorstin,TheImage:AGuidetoPseudo-EventsinAmerica(NewYork:VintageBooks,1992),3.9Ibid,5.

24

instruments,asdiscussedinthepreviouschapter.Thelanguagechoiceforthese

firstfewphrasesalsocontributestotheoverall“African-ness”—mostobviously

becausethetextisinZulu,oneofthemanylanguagesspokeninsouthernAfrica.

Especiallynotable,however,isthephrase“siyonqoba,”“weshallconquer.”Inthe

EnglishtransliterationoftheZululanguage,theletter“q”(aswellas“c”and“x”)

representsaclick⎯aphonemeliterallyforeigntoWesternearsandthereforeeasily

recognizableas“African.”Westernearsoftenperceivetheseclicksasprimitive;

sociolinguistRobertK.Herbert,forexample,offersseveralaccountsofearly

explorersandmissionariestoSouthAfricawhodescribedlanguageswithclick

consonantsas“rough,”“wild,”“primitive,”and“wanting.”10SuchWestern

perspectivesparallelRandolphandDeMulder’sfindingsintheirresearchon

inaccurateinformationaboutAfricainschools,asexaminedinthepreviouschapter.

Astheopeningscenedevelops,themusicof“CircleofLife”mirrorstheaction

portrayedonscreen:antelope,cheetahs,elephants,andothervariousanimalsofthe

Africanplainsslowlyrisingtogreetthenewday.Thedrumming,previouslyalmost

inaudible,becomesincreasinglyforegrounded.Atthispoint,althoughthechoirisno

longerthemainfocus,itremainsanimportantelement,thecontinuingZulu

chantingprovidingaconstantbutsubtlereminderofthe“African-ness”ofthe

music.Nearlyaminuteinto“CircleofLife”themainmelodyenters,sungbyAfrican-

AmericanstudiosingerCarmenTwillie.Hervoiceisadeepalto,witharich,warm

timbre,correspondingtoracialstereotypesaboutblackvoices.WhetherTwilliewas

10RobertK.Herbert,“TheSociohistoryofClicksinSouthernBantu,”AnthropologicalLinguistics,32no.3/4(Fall–Winter,1990),295.

25

chosenbecauseofhervocaltimbreisunclear,butregardless,hervoiceimpartsan

addedsenseofAfrican“Otherness”tothesong.

AccordingtoseveralstudiescollectedandanalyzedbysociolinguistsErikR.

ThomasandJeffreyReaser,AmericanscaneasilydistinguishbetweenEuropean-

AmericanandAfrican-Americanspeakingvoices,“evenintheabsenceofdiagnostic

morphosyntacticandlexicalvariables”⎯thatis,withoutthestereotypicalslangand

pronunciationdifferencesthatlistenersexpecttohearfromcertainethnicities.11

Thoughthisstudydidnotspecificallyaddresssingingvoices,thisresearchsuggests

thatlistenersareabletodetermineTwillie’sethnicity,eventhoughshedeliversthe

textinastandardmusicaltheaterstyleandinflection.MendiObadikecoinedthe

term“acousmaticblackness”tolabelthisphenomenonofascribedethnicitydespite

novisualevidencethereof.12Expandingonthisidea,NinaSunEidsheimarguesthat

acousmaticblacknessisnotamatterofwhattimbreisproduced,butratherwhat

timbreisheard,emerging“whenagiventimbrefulfillsexpectationsorideasabout

blackness.”13Theaudience’srecognitionofTwillie’sethnicityplaysanimportant

roleinestablishingtheculturalsettingofthisscene.AperceivedEuropeanor

European-Americanvoicemightriplistenersoutofthehyperrealistic,ethnically

11ErikR.ThomasandJeffreyReaser,“DelimitingPerceptualCuesUsedfortheEthnicLabelingofAfricanAmericanandEuropeanAmericanVoices,”JournalofSociolinguistics8no.1(2004),54.12MendiObadike,“LowFidelity:StereotypedBlacknessintheFieldofSound”(PhDdiss.,DukeUniversity,2005),135–177.13NinaSunEidsheim,“MarianAndersonand‘SonicBlackness’inAmericanOpera,”AmericanQuarterly63no.3(September,2011),664.

26

homogenousAfricaofAmericans’imaginations.14Theimplicationsofthis

completelyhomogenousAfricaareasproblematicastheassumptionbehindthe

term“Africanmusic,”inthatitcompletelyskimsoverthevastdiversityfound

throughoutthecontinent.“CircleofLife”is,interestingly,theonlymusicalnumber

thatmakesanattemptatanaurallyhomogenous“African”sound;theothermusical

numbersincludeonlywhitesingers.Theauralhomogeneityfoundheremaybedue

toanattempttoimmerselistenersinTheLionKing’shyperrealisticAfricansetting

asquicklyaspossible.

Approximatelyhalfwaythrough“CircleofLife,”thereisashortinterlude

whichfeaturesasynthesizedfluteandthechoir’saccompanimentalchanting.The

synthesizedflutehereservesasanexampleofhyperrealityitself,sinceits

distinctivetoneoweslesstoanattempttousealegitimateAfricaninstrumentthan

toadesiretomerelysound“African.”Thisinterludeaccompaniesasceneinwhich

the“wiseman”character,Rafiki,performsamysteriousritualwithSimba.Theflute

usedinthissectionofthesonghasanearthyand“natural”(e.g.comingfromnature,

ratherthanmanmade)tone.DuringtheirstudiesofstudentperceptionsofAfrica,

RandolphandDeMulderfoundsimilarmisconceptionsaboutAfrica’ssupposed

“primitivism.”15Mostcommonly,studentsbelievethattherearenourbancentersor

actualbuildingsanywhereinthecontinent⎯inessence,Americanstudentsenvision

Africaasacontinentoftinyvillages,dirtroads,andmakeshifthuts.Theflute’s

14Thisimaginedethnichomogeneityisdisplayedinotherfilmsaswell,suchasMeanGirls(2004),inwhichonecharacterasksanewstudent,“Ifyou’refromAfrica,whyareyouwhite?”15BrendaRandolphandElizabethDeMulder,“IDidn’tKnowThereWereCitiesinAfrica!”TeachingToleranceno.34(Fall2008),36-38.

27

“natural”timbremayreinforceAmericans’ideaofAfricaasprimitiveand

uncivilized;theonlyinstruments,weimagine,arethosethatcanbehastily

assembledfromwhatevermaterialsareavailable.Thefluteinconnectionwiththe

primitiveandmysteriousritualstrengthensthesebeliefs,allowingAmericans’

hyperrealisticconceptsofprimitivismtoremainunchecked.Hadadifferent

instrument,withamore“modern”timbresuchasasynth-orelectronic-based

sound,beenused,listenersmighthearitasoutofplaceforsucha“rugged”and

“primitive”setting.

Aftertheflutesolo,Twillie,thechorus,anddrumsrepeatthe“CircleofLife”

refrain.Thistime,theinstrumentsandvoicesarelouderandmoreenergetic,

signalingthegrowingexcitementamongtheanimalsasRafikihoistsSimbaaloftto

presentthenewprincetohisfuturesubjects,asshowninFigure3.

Figure3:RafikipresentsSimbaonthetopofPrideRock.

28

EventhoughthereareafewWesterninstrumentsin“CircleofLife,”their

presenceishardlynoticeable.Therearepianoandsynthesizedstringsthroughout

thesong,buttheyoftenmerelydoublethemoreprominentvocalparts.Asaresult,

itseems(atleastinitially)asiftheonlyinstrumentsinthesongare“African.”Onits

own(thatis,withoutthedoublingWesterninstruments)the“African”ensemble

wouldsoundsoft,yetbecausetheseinstrumentsaredoubled,audiencesaretricked

intothinkingtheensemblesoundslouderandfullerthanitnormallywould.16Here,

theinstrumentationin“CircleofLife”createsahyperrealisticversionofAfrican

music,onethatseemsmoreexcitingandimpressivethanitsreal-world

counterpart⎯preciselythekindofembellishmentVytisPuronasreferstowhenhe

claimssoundsandmusic“thatarefoundunsuitablearereplacedorenhancedin

ordertomakethemappearmorepleasing.”17

“BePrepared”

WhiletherestofTheLionKingdoesnotpaintquiteasrealisticapicture(relatively

speaking)astheopeningscene,themajorityofthefilmisatleastvisually

reminiscentoftheeastAfricanlandscape.Onemajorexceptionisthescene

accompanyingthevillainousScar’ssong“BePrepared,”setinanimmensecavern—

notthemoststereotypically“African”locale.Dark,uninviting,andalmosttotally

emptysaveforthepilesofskeletalremainsofthehyenas’pastmeals,thisscene,

16Enhancedsoundandmusicarenotuncommoninmostsoundproduction,asshowninVytisPuronas’“SonicHyperrealism:IllusionsofaNon-ExistentAuralReality.”17Puronas,“SonicHyperrealism,”183.

29

describedinTable3,seemsmoreconcernedwithconveyinganegativeandevil

setting,ratherthanremindingviewersthatthefilmissetinAfrica,asdepictedin

Figure4.Moreover,themaincharacterinthisscene,Scar,isvoicedbyJeremyIrons,

whosethickBritishaccentfurtherdetractsfromtheAfrican-nessofthescene.18

Time Plot Music26:08 Scartalkstothethree

mainhyenasTimpani,churchbell,andlowvoicesentersubtly

26:43 Scarleapsdownfromhisrock

Marimbaenterswithhighrhythmicactivity

26:50 Scarwalksthroughforebodinggreengas

Mainlineenters,“sung”byScar

27:30 Scarstrutsaroundthecavern

Scar’shighlysyncopatedline

27:53 ScardescribeshisplantokillMufasa

Instrumentalinterludefeaturingthegüiro

28:26 ScenereminiscentofTriumphoftheWill

Mainlinereturns,sungbyarmyofhyenasandScar

Table3:Analysisofvisualandauraleventsduring"BePrepared"

Figure4:Scarandoneofhisminionsinhiscavernouslair.

18JeremyIronsprovidesthevoiceforScarthroughoutmostof“BePrepared,”butafterlosinghisvoicetowardstheendofthesong,heisreplacedbyEdCummings.

30

Itisuptothemusic,then,tokeepaudiencesimmersedin“African-ness.”Yet

unlike“CircleofLife,”whichcontainsnumerousexamplesofmusicalAfricanisms,

“BePrepared”hasonlytwodistinctlyAfricanelements:itsinstrumentationand

rhythmicfocus.Themostprominentinstrumentsherearerhythmicandmelodic

idiophonesandmembranophones.Theinstrumentsinthesong’sintroductionthat

offeranyrhythmicinterestaretimpaniandachurchbellwithadarktimbrethat

contributestotheominousatmosphere,andservesasatransitionfromthe

completemusicalsilenceofthepreviousscenetothequickrhythmandhighenergy

of“BePrepared.”Thissuddenincreaseinintensityismainlyduetotheuseof

marimba,whichentersdirectlyaftertheintroductionandcontinuesthroughout

mostoftherestofthesong.

Themarimbaisparticularlyremarkableherebecauseofitsabilitytosuggest

twodifferentsettingsatonce.Themarimbaisinextricablyconnectedwiththe

Africanmusicaltradition,andinfactoriginatedinsouthernAfrica.19Asamelodic

idiophone,themarimba’swoodentimbrefitsAmericans’(incorrect)ideasabout

Africancultureandlife:simple,primitive,andthird-world⎯ideasthatRandolph

andDeMulderstudiedintheirwork,asdiscussedinthepreviouschapter.Thus,the

marimbaconnectswiththeoverarchingAfricansettingoftheentirefilm.Italso

commentsmorespecificallyonthesceneathand;themyriadpilesofboneslittering

Scar’slaircouldfunctionasrudimentarysetsofmarimbas,especiallyinasetting,

likeAfrica,sooftenperceivedas“primitive.”Towardstheendof“BePrepared,”in

19JamesBlades,PercussionInstrumentsandTheirHistory(Westport,CT:BoldStrummerLtd,1992),78.

31

fact,thereisahyenaplayingalargeribcageasamarimba,showninFigure5—the

onlyinstanceintheentirefilmofadiegeticmusicalsource.20

Figure5:Ahyenaplaysalargeribcageasifitwereamarimba.

Anothersourceofrhythmicinterestisthegüiro,agourd-likescraped

idiophonetypicallyheardinAfro-Cubanmusic.Thegüiroentersduringasectionof

spokentextinthemiddleofthesong,whenmanyotherinstrumentsdropoutsoas

nottodetractfromthedialogue.Theuseofthegüirohereisparticularly

noteworthy,asitistheonlypercussiveinstrumentintheentirescorethatispurely

rhythmic;unlikethemarimbaorthetimpani,itisnotapitchedinstrument.Though

thegüiroisoftenheardinmusicwithAfricaninfluences,theinstrumentitself

originatesinindigenousSouthAmericancultures⎯itsuseheremaybeduetoalack

20Thisscenealsorecallsthetropeofdepictingskeletonsorbonesasmusicalinstruments,firstseenintheDisneycartoonTheSkeletonDance(1929).Formoreinformation,seeDanielGoldmark’sTunesfor‘Toons:MusicandtheHollywoodCartoon(BerkeleyandLosAngeles:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,2005).

32

ofunderstandingoftheinstrument’sactualorigins,orperhapsanassumptionthat

all“primitive”percussioninstrumentsarerelatedtoAfricanmusicorculture,dueto

theinaccurateandstereotypicalinformationthatRandolphandDeMulderfound

presentedbothinthemediaandinschools,asdiscussedinthefirstchapter.21The

useofthegüiroherecanbethoughtofasyetanotherlayerofhyperreality;because

WesternlistenersmainlyassociateAfricanmusicwithrhythmiccomplexity,tothese

listeners,aninstrumentthatisonlycapableofrhythmicactivity(likethegüiro)may

seemlikethemost“African”instrumentofall(regardlessofitsactualplaceof

origin).

Thevoicesin“BePrepared”—bothfromtheon-screencharactersandfrom

thechoir—provideinterestingrhythmicvarietyaswell.ManyofScar’smusical

phrases,forexample,soundclosertoSprechstimmethanmelodiclines,inviting

listenerstofocusontherhythmofhisphrasesratherthanthepitches.22Inaddition,

manyofthephrasestowardtheendofthesongarehighlysyncopated;forexample,

Scarsings“Ashiningnewera/istip-toeingnearer,”withemphasesonthefirst

syllablesof“era”and“nearer.”Bothofthesesyllablesfallontheoffbeatofthe

secondbeatoftheirrespectivemeasures—arguablytheweakestpartofa4/4

measure.Thechoir,whichmostlysingsneutralsyllables(like“ah”and“ee”),iseven

morerhythmicallyactivethanthevoicesoftheon-screencharacters.Asin“Circleof

Life,”thechoirsingshomorhythmicallyinshort,abruptsyllables,emphasizingthe

21Blades,PercussionInstruments,41–42.22Sprechstimme(Germanfor“spokenvoice”)isavocaltechniquerequiringthesingertoapproximatepitches,resultinginavocallinethatsoundslikeamixbetweenspeakingandsinging.ThetechniquewasmostfamouslyusedinArnoldSchönberg’ssongcycle,PierrotLunaire(1912).

33

syncopationfeaturedthroughoutthesong,andevokestheSouthAfricanmusical

traditionofisicathamiyathataudienceshave,atthispointinthefilm,become

familiarwith.Onlyonceinthesongarethechorallinesdecidedlyunsyncopated—a

changejustifiedcontextuallybecauseitaccompaniesthehyenas’militaristic

marching(ascenevisuallyreminiscentoftheNazipropagandafilmTriumphofthe

Will).23

Althoughtheprominenttimbresin“BePrepared”arereminiscentof

“African”culture,thescorealsocallsforseveralWesterninstruments.Forexample,

short,repeatedlinesplayedbyalowbrassinstrument—perhapsatuba—

accompanyScar’sfirstverse.Thoughthetuba’sdark,rumblingtimbrewasmost

likelychosentocontinuetheevilatmosphereofScar’slair,italsoreinforcesthe

Africantendencytowardscreatingcomplex,buzzingsounds⎯anotherofthe

musicalAfricanismsdiscussedinthefirstchapter.24Synthesizedpianoandstrings

arealsopresentthroughoutthesong,butaswiththeirusein“CircleofLife,”they

merelydoublethemore“African”instruments.Thisdoublingeffect,combinedwith

theincreasedfocusonmultipleidiophonesfromearlierinthesong,builds

excitementandenergyinanticipationofthesong’sclimacticconclusion.Bymaking

thisenhancedversionofanAfricanensembleseem“better”andmoreexcitingthan

23FormoreinformationonTriumphoftheWillanditscarefullystructuredcinematography,seeMaryDevereaux’s“BeautyandEvil:TheCaseofLeniRiefenstahl’sTriumphoftheWill,”inAestheticsandEthics:EssaysattheIntersection,ed.JerroldLevinson(CambridgeandNewYork:CambridgeUniversityPress,1998),227–56.24CorneliaFalesandStephenMcAdams,“TheFusionandLayeringofNoiseandTone:ImplicationsforTimbreinAfricanInstruments,”LeonardoMusicJournal4(1994),69.

34

therealthing,“BePrepared”(and,similarly,“CircleofLife”)isagainreminiscentof

Eco’sclaimthatDisney“stimulatesthedesire”forillusionoverreality.

“CircleofLife”and“BePrepared”arebothexcellentexamplesofmusical

numbersinwhichworldmusicelementscontributetoTheLionKing’shyperrealistic

versionofAfrica.Thoughtheothermusicalnumbersalsofeaturemusicalaspects

thataudienceshave,throughoutthefilm,cometoassociatewith“African”music,

thesesongsarenotasfullydevotedtocreatinganaurallyexoticsetting.“IJustCan’t

WaitToBeKing”and“HakunaMatata,”forexample,bothfeatureasynthesized

electricguitarplayingamelodiclinethatcomplementsthevocalmelody.Unlike

“CircleofLife”and“BePrepared,”inwhichWestern-soundinginstrumentsmerely

doublethemoretraditionally“African”instruments,theWesternguitarsoundis

foregroundedin“IJustCan’tWaitToBeKing”and“HakunaMatata,”whichdetracts

fromtheAfricansetting.“HakunaMatata”alsofeaturesasaxophone,which

functionssimilarlytothesynthesizedelectricguitar,playinga(seemingly

improvised)independentmelodicline.Thissongalsoincorporatesmusicalstyles

thatarenotimmediatelyrecognizableasnativetotheAfricancontinent;for

example,inthesectionfrom1:06to1:16intheversionof“HakunaMatata”onthe

film’ssoundtrack,themusictakesonamoresoulfulgospelfeel.Eventhoughgospel

musichasitsorigins“inthecontext,lyrics,music,anddanceofAfricanmusic,”it

soundsnothinglikethe“African”musicthataudienceshavebecomeacquainted

withthusfarinthefilm.25

25RobertDarden,PeopleGetReady!:ANewHistoryofBlackGospelMusic(NewYork:Continuum,2004),18.

35

Thereareseveraldifferentreasonsthatmayexplainwhythesesongsseem

lessinvolvedinthehyperrealityofTheLionKing.Onepossibilityisthatthescenes

thataccompanythesesongsmaysimplynotbeasstructurallyimportanttothefilm.

Unlikethesceneaccompanying“CircleofLife,”whichisburdenedwiththeessential

taskofquicklyanddefinitivelysettingthescenefortheentirefilm,orthescene

accompanying“BePrepared,”whichdescribeswhatisarguablyoneofthefilm’s

mostimportantplotpoints,thescenesaccompanying“IJustCan’tWaitToBeKing”

and“HakunaMatata”aremoretrivialinnature;hadthosescenesbeendeleted,the

film’scentralnarrativewouldgoon,almostcompletelyunaffected.Similarly,these

songsmightbeviewedaslessimportantforthepurposesofupholdingTheLion

King’shyperrealisticversionofAfricabecausetheyseemtobeintendedascomic

relief.In“IJustCan’tWaitToBeKing,”Simbaflauntshisroyallineageandpokesfun

atZazu,hisfather’strusted(andexceedinglyuptight)advisor,while“Hakuna

Matata”featuresthefilm’scomicreliefcharacters,TimonandPumbaa,and

discussesindecoroussubjectslikeflatulence.Alongwithprovidingrelieffromthe

film’smoredramaticplotpoints,thesesongsofferabreakfrommusicthatmainly

servestoenforceahyperrealisticversionofAfricanmusicaltraditions.

ThoughtheWesternstylesin“IJustCan’tWaitToBeKing”and“Hakuna

Matata”aremoreprominentthaninothermusicalnumbers,the“African”styles

discussedthroughoutthischapterarenonethelesspresent,astheyarethroughout

theentiretyofthefilm’ssoundtrackandscore.Forexample,“IJustCan’tWaitToBe

King”featuresthesamefluteheardin“CircleofLife”andrhythmicactivityinthe

bongos,and“HakunaMatata”featuresrhythmicactivitythroughthemarimba,asin

36

“BePrepared.”Asaresult,“IJustCan’tWaitToBeKing”and“HakunaMatata”havea

well-balancedmixtureofWesternand“African”musicalstyles⎯evenmorethan

“CircleofLife”and“BePrepared.”Ironically,usingJocelynGuilbault’sdefinitionof

“worldmusic”(“theblendingofmodernandtraditionalmusics...usually

associatedwith,respectively,themusicsofthefirstandthethirdworlds”),this

meansthatthebestexamplesofworldmusicthroughoutTheLionKing’ssoundtrack

are“IJustCan’tWaitToBeKing”and“HakunaMatata”⎯twosongsthatarenot

essentialtothefilmoraurallyestablishinganAfricansetting.

Intheirattemptstoconnecttotheincreasinglypopularworldmusic

movementoftheearly1990s,EltonJohnandthemusicproductionteamseemto

havegottenmixedup.ByportrayingasfewWesterninfluencesaspossiblein“Circle

ofLife”and“BePrepared,”andinsteadfocusingonmakingthesesongssoundas

“African”aspossible,theycompletelymissedthepointoftheworldmusic

movement:theblendingofdifferentmusicalstyles,ratherthantheerasureofoneor

more.“IJustCan’tWaitToBeKing”and“HakunaMatata”do,however,achievethis

blend,andarethereforenothyperrealistic,butinsteadrealisticportrayalsofworld

musicintheirmixtureofWesternandAfricanmusicalstyles.Incomparison,“Circle

ofLife”and“BePrepared”becomeevenmorehyperrealisticintheirseemingly

“pure”renderingofAfricanmusicalstyles.

37

ChapterThree:

AfricanMusicalElementsinUnderscoring

ThemusicinTheLionKingisresponsibleforsettingthesceneasmuchasthevisual

elementsofthefilm,providing,inRoyPrendergast’swords,“musicalcolor.”1While

mostofthemusicalnumbersinTheLionKinghavesomerecognizableAfrican(or

“African”)elements,mostoftheunderscoringisclosertothestandardWestern

film-scoringtradition.BecauseAfricanmusicalelementsaresouncommoninthe

underscoring,however,theyareparticularlynoticeablewhentheydoappear.

Anotherimportantdifferencebetweenthestringsoundsintheunderscoringand

musicalnumbersistheuseofsynthesizedinstrumentsinthemusicalnumbers,and

acousticstringinstrumentsintheunderscoring.Thisdifferencemaybearesultof

differenttimbralpreferencesofEltonJohn,whocomposedtheTheLionKing’s

soundtrack,andHansZimmer,whowrotethefilm’sscore.Thesescoringchoices

mayalso,however,reflectaudienceexpectations⎯themorepopularandmodern

synthesizedsoundslendthemselvesmoreeasilytothesoundtrackofamovie

musical,whilethe“classical”soundsofrealstringsaremoretypicalofcinematic

underscoring.

ThemostobviouslyAfricanizedunderscoringappearsinseveralscenes

throughoutthemovie.BecausethelyricsinthesescenesaresointegraltoTheLion

King’splot,Iwillrefertothismusicbyitsfirstphrase—“Busalelizwebo,”aZulu

1RoyM.Prendergast,FilmMusic:ANeglectedArt(NewYork:W.W.Norton,1992),213.

38

phrasewhichmeans“rulethisland.”2“Busalelizwebo”appearsinscenesthatshow

Simbaacceptinghisplaceinthecircleoflife,askingofthePrideLands.Thissection

ofhighlyrhythmicmusicbeginswithseveralpercussioninstruments,including

timpaniandmarimba,accompanyingchoralhomophony,mirroringtheAfrican

elementsfoundin“CircleofLife”and“BePrepared.”Astringsectionalsodoubles

thechoralparts,againevokingsimilarusesinearliermusicalnumbers,andagain

recallingVytisPuronas’argumentsaboutsonichyperrealism.Becauseaudiencesare

presentedwiththesestereotypically“African”musicalelementsandembellished,

hyperrealisticsoundsthroughoutboththemusicalnumbersandtheunderscoring,

theyremaintotallyimmersedinTheLionKing’shyperrealisticsoundworldforthe

entiretyofthefilm.

Thefirsttime“Busalelizwebo”occurs,onlyashortexcerptofthemusicis

featured(thetrackitselfisunderaminute),accompanyingthesceneinwhichSimba

ultimatelydecidestoreturntothePrideLands,butmoreofthetrackplaysshortly

afterward,duringamontageofSimbarunningacrossthedeserttowardshishome.

Thislongerversionof“Busalelizwebo”notonlyretainsallAfricanmusical

elementsheardafewminutesearlier,butfeaturesmanymore.LeboMreappearsas

asoloistforthefirsttimesincethebeginningofthemovie,accompaniedonceagain

bychoralhomophony.LeboM’sreturnnotonlydrawsaconnectionbetweenthis

musicand“CircleofLife,”butalsoremindslistenersofthefilm’smostrealistic⎯and

musicallyhyperrealistic⎯scene.Thefluteinmanyofthemusicalnumbersentersto

2“‘Busa’Lyrics,”TheLionKingUnofficialWWWArchive,accessedDecember12,2015,http://www.lionking.org/lyrics/ROTPL/Busa.html.

39

doubleanewmelodyinthechoir,withaddeddrumsandmarimbatoheightenthe

rhythmicintensityofthepercussion.Thisincreasedrhythmicactivitycorresponds

with,andperpetuates,thecommonstereotypesofAfricanrhythms,asdiscussedin

thefirstchapter.Astheexcitementandenergyofthepiecegrow,severalfemale

singersbegintoululate,addinganew,andexotic,effect.Thoughululationplaysa

partinmanycultures,Westernlistenersoftenregarditas“primitive”and

“chaotic”⎯descriptorsthatareunfortunatelyassociatedwithAfricancountries.3

“Busalelizwebo”appearsoncemoreinthefilm—inthefinalscene,when

SimbaroarsfromatopPrideRocktosignalhisascensiontothethrone.Thistime,

theenergyandexcitementofthemusicescalaterapidly,reflectingatime-lapse

sceneofthePrideLandsrestoredtotheirformergloryunderSimba’srule.Thislast

iterationof“Busalelizwebo”blendsseamlesslyintoarepriseof“CircleofLife”—

thistime,aspartoftheunderscoring.Thereturnof“CircleofLife”bringsthefilm

andthescorefullcircle,bothneatlytyinguptheconclusionofthenarrativeand

returningtothemosthyperrealisticallyAfrican-soundingmusicinthesoundtrack.

Evenafterthemovieends,“Busalelizwebo”playsduringthecredits,helpingthe

audiencetransitionfromthemoviebacktoreallife.Thesmoothtransition

establishedherenotonlyfulfillsitspresumedintendedpurposeofprovidingamore

thoroughlyimmersiveexperience,butalsoaddsanewlayerofhyperreality.

Whenthecreditsbegintoplay,audiencemembers(whetherinamovie

theaterorelsewhere)leavethecinematicworldofTheLionKingandreturntotheir

3EugeniaLindiweZamandeluSikhosana,“ACriticalStudyoftheContemporaryPracticeofUlulation(Ukukikiza)anditsCurrentSocialandCulturalValuesAmongtheZulus”(PhDDiss,UniversityofZululand,2002).

40

normallives,astheystanduptoleave,checktheirphone,turntofamilyorfriends

totalk,andsoon.Because“Busalelizwebo”isstillplaying,however,itisnowmore

thanfilmmusic;ithasbecomepartofthesoundtracktothelisteners’lives.Assuch,

theAfricanmusicalelementsthathadoncesignifiedthenewandexoticnow

representthefamiliar,comfortable,andeasilyunderstood.

Otherquasi-Africanelementsintheunderscoringmainlyaccompanyone

characterinparticular:Rafiki.HeiseasilythemoststereotypicallyAfrican

character:asamysticalfigure,mostofhisscreentimeinvolvesperforming

mysteriousritualsinvolving“primitive”materialssuchasleaves,flowers,andfruit,

andimpartingbitsofspiritualwisdomtoSimba.4Heisalsotheonlycharacterinthe

filmwhospeakswithanAfrican-soundingaccent(aswellasoneofthefew

characterswhoisvoicedbyanAfrican-Americanactor,RobertGuillaume),so

audiencesalreadyaudiblyidentifyhimasahighlyAfricanizedcharacter,reflecting

Obadike’sphenomenonofacousmaticblackness,inwhichlistenersascribeethnicity

basedonwhatisheard,ratherthanseen,asdiscussedinthefirstchapter.

ThefirsttimeAfricanelementsappearinthemusicaccompanyingRafiki

(asidefromhisbriefappearancein“CircleofLife”)iswhenhediscoversthatSimba

isstillalive,contrarytowhatScarhastoldtheinhabitantsofthePrideLands.

Rafiki’smostprominentroleinTheLionKing’splotoccursduringthesceneinwhich

heconvincesSimbatoreturntothePrideLands.WhenRafikifirstcapturesSimba’s

attention,hechantsthepart-Swahili,part-nonsensephrase“Asantesana,squash

4FormoreonWesternstereotypesaboutAfricanmagicandwitchcraft,seePeterPels’s“TheMagicofAfrica:ReflectionsonaWesternCommonplace,”AfricanStudiesReview,41no.3(December,1998):193–209.

41

banana,wewenugumimihapana,”“Thankyouverymuch,squashbanana,youarea

baboonandIamnot.”Meanwhile,themusicinthissceneswitchesfromamore

typicallycinematicorchestralsoundtoachoirhumminghomophonically,

accompaniedbyamarimba.Asthescenecontinues,afluteenters,providing

accompanimentalflourishes,andseveralmorepercussioninstruments—drums

withmanydifferentpitches,andatambourine-likeinstrument—jointhemix.This

generalensembleisfamiliartotheaudience,becausetheyhavehearditseveral

timesbefore,asin“CircleofLife.”ThisconnectionwithotherhighlyAfricanized

scenesthroughoutthemoviereinforcesthescene’s—andRafiki’s—“African-ness.”

AfterpiquingSimba’sinterest,RafikiofferstoleadSimbatoMufasa,initiating

afrenziedchasethroughthetangledrootsofatreeasSimbaattemptstokeepup

withtheagileRafiki.Themusicduringthissceneemphasizesthechaosofthechase

withfast,intenselyenergeticdrummingandquick,seeminglyimprovisedshouts

andchantsfromthechoir.ThishurriedmusiccomestoanabruptendasSimba

escapesthedisorderedmazeandfindshimselfintheserenityoftheAfricanplains.

CombiningRafiki’salreadyAfricanizedcharacterwithsomeofthemostAfrican-

soundingmusicinthefilm’sunderscoringmakeshimseemalmostlikeacaricature

ofAfricancultureandcharacteristics.Here,themusicisnotnecessarily

hyperrealisticinandofitself,butratherperpetuatesstereotypesofAfricansas

“primitive”andfocusedprimarilyonnatureandtheland,bringingtomindthe

unfortunatephrase“noblesavages.”ThemusicfurtherstrengthensRafiki’s

connectiontothelandinhislastscene,whenhefinallyconvincesSimbatoreturnto

thePrideLands,and“Busalelizwebo”firstappears.Aspreviouslydiscussed,this

42

sectionofmusicconnectsSimbatohisdestiny,aswellastotheAfricanecosystem,

andconnectingRafikitotheseelementsintensifiestheassociationofRafikiwith

Africa,thusfurtherencouragingthehyperrealviewthatallAfricanpeoplearelike

Rafiki:primitive.

Mostoftheunderscoringcanbeeasilycategorized—withAfricanizedmusic

accompanyingscenesinvolvingtheAfricanecosystemasitshouldbe,andWestern

musicaccompanyingscenesinvolvingnegativeaspectsoftheplotorcomicrelief.

Themostfrequentlyused,andarguablythemostimportant,musicinthefilm,

however,doesnotfitsoeasilyintothesecategories.Thesectionofmusicentitled

“ThisLand”onTheLionKing’ssoundtrackoccursmultipletimesthroughoutthe

film;thescenesoftenonlyfeaturesmallportionsofthemusic,butinafew

instances,theentirepieceappears.

Excerpt1:Themotivefrom"ThisLand"whichisusedthroughoutTheLionKing.

Themostsymbolicsectionof“ThisLand,”asshowninFigure5,lastsfrom

1:11–1:34ontheversionofthepiecefoundinthefilm’ssoundtrack.Thisleitmotif

representsseveralimportantideasthroughoutTheLionKing.Boththefirstandthe

lasttimethismusicoccurs,itrepresentstheAfricanecosysteminitsnormalstate—

atthebeginningofthemovie,asMufasaexplainstheconceptofthecircleoflifeto

Simba,andattheend,afterSimbadefeatsScarandisabouttoclaimthethrone,

43

signalingareturntotheoriginalprosperityofthePrideLands.Throughouttherest

ofthefilm,thisleitmotifsymbolizesMufasa’swisdom,andthepresenceofhisspirit.

Forexample,itoccursafterthewildebeestchase,whenSimbarealizesthathis

fatherhasdied;whenMufasa’sspiritappearstoSimba,tellinghimtoreturntothe

PrideLands;andwhenSimba’smother,Sarabi,mistakeshimforMufasawhenhe

doesreturntothePrideLands.Interestingly,thismusic’spurposeissimilartothat

oftheAfricanizedmusicintheunderscoring,butitdoesnotsoundstereotypically

“African”atall.Almosteverytimeitappearsithasanorchestralscoring,with

violinsplayingtheentirelytonalmelody.Attimes,achoiraccompaniestheviolins;

yeteventhen,thechoirsoundsmoreWesternthanthechoralstyleinthe

Africanizedmusicalsections.

ThisunusualuseofWestern-soundingmusicmayserveasabridgebetween

the“African”-soundingandWestern-soundingmusicalsections.Inthisway,even

thepartsofthescorethatdonotsoundAfricanstillconnecttotheoverallsettingof

themovie,resultinginamorecohesivefilmasawhole.Thisinterestinguseof

Westernmusicfunctionsasyetanothertypeofhyperreality⎯perhapsoneofthe

mostnotableexamplesinthefilm.ThroughoutTheLionKing(andespeciallyinthe

musicalnumbersandunderscoringthatIhaveaddressedhere),Africanmusical

elementsrepresentmomentsandcharactersthatareintegraltothecentralplot;

mostoftheotherscenescouldbeleftoutwithoutsignificantchangetothestoryline

(thoughlikelytothedetrimentofthefilm’sentertainmentvalue).Themusicis

decidedlyWestern,however,inwhatarearguablythemostimportantscenes:

Simba’sinteractionswithhisfather.TheLionKing’sportrayalofthebondbetween

44

fatherandsonistheonlythemethatcouldtrulybecalleduniversal,butthemusic

usedtorepresentthatbondisanythingbut.Theargumentcouldbemadethatthe

Westernstyleofmusicissowidespreadandwellknownaroundtheworldthatit

couldbeseenasuniversal,butsuchanassertionwouldfalselyassumethatallnon-

AnglicmusictraditionsshouldassimilatetotheWesternstyle.Thisistheone

instanceinthefilminwhichamixofmusicalcultureswouldbeanappropriate

accompaniment,yetitisoneofthefewmomentscharacterizedexclusivelyby

Westernmusicalstyles.Theabsenceofworldmusicstylesintherepresentationofa

universalideahere(whilemostofthefilmhasdonetheopposite)maintainsthe

hyperrealisticWesternviewthatWesterncultureandmusicisuniversal⎯thatitis

themostwidespread,andultimately,thesuperiorcultureandmusic.This

presumptionreflectstheconcernthatmanyopponentsofthelabel“world

music”⎯suchasDavidByrne,HerbertMattelart,andJocelyneGuilbault⎯share:

thatthetermonlyservestomaintainthemusicindustry’shierarchy,inwhichthe

mostfamiliarandmainstreammusic(whichisoftenWesterninorigin)risestothe

top,achievingmassivesuccess,whilenon-Westernmusicthatfailstofitthese

categoriesoftenlanguishesnearthebottom.

45

Conclusion

AsthefirstDisneyfilmtothoroughlyincorporateAfricanmusicthroughoutthe

soundtrackandscore,TheLionKingbroughtAfricatotheattentionofaglobal

audience.Butwhilethefilmoccasionallyincludesaccuraterepresentationsof

Africanmusic,forthemostpartitonlyperpetuatescommon,deeplyproblematic

stereotypesoftheAfricanpeopleandculture.FromassumptionsaboutAfrica’stotal

culturalandethnichomogeneitytothecontinuationofracializedbeliefsabout

timbreandmusicalability,TheLionKingpresentsthesestereotypestotheyoung

andimpressionableaudienceswhowouldmostlikelyviewDisneyfilms,thus

ensuringthatthestereotypestranscendgenerationalboundaries.Byusingthese

stereotypes,DisneycreateshyperrealisticpicturesofAfrica,whichexposeWestern

viewerstoaversionofAfricathatisexoticandexciting,butatthesametime

familiarandnonthreatening.Becausethehyperrealisticversionissocomfortable

foraudiences,italsobecomestheversionthataudienceschoosetorepresentthe

“real”Africa,reflectingEco’sclaimaboutaudiences’preferencesforhyperreality.

TheLionKingfurtherreaffirmstheseclaimsaboutDisney’suseof

hyperrealitybynotjustportrayingthestereotypesofAfricanmusic,butactively

encouragingthem.Theclearemphasisontherhythmicelementsthroughout“Be

Prepared,”forexample,playstothewidespreadandinaccuratestereotypethat

rhythmistheonlyimportantelementofAfricanmusic.Goingforward,these

listenersmightexpectotherAfricanmusicstofeatureonlythose“African”

characteristicstowhichtheyhavealreadybeenexposed⎯andwhentheyencounter

46

differentormoreaccuratedepictionsofAfricanmusic,theymaydismissthemas

inaccurateorinferiorbecauseitdoesnotmeettheirexpectations.Westernlisteners

mightnotrecognize,forexample,WestAfricankoramusicas“actual”Africanmusic,

becauseitdoesnotfittheextremelyrestrictivestereotypesthatareunceasingly

pushedonaudiences.Thisgeneralizationagainshedslightonthelargerissueof

Africa’sportrayalasonemusically,culturally,andethnicallyhomogeneousentity,

glossingoverthethousandsofvastregionaldifferences.

Intheirattemptstosimplysound“African,”TheLionKing’screatorsfellshort

ofarealisticpresentationofAfrica,insteadcreatingahyperrealisticone.While

hyperrealityisnotintrinsicallydamaging,ahyperrealitybasedonharmfuland

deep-seatedstereotypesbecomesproblematic,especiallywhenviewersand

listenersconfuseitforactualreality.BecausethehyperrealityfoundinTheLion

Kingis,infact,basedonharmfulstereotypes,itisimportantforaudiencestobe

criticalofwhattheyseeandhear.Whileitmaynothavebeenintentional,thefilm’s

creators⎯and,inextension,theDisneycompanyasawhole⎯perpetuatebigoted

viewsandideasthroughthemusicfeaturedinthefilm’sscore.BecauseTheLion

King’smusicproductionteamoftenpresentthefilm’smusicascompletelyaccurate,

audiencesmayacceptitasactualrealityinsteadofhyperreality.Whenaudiences

areawarethatDisney’sportrayalofAfricaishyperrealisticratherthanrealistic,

inaccurateandharmfulstereotypesmayspreadlessquicklyandeasily.

ExpandingthetheoryofhyperrealityfromtheDisneylandthemeparkto

otherDisneyproductsallowsustomorepreciselylocateproblematicaspectsof

theseproducts,aswellastomoreeasilydistinguishtheboundariesbetween

47

inaccuratestereotypesandreality.Myresearchismosteasilyextendedintoother

Disneyfilmsthatfeatureworldmusic,suchasAladdin(1992),Pocahontas(1995),

andMulan(1998),aswellasnon-Disneyfilmsthatfeatureworldmusic,likeThe

PrinceofEgypt(1998)andTheRoadtoElDorado(2000).Ofcourse,thetheoryof

hyperrealitydoesnotnecessarilyonlyapplytoanimatedmovie-musicals;wecould

applythistheorytolive-actionfilms,stagedmusicalsandoperas,andevenvideo

games.UsingBaudrillardandEco’stheoryofhyperrealitytoexaminedifferenttypes

ofmediaoutsideofthesescholars’applicationswillallowthecreatorsofthese

mediatomaintainamoreconscientiousoutlookfortheirprojects,andinthe

process,limitthespreadofharmfulstereotypes.

48

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