unit xiv

Social Psychology

Unit XIV

scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another

What is Social psychology?

Attribution Theory

tendency to give a causal explanation for someone’s behavior, often by crediting either the situation or the person’s disposition

Fundamental Attribution Error tendency for observers, when analyzing another’s

behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition

http://youtu.be/6c3uwOYnUfs

Social Thinking

Attitude

belief and feeling that predisposes one to respond in a particular way to objects, people and events

Social Thinking

How we explain someone’s behavior affects how we

react to it

Social Thinking

Negative behavior

Situational attribution“Maybe that driver is ill.”

Dispositional attribution“Crazy driver!”

Tolerant reaction(proceed cautiously, allowdriver a wide berth)

Unfavorable reaction(speed up and race past theother driver, give a dirty look)

Our behavior is affected by our inner attitudes as

well as by external social influences

Social Thinking

Internalattitudes

Externalinfluences

Behavior

Attitudes

follow behavior

Cooperative actions feed mutual liking

Social Thinking

Foot-in-the-Door Phenomenon

tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request http://youtu.be/YzQnqZzPHDU

Social Thinking

Cognitive Dissonance Theory (Leon

Festinger)

we act to reduce the discomfort (dissonance) we feel when two of our thoughts (cognitions) are inconsistent

example- when we become aware that our attitudes and our actions clash, we can reduce the resulting dissonance by changing our attitudes

Social Thinking

Cognitive dissonance

Social Thinking

Conformity

adjusting one’s behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard

http://youtu.be/fQI8pZJiMe0 (Candid Camera)

http://youtu.be/TrNIuFrso8I (Info.)

Social Influence

The chameleon effect

Social Influence

Participant Participant rubs face shakes foot

Confederate rubs face Confederate shakes foot

0.8

0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

Numberof times

The effect other people have on usThe effect other people have on us

Conformity

this is the way in which our thoughts and actions are affected by the

presence of those around us.- conscious and unconscious behavior

Asch’s conformity experiments http://youtu.be/iRh5qy09nNw

Social Influence

Asch Aim – To see if social influence was as strong if the task was less ambiguous Method – Asked participants to match a test line to 3 different lines, one of which was clearly a good match. He used actors for most of the group and asked them to say the wrong line. He then recorded the response of the naive participant Results – Participants conformed saying the obviously wrong answer 32% of the time (1 out of 3 conformed)

Conclusion – social influence still occurs but is less strong with a less ambiguous task

Deutsch and

Gerrard suggested there

were 2 main reasons for social

influence

Informative social influence

Normative social influence

Informative social

influence

The ‘need to be right’

When we are in ambiguous situations we are unsure how to act so we look to see what other people are doing and copy them because we assume they are right. This is particularly true if we believe the people around us to have superior knowledge e.g. older more experienced

Normative social

influence

The ‘need to be liked’

When we are in a social situation we have a strong desire to be liked by the rest of the group and therefore do or say things to make this more likely. However, our desire to be liked may be higher for certain groups of people and therefore our need to conform may go up

Can you think of examples when you have experienced

a) Normative social influence

b) Informative social influence

• Wearing the same style of clothes as your friends • Answering a difficult question the same as someone else because you don’t know the answer • Walking past a screaming child because everyone else is • Joining a queue without checking what it is for• Wearing your tie half undone • Saying ‘in-it’ at the end of a sentence• Copying a spelling mistake made on the powerPoint• Starting to wear make up in year 8

What type of conformity do these instances show?

Do you think all culture conform to the same extent?

Studies have shown that Japanese cultures conform the most. The Japanese government are trying to reduce the conformity in their schools to try to increase the level of creative thinking and innovation

The French have a very low level of conformity and are well known for striking against things they do not like

Deindividuation

loss of self-awareness and self-restraint in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity

Social Influence

Participan

ts judged which person in Slide 2 was the same as the person in Slide 1

Social Influence

Difficult judgments

Easy judgments

Conformity higheston important

judgments

Low HighImportance

50%

40

30

20

10

0

Percentage ofconformity toconfederates’

wrong answers

Some individuals resist social coercion

Social Influence

Zimbardo’s Prison Experiment 1971

OBEDIENCE AND SOCIAL ROLES…

http://www.prisonexp.org/ (Info. site)

http://youtu.be/sZwfNs1pqG0(youtube video)

Social Facilitation

improved performance of tasks in the presence of others

occurs with simple or well-learned tasks but not with tasks that are difficult or not yet mastered

Social Influence

Social Facilitation

Milgram’s follow-up obedience experiment

Social Influence

http://youtu.be/BcvSNg0HZwk

How could you test this at school? With your table, design a study and share

out in 2 minutes…

Social Loafing

Think about

The Task Performed

Size of Group

Culture

Bystander Effect

tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present

Social Relations

http://youtu.be/JozmWS6xYEw

http://youtu.be/tGaJrgi_SpE

Diffusion of responsibility poemEverybody, Somebody, Anybody, And Nobody

 This is a little story about four people named Everybody, Somebody, Anybody, and Nobody.  There was an important job to be done and Everybody was sure that Somebody would do it.  Anybody could have done it, but Nobody did it.  Somebody got angry about that because it was Everybody's job.  Everybody thought that Anybody could do it, but Nobody realized that Everybody wouldn't do it.  It ended up that Everybody blamed Somebody when Nobody did what Anybody could have done    

Obedience Following orders of someone in authority

Conformity Change in a persons behaviour or opinions as the result of group pressure

Deindividuation

The state of losing out sense of individuality and becoming less aware of our own responsibility for our actions

Social Loafing when people do not put in as much effort as a member of group as they do as an individual

Bystander Effect

People are less likely to help when they are in a crowd because responsibility is diffused

Group Polarization enhancement of a group’s prevailing

attitudes through discussion within the group

Groupthink mode of thinking that occurs when

the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides realistic appraisal of alternatives http://youtu.be/qYpbStMyz_I

Social Influence

If a group is

like-minded, discussion strengthens its prevailing opinions

Social Influence

Prejudice an unjustifiable (and usually negative)

attitude toward a group and its members involves stereotyped beliefs, negative

feelings, and a predisposition to discriminatory action

Stereotype a generalized (sometimes accurate, but

often overgeneralized) belief about a group of people

Social Relations

Socialization We are not born with stereotypes, but we grow to

imitate those who we respect

Realistic Group Conflict Theory When groups are forced to compete for scarce resources

(e.g., good jobs, nice homes, college educations), they threaten each other in a very negative manner

‘Our group is better than yours’ becomes justification for greater access to these positive resources

Origins of Prejudice

Does perception change with race?

Social Relations

If we use schemas to form overall

impressions of others because we are cognitive misers…

Stereotypes: group schemas, containing a set of beliefs about people in a particular social category

Stereotype Threat: http://youtu.be/nGEUVM6QuMg

Stereotypes

Americans today express much less racial and gender

prejudice

Social Relations

Vivid cases (9/11 terrorists) feed stereotypes

Social Relations

Allport’s Contact Theory

Under certain conditions, direct contact between members of different groups will improve relations

Contact must involve: Mutual interdependence A common goal Equal status of groups Informal, interpersonal contact Multiple contacts Social norms of equality

Ways to Reduce Prejudice

Ingroup

“Us”- people with whom one shares a common identity

Outgroup “Them”- those perceived as different or

apart from one’s ingroup

Ingroup Bias tendency to favor one’s own group

Social Relations

Scapegoat Theory theory that prejudice provides an outlet for

anger by providing someone to blame Just-World Phenomenon

tendency of people to believe the world is just

people get what they deserve and deserve what they get

http://youtu.be/a0jZzBEKIMc

Social Relations

Aggression any physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt or

destroy

Assertiveness

Behavior intended to express dominance or confidence

Assertiveness is not aggression

Frustration-Aggression Principle principle that frustration – the blocking of an attempt to

achieve some goal – creates anger, which can generate aggression

Social Relations

U.S. has highest murder rate in the

world among developed countries More than 15,000 murders every year More than 92,000 reported rapes More than 7 million reported violent acts overall Every 5 minutes a child is arrested for a violent

crime More than 50% of 5th graders report being a

victim of violence (70% of those have seen weapons used)

Guns kill an American child every 3 hours

Violence

Aggressive impulses may be hereditary

Twin studies: Correlations of aggression higher among

monozygotic twins than dizygotic pairs

Aggression is associated with Low levels of serotonin High levels of testosterone Activation of the amygdala can lead to aggressive

behaviors (though it still depends on situational factors)

Biological Theories

Men use more physical, direct forms of

aggression Men’s aggression is more likely to do physical

harm, and thus gets more attention

Girls and women use more indirect forms of aggression (e.g., spreading rumors).

There is no clear sex difference in reporting feelings of anger

Gender Differences in Aggression

Provocation: The great equalizer?

Men are more likely to attack physically when unprovoked than women

What happens when people are irritated, frustrated, or threatened by another person?

Bettencourt & Miller (1996) Conducted a meta-analysis of gender differences in

aggression Found that when provocation is involved, the typical

gender difference in physical aggression is reduced or eliminated

Gender Differences in Aggression

Heat Humidity Pain Noxious fumes Poverty Crowding

Physical Discomfort & Aggression

Social Relations

More TV sets in United States than toilets

Media consumption is #1 pass-time among Americans, particularly youth

60%-70% of all TV programs contain violence 70%-80% show no remorse, criticism, or penalty for the

violence

By the time the average American child graduates from elementary school: More than 8,000 murders More than 100,000 other acts of violence (e.g., assaults,

rape)

Media Violence

More recently, video games have become kids’

favorite form of media

90% of kids age 2-17 play regularly

Majority of popular games are violent

Media Violence

Since at least 1970, researchers have

known of a link between violent media and aggression Weakened inhibitions against violent behavior Imitation of specific violent acts Aggression primed as a response to anger Desensitization to violence Overestimation of prevalence of violence in real

life

VIOLENT VIDEO GAMES: http://youtu.be/kH38gqvPUuA

Media Violence

Effects of VVGs(Bushman & Anderson, 2001)

Corr

ela

tion

wit

h

VV

G E

xp

osu

re

Findings from a meta-analysis

-0.3

-0.2

-0.1

0

0.1

0.2

0.3

Aggression Helping HostileThoughts

HostileAffect

Arousal

VIOLENCE AS BEHAVIOR:

From a psychological perspective, what “causes”

violence?

Conflict perceived incompatibility of

actions, goals, or ideas Social Trap

a situation in which the conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing their self-interest, become caught in mutually destructive behavior

Social Relations

Social trap

by pursuing our self-interest and not trusting others, we can end up losers

Social Relations

Optimaloutcome

Probableoutcome

Person 1Choose A Choose B

Per

son

2C

ho

ose

B

Ch

oo

se A

ATTRACTION, LOVE, & RELATIONSHIPS

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“I knew we had a lot in common, I’m crazy too!”

Mere Exposure Effect repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking

of them Conceptions of attractiveness vary by culture

Social Relations- Attractiveness

Mere Exposure Effect

Passionate Love an aroused state of intense

positive absorption in another usually present at the beginning of

a love relationship Companionate Love

deep affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom our lives are intertwined

Social Relations

Relatively new to social psychology

Psychologists generally only focus on individuals

Romance and attraction isn’t a ‘scholarly’ thing to study

Relationships have a number of important health benefits.

Attraction and Relationships

What Leads to Friendship and

Attraction? Proximity

Interaction Mere exposure

What Is Love?

Passionate love A theory of passionate

love Two-factor theory of

emotion Variations in love:

Culture and gender Companionate love

http://youtu.be/KFmp3D1CZ14

Misattribution of arousal…

http://www.corriehunt.com/uploads/5/0/6/4/5064667/the_bachelor_.wmv

66

Arousal=Love?

What leads to attraction?

Proximity Mere exposure

Physical attractiveness Similarity

Matching

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Overview

Equity

a condition in which people receive from a relationship in proportion to what they give

Self-Disclosure revealing intimate aspects of oneself to

others Altruism

unselfish regard for the welfare of others

Social Relations

Social Exchange Theory

the theory that our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs

Superordinate Goals shared goals that override

differences among people and require their cooperation

Social Relations

Prosocial Behavior

Any act that helps or is meant to help others

It doesn’t matter what the helper’s motivation is

Prosocial Behavior (a.ka. Altruism)

People are more willing to help when they

are in a good mood Isen & Levin, 1972

84% of those who found dime helped, only 4% of those who did not find dime helped

Why do good moods increase helping? Interpret events sympathetically Mood-maintenance Good moods increase self-attention

People in a bad mood will help under certain conditions Negative-state relief hypothesis

People help to alleviated their own sadness and distress

Mood & Helping

8080

6060

2020

00

4040

Smoke-Filled Room Study

Percent who report smoke

Alone With 2 other real subjects

With 2 calm confederates

Graduated and Reciprocated

Initiatives in Tension-reduction (GRIT) a strategy designed to decrease

international tensions one side announces recognition of mutual

interests and initiates a small conciliatory act

opens door for reciprocation by other party

Social Relations

Central RouteCentral Route: Persuasion occurs when : Persuasion occurs when

interested people interested people focus on the focus on the arguments arguments and respond with favorable and respond with favorable thoughts.thoughts.

Peripheral RoutePeripheral Route: Persuasion that results : Persuasion that results when people are when people are influence by incidental influence by incidental cues cues such as the speakersuch as the speaker’’s attractiveness.s attractiveness.

Two Routes to Persuasion: Two Routes to Persuasion: How do we get How do we get people to change their attitudes?people to change their attitudes?

Computer Ad from 1989Computer Ad from 1989

Cigarette Ad: Low on Cigarette Ad: Low on Substance High on ImageSubstance High on Image

Can you imagine an ad for a cigarette Can you imagine an ad for a cigarette

that would look like the ad for the that would look like the ad for the computer? Is that a ludicrous idea?computer? Is that a ludicrous idea?

Which Which ““peripheralperipheral”” cues are being used cues are being used in the cigarette ad?in the cigarette ad?

Can you imagine such peripheral cues Can you imagine such peripheral cues in the computer ad?in the computer ad?

Comparing the two Comparing the two AdsAds