the teaching of primal religions in schools
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British Journal of Religious Education
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The Teaching of Primal Religions in Schools
Fiona Bowie
To cite this article: Fiona Bowie (1988) The Teaching of Primal Religions in Schools, British Journal of Religious Education, 10:3, 145-153, DOI: 10.1080/0141620880100305
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FIONA BOWIE
The Teaching of Primal Religions
in Schools
Teachers and educational publishers have been slow to recognise the immense
contributions to be made by primal religions in the religious education syllabus.
Where comparative material drawing on primal religions is used its presentation
often lacks sensitivity and reveals a Western cultural bias which d oes the material
a disservice and which reinforces stereotypes rather than broadening children s
religious understanding and outlook. When used imaginatively and with clear
objectives in mind, however, primal religions provide a valuable tool in the
exploration of religion.
This article outlines the contributions of primal religions to the overall aims of
a religious education syllabus, evaluates some of the material currently available
for teaching primal religions in school, examines various ways in which primal
religions have been presented in the classroom and gives some suggestions for
schemes of work.
A Note on Terminology
Th e term 'prim al religion' is itself problem atic, as it suggests a possible evolutionary
connotation. I do no t, how ever, have any sort of evolutionary scale in mind when using
the term 'primal' , the word is chosen simply for lack of more acceptable alternatives.
Another possible term would have been 'traditional' , but all indigenous religions can
be regarded as traditional so this term does not adequately distinguish primal from
other 'world religions' (cf Parrinder, 1969:8).'The term 'tribal' is sometimes used but
this begs the whole question of: 'What is a tribe?' and takes us into an area of
anthropological controversy that is best avoided. Oth er less acceptable bu t still curren t
terms are 'pr imitive ' and 'simple ' . Both these terms might be taken to imply a moral
value judgment, placing these religions and their practitioners at the opposite end of
a spectrum from the 'civilized ', 'com plex' religions and societies of Eu rop e and N or th
America (and possibly Asia). Thes e term s also lead to the evolutionary fallacy of equa ting
living religions with 'what our ancestors believed'. I have, therefore, chosen to use
the term 'primal' in preference to its alternatives and I like to think of it particularly
in the sense of 'funda men tal' . A characteristic of primal religions, in as far as one can
possibly generalise about su ch a diverse range of beliefs and practices, is that religion
is an integral part of life, expressing how the world is and how peop le should act w ithin
it. Religion does not belong in a separate comp artment bu t is implicit within th e na ture
of society.
What are Primal Religions?
Generalisations about the nature of religious belief and practice in countries as far
apart and different culturally as Australia, Africa, South America or the islands of
Polynesia, for example, lead to the danger of gross over-simplification. What are termed
primal religions do, however, share certain common features. They are based upon
an oral rather than a literate tradition and express an integrated view of the world.
The notion of religion as a discrete phenomenon is not universal and many languages
have no equivalent of the English word 'religion'.
2
To describe the religion of another
people therefore necessitates an un derstan ding of their social life and the appreciation
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of a totally different way of perceiving the world. This should of course be the case
when studying any religion but fundamentally so in respect of primal religions, providing
one of the most valuable aspects of such a study.
The Justification for Teaching Primal Religions
One of the m ost important and perhaps one of the most difficult tasks for the teacher
of religion is to convey to children what it means to have a religious view of life. Tho se
who are brought up within a particular religious tradition will bring to their studies
some understanding of the place of religion within their faith community and of the
consequences of belief for the members of that com munity. F or m any, however, religion
is seen as something strictly optional and extraneous to everyday life, interesting,
perha ps, bu t hardly of primary importance . A characteristic of primal religions is that
they form an integral part of the life of the com munity. T he whole way of perceiving
the world of most non-Western peoples is religious in nature. That is, there is a
recognition of transcendence and of the importance of myth, ritual and ceremony in
everyday life.
Primal religions also succeed in integrating a scientific and religious level of
explanation. Among the Azande of the southern Sudan, for example, as with many
other African peoples, misfortune an d death are often in terpreted as signs of witchcraft
(Evans-Pritchard, 1976). Witchcraft, for the A zande, combines a 'scientific' view of
biology (witchcraft can be revealed by autopsy as a physical substance in the stomach
or intestines and is inherited from one's parents), an d a psychological view of hum an
relationships. Accusations of witchcraft focus on existing areas of tension within the
comm unity. T he process of divination, accusation and healing can act as a means of
expressing and controlling difficult situations and individuals. From studying a
phenomenon such as witchcraft it is possible to appreciate the links between
psychological, social and physical health and to understand something of the relationship
between beliefs and social structure within a society. When teaching such a topic it
is vital that the m aterial is presented as forming a logical view of the w orld. Students
can be asked to explore their own explanations of events, whether expressed in terms
of random coincidence or within a religious framework.
A second reason for teaching primal religions in schools is that, well taught, they
can open up for pup ils a radically different way of perceiving the world. T he sensitivity
and respect with which Laurens van der Post describes and interprets Bushman
mythology, for example, provides a model for work of this kind. Through his own
enthusiasm, van der P ost communicates a vision of life which integrates the physical,
spiritual and mythological realms of existence in a rich and harmonious whole.
Studying primal religions can enable pupils to appreciate religion as a dynamic
process. Because many tribal peoples have been faced with th e radically different values
of Western social and religious systems, their own view of the world has often been
restructured to m ake sense of this experience. By exploring this process of change it
is possible to appreciate the function of religion as an explanation of the w orld. One
way in which this could be approached could be through the study of 'cargo cults'
(Lawrence, 1971). For a people with a simple technology encountering advanced
Western technology can be traumatic and challenging. Th e white man 's paraphernalia
is not locally produced and seems to appear miraculously. T he acquisition of material
goods, such as aeroplanes, record players, mirrors, guris, etc., is thought to be dependent
upon harnessing the white man's power. In parts of the Pacific this type of thinking
has led to well developed 'cargo cu lts' in w hich religious endeavour becomes directed
towards harnessing this pow er. Th ese cults are typically m illenarian, looking forward
to the time when the white man's goods will be delivered by aeroplane or ship for
the benefit of the cult practitioner. A study of cargo cults would link well with an
examination of millenarian or Utopian thinking in other religious traditions. It also serves
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to illustrate the link betw een social and metaphysical aspects of religious experience.
Primal religions provide a wealth of material for the study of religion in several
different dim ensions (cf. Sm art, 1968). Th e doctrinal dimen sion of religion is sometimes
treated as if it were paramount in the study of religion, but this aspect is often
underdeveloped in primal religions, which lack a written statement of belief. O the r
aspects of religion therefore attain greater importance. The second dimension of religion
put forward by Smart (ibid.) is the mythological dimens ion, and this is of fun damental
importance in m ost primal religions. Jud ith Ollington (1982:70) stresses the imp ortance
of myth and of mythological narrative at all stages of religious education, whether in
the form of the fairy story at prim ary level or in more so phisticated forms at secondary
level. Of the place of mythology in the curriculum she writes:
It is now widely recognised that without myth there can be no religion. By myth
is mean t here a story which is seen to have significance for hu ma n life. N arrative
is one of the most important forms of synthesis. It is the form through which
image and action are united, where the human being and the unpredictable
happenings to which he is subject are shaped into a pattern which makes living
possible.
There is no shortage of marvellous mythological material in the traditions of tribal
peoples. Primal religions illustrate the central importance of mythological narrative
in making sense of the, world.
;
Smart's third dimension of religion is the ethical dimension. This too can be well
demonstrated through a study of primal religions. All religions prescribe a particular
way of life and in primal religions this is often expressed through the maintenance
of good relations within the community. Children are enjoined to honour their elders
and elders to honour th eir ancestors. Supernatural sanctions are often invoked for those
who fail to fulfil the ethical demands of their religion.
A fourth dimension is that of experience. As the Schools Council handbook for
teachers puts it (1979:14): 'T his living faith in the life of believers is perhaps t he heart
of a religion'. It is vitally impo rtant to teach primal religions as living faiths a nd not
as evolutionary survivals. It is perhaps through novels that the experience of living
within a particular religious tradition can best be communicated. A particularly suitable
novel for use in secondary school would be Mugo Gatheru's account of his Kenyan
childhood in
Child of two Worlds
(1966). Throug h an appreciation of the importance
of religion for someone from a tradition very different from on e's ow n, the pup ils are
led to reflect upon their own responses to religion and of its place within their lives.
The ritual dimension of religion is richly demonstrated in primal religions. Some
North American Indian peoples, for example, believe that their ritual actions directly
affect the operation of the sun and stars. Their actions are of benefit to the whole of
creation, ens uring the correct passage of days and seas ons. Ritual is not a meaningless
frill bu t a vital instrume ntal tool for most tribal peoples. .-
The final dimension mentioned by Smart is the social dimension. As stated above
the integration of religious and social life is a feature of tribal societies and the study
of primal religions must ipso facto include the social dimension of religion.
As well as widening the study of Smart's dimensions of religion, primal religions
can increase our understanding of phenomena such as sacred places, visions, ritual
specialists, initiation rites, motivation, syncretism and responses to change.
Current Approaches to Primal Religions
In comparison with the major world religions, the teaching of primal religions in
schools has been largely neglected. Good teaching materials are hard to come by and ,
due to lack of guidance or thought, there is evidence that where primal religions are
taugh t they are not always dealt with as sensitively as they m ight be .
3
An examination
of some of the material currently available and of ways in which th e subject of p rimal
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It is unfortunate that little material of this quality on primal religions has been
produced for use in schools, but one useful book, intended for the senior primary or
junior secondary school pupil, is provided by Ray Bruce and Jane Wallbank in
Beginning
Religion (1986).
Beginning Religion
The book is divided into six chapters: Everyone asks Questions, The Way Back,
The World of Gods and Spir i ts, Contacting Gods and Spir i ts, Myths-Stories of the
Gods and Festivals and Ceremonies. Each cha pter is sub-divided into shorter sections,
which generally contain enough material for one single or double lesson with text,
illustrations and thing s to do . The tex t is of a high sta nda rd — the language is simple
and straightforward and the amount of information just sufficient to avoid
oversimplification of the topics. The suggested activities are varied and suitable for
different ability levels. As well as written comprehension tasks there are suggestions
for class discussion, poetry writing, researching, copying and imaginative drawing.
Th e rang e of topics covered provides an excellent basis for secondary religious studies.
The book starts with the question of the nature of religion and of religious
belief
and
then moves on to a study of Stone Age religion (based on archaeological evidence rathe r
than fanciful imagination or a study of 'primitive survivals').
Unfortunately, the introduction of the ethnographic material in Chapter Three, 'The
World of Gods and Spirits', makes an unnecessary connection between Stone Age beliefs
and 'tribal' societies, suggesting that the chief interest in studying these societies is
to find out more about Stone Age religion (18):
Des pite the archaeological evidence, however, we can still only guess as to wh at
Stone Age people believed. . . . Is there any way we can find out more about
these fundamental beliefs? Many scholars think we can try.
Th ere are many people today who live in societies that have chang ed very little
over the centuries. We call these groups of people ' tribes' and they live in such
places as Africa, Australia, South America and Asia. Scholars think that if we
stud y their religions we migh t have some idea abo ut t he earliest religious beliefs
of humankind which will add to what the archaeologists might tell us.
The tone of the rest of the book and the choice of themes and material suggest that
these societies are of interest in their own right and the links made are with other
contemporary beliefs, not Stone Age religion.
The topics covered, ranging from gods and spirits, ancestors, ritual specialists, myths,
healing, sacrifice and sacred places, to festivals and ceremonies and.rites of passage,
provide a n excellent basis for the study of world religions and o ther aspects of
belief.
There are also 'special studies' such as 'Dreamtime of the Australian Aborigines' and
' the Shaman
1
wh ich could be extended into more detailed project work. M y criticisms
of this book, which do not outweigh its general usefulness, concern a rather outdated
use of terminology and lack of awareness of contemporary anthropological thinking.
Beginning Religion
remains one of the few books which uses materials from primal
religions as a way of introdu cing im portan t areas in the stu dy of religion. The material
is attractively presented and amply demonstrates the value of primal religions in school
religious education.
Practica l App roache s to Primal Religions
In 1986 Devon County Council produced a set of six booklets entitled Practical
Approaches,
consisting of units of work taught in religious studies periods in Devon
classrooms. Tw o of the booklets cover the primary level, two m iddle school level and
two senior level. Among the work presented are some lessons which touch directly
or indirectly on the teaching of primal religions. The teachers describe their educational
aims,
resources, me thod s and prov ide an evaluation of the lesson. It is therefore possible
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to gain some insight into the way the topics are dealt with in the classroom. A lthough
full of useful and imaginative ideas, the evidence from these booklets suggests that
primal religions are often treated w ith an alarming lack of sophistication and without
sufficient background knowledge.
An example of a less successful exercise appears in a topic for a third year middle
school class (Middle Years: Part 2, Unit M21) entitled T h e Bear Cult '. Th e stated
objectives were: 'To develop a sympathetic awareness of the range of religious expression
in human society' and 'To investigate the role of the bear as an object of worship many
years ago'. The idea for the topic was sparked off by the visit of one of the children
to Dan-yr-Ogof in the Brecon Beacons where she had seen a cave painting of a bear
and a pile of bears' bones. The class compiled an information book about the topic
and some art work of life-size drawings and paintings of bears. T he information book
was intended to stress the importance of the bear as an early god-figure and the topics
which the children researched were:
The Bear as an Early God;
Rituals Connected with Bear-Hunting;
The Cult of the Cave Bear;
Symbols of the Bear Cult;
Totem Spirits;
Bears Big and Small;
The Original Teddy Bear.
I w ould regard this as a rather unhappy juxtaposition of unscientific speculation (there
is no evidence that the bear was 'an early go d'), living primal religions (totem spirits)
and sentimentality (the original teddy bear). T he way the topics are presented leads
to the suspicion that material from contemporary primal religions was drawn on
uncritically to provide a supposed explanation for the presence of bear paintings and
remains dating from the Stone Age. Apart from the incongruity of leaping over centuries
and co ntinen ts, such an approach leads inevitably to a trivialization of primal religions.
Tribal peoples are equated w ith our Stone Age ancestors and seen as survivals from
a primitive past. Although eginning Religion is quoted as an 'especially useful' resourc
the material it contains does not justify this type of approach.
4
A more successful series of lessons, described in Middle Years: (Unit M14), was
developed as the religious education component for a middle school environmental
studies project on trade. The teacher stated that:
I wanted the children to see the importance of religion as a force shaping society.
As we looked at trade, I planned that the following aspects of religion would
become evident:
i. Animism
ii.
Spirit magic and super-nature
iii. The Shaman
iv. Totemism
v. The Priest-King
vi.
The Sumerian Pantheon
vii. Temple building
Th e range of approaches employed was impressive, utilising art and craft (making totem
poles and masks), creative writing, literature, drama and dance and science. Material
from the ancient world and p rimal religions appear to have been imaginatively drawn
upon to illustrate the chosen themes. Unlike the previous example, there is no suggestion
of evolutionism. The only reservation I would express regarding this unit is the use
of the term 'animism' which has resonances of missionary tales of 'natives worshipping
trees and animals'. The term fails to convey the understanding of the natural world
in primal religions and is best avoided altogether.
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Place of Primal Religions within the Curriculum
Primal religions could be introduced into the curriculum in a variety of ways,
depending u pon the syllabus and priorities of the school and of the religious education
departm ent, and well taught can make a valuable contribution to the s tudy of religion.
At primary level children are likely to encounter religious studies as part of an integrated
humanities syllabus. Th ere is a danger that the religious education content of the syllabus
becomes watered down o r appears to be stuck on as an extra. T his is particularly th e
case when teaching biblical material. A project on 'the environment^ for example,
does not lead naturally to an examination of the environment of Palestine in the time
of Jesus (although this would n ot be impossible). A more natural link would be a study
of Bushman or Pygmy a ttitudes to their environment. This would involve an exploration
of religious attitudes towards the n atural world and of the place of humans w ithin the
world. The integration of religious belief and social and economic life could be drawn
out, leading to reflection on our own treatment of the environment and of our attitudes
to nature.
Another approach to integrated studies which lends itself to the teaching of primal
religions is the exploration of a particular region. Any region would lend itself to a
study of religious beliefs, practices and influences, bu t where the region chosen is outside
Europe or Asia, primal religions would almost certainly feature. ,A project on South
America, for example, w ould hardly m ake sense without an examination of religion
on the continent. T he religious education part of the course could include a study of
Inca and Aztec society and religion and the meeting of these peoples with the
Conquistadors. The genocide of these peoples only makes sense if one understands
the logic of Spanish Catholicism with its policy of baptism and the sword. The social
and religious life of Amazonian Indian peoples could be explored, along with a study
of contemporary Christian missionary activity. Finally the conflict between liberation
theology and conservative Catholicism could be included, at an appropriate level for
the age and ability of the children.
Th e choice of topics according to them es, either as part of a junior hum anities course
or within a religious education syllabus, is a popular approach at primary and junior
secondary level. Here too primal religions can make a valuable contribution. If a theme
such as 'He alth and Healing ' were proposed, for example, this might include attitudes
towards disease, the connection between psychological and physical health, explanations
of sickness in term s of spirit possession and/or sin (using biblical and contemporary
material), traditional healers, the role of the
shaman,
modern medicine, faith healing
and the attitudes towards suffering.
Other suitable themes which might include material from primal religions would
be: rites of passage and initiation, life after death and the treatment of ancestors, gods
and spirits, prayer, festivals and ceremonies, the role of dance, music and art in religion,
religious change, attitudes to authority, religious specialists, sacred places, and so on.
Th e list would be almost endless. The only topics which would not lend themselves
to the inclusion of material on primal religions would be sacred writings and doctrines.
Teaching Units on Primal Religions in Primary School
Th e following chart provides an indication of one way in which primal religions might
be included within a primary religious education syllabus (cf. Holm, 1984:140-141):
5-9 Hum an experience themes; material on how others live.
Families: an African family, an Inuit family.
Celebrations: celebrations surrounding birth and m arriage in the Pacific Islands.
School: education of an Amazonian Indian into traditional skills and values.
Age:
respect for the elderly and for ancestors in sub-Saharan Africa.
9-11 Explicit them es:
Creation Myths: creation myths from Africa, the Pacific, North America.
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Sacred Places: shrines to local spirits and deities in tropical Africa, Aborigine sacred
places.
Religious Specialists: Th e shaman in Central Europe, traditional healers in Afric
Life Cycles: rites of passage and the socialization of children in Tropical Africa,
Melanesia, North America.
Teaching Units on Primal Religions in Secondary School
First Year: eginning Religion (Bruce and W allbank).
Second Year: Project on American Indian religions. Novel.
Third Year:
Myth,
history
and ritual
(Schools Council: Journeys
into Religion).
Fo urth Year Religion and Society: Study of Itur i Pygmies and of their relationship
with the Bantu (Turnbull).
Fifth Year: Religious Change: Melanesian cargo cults.
Sixth Year: Religion and culture: Primal religions and mission Christianity.
Th e dep th at which these units are taught would depend upon th e time and resources
available. eginning
Religion,
used as a Fir st Year class text, for instance, could b
completed within a term or expanded to cover an entire F irst Year religious education
syllabus. A project on American Indians could be completed within four-six weeks
or consist of a term's work. The interest of the pupils and the amount of material in
other parts of the syllabus would obviously affect decisions of this kind . Unfortunately
there is n ot a great deal of scope for primal religions w ithin present religious studies
public examinations. The type of work done from the Fourth to Sixth Year would
therefore depend upon the ability and interest of the non-examination pupils.
Conclusion
Primal religions have an important contribution to make to children's understanding
and enjoyment of religion. A considerable variety of approaches can be adopted as the
material often lends itself to artistic and dramatic p resentation. T here is a wealth of
visual material available in the form of posters, film strips and videos, and this can
be supplemented by visits to outside exhibitions or by m ounting school displays. Novels
are another rich source of material, especially useful for giving an empathetic
understan ding of the experiential side of religion. The most important resource remains
the teacher and it is vital that she or he approaches the material in a spirit of critical
interest and respect and n ot as a nineteenth cen tury collector of the curious and bizarre.
References
1
Th e question of terminology is discussed by Geoffrey P arrinde r in his book Africa s Three Religio
(1969:8). He uses the term 'traditional religions' in preference to 'animism', 'fetishism' or 'polytheism',
but notes that both Islam and Christianity can be regarded as 'traditional religions' in Africa in the sense
that they have long traditions on the continent. Parrinder uses the term 'traditional religion' to refer
exclusively to 'th e older pre literate religions, mostly of tropical and southern A frica'. A similar discussion
can be found in John Fergu son's book Gods Many and Lords Many (1982:vii). Ferguson, like myself finally
opts for the term 'primal'.
1
Th e notion of belief is itself a peculiarly W estern and Christian pheno menon. W ilfred C antwell Smith
observed that:
The peculiarity of the place given to belief in Christian history is a monumental matter, whose
importance and relative uniqueness must be appreciated. So characteristic has it been that
unsuspecting Westerners have . . . been liable to ask about a religious group other than their own
as well, 'What do they believe?' as though this were the primary question, and certainly were a
legitimate one (1978:180).
When teaching about primal religions it is therefore necessary to give due weight to the mythological,
ethical, experiential, ritual and social dimensions of religion, and not merely the doctrinal dimension,
which figured prominently in traditional religious education syllabuses.
3
An example of recent material produced for schools which illustrates the dangers of thoughtless use
of terminology and the lack of a conceptual framework is provided in the little booklet Nature Religion
in the Hulton 'Our World: Life and Faith' series (1983). Although beautifully illustrated, the short text
is grossly oversimplified and dangerously m isleading. T he choice of material itself is pu zzling, consisting
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of the Masai of Tanzania and (Catholic) Indians of Peru. If the latter example was intended to examine
the fascinating question of religious syncretism and folk belief it totally fails to do so.
T he popu la r From Fear to Faith (Wigley and Pitcher, 1979) in the Longman 'Th e Developing Wor ld '
series,
displays similar confusion. The religious practices of many living peoples are described,
simplistically, in the past tense alongside Old Testament beliefs and customs. The continuity of belief and
continuing relevance of many of the practices described are ignored and the whole tenor of the book is
confessional in the worst sense. As the title of the book indicates, material on primal religions is used in
order to point to the superiority of the Christian message. I would suggest that a treatment of this sort does
not do justice to primal religions and can only serve to reinforce negative racial stereotypes in the eyes of
children using this book.
4
The unnecessary and rather c lumsy link made on p. 18 of Beginning Religion between Stone Age and
tribal peoples may have had the seriously misleading effect of encouraging the sort of comparisons put
forward in 'The Bear Cult*.
Bibliography
Bruce, R. , and Wallbank, J . , (1985): Beginning Religion, Edward Arnold.
Cole, W. O., (1978):
World Faiths in Education,
George Allen and Unwin.
Devon County Council Education Department, (1986): Practical Approaches, Series of six booklets on
Religious Education in Devon.
Evans-Pritchard, E . E . , (1976): Witchcraft Oracles and M agic among the Azande, O U P .
Ferguson, J., (1982):
Gods Many And Lords Many: A Study In Primal Religions,
Lutterworth Educational.
Gatheru, M., (1966): Child of Two Worlds, Heinemann .
Holm, J . , (1984): T eaching Religion in School, O U P .
Life and Faith/Our World series (1983): Nature Religions, Hul ton .
Lawrence, P . , (1971): Road Belong Cargo, M U P .
Ollington, J . , (1982): ' Images for Life? ' in M . F. Tickner D . H. Webster (eds.) , Religious Education
and the Imagination, Univ. of Hull (pp. 63-73).
Parrinder, G. , (1969): Africa s Three Religions, Sheldon.
Schools Council Religious Educati on in Secondary Schools Project, (1979): Journeys into Religion: Myth,
History and Ritual. Making Sense. Te acher s Handboo k A. Teacher s Handboo k B, Har t -Dav is .
Smart, N. , (1968):
Secular Education and the Logic of Religion,
Faber .
Smith, W . C , (1978): The Meaning and End of Religion, SPCK. Quoted in M. Ruel (1982): 'Christ ians
as Believers', in J. Davis (ed), Religious Organisation and Religious Experience (pp. 9-31), Academic Press,
(p .
9).
Turnbull , C. M., (1974): The Forest People, Book Club Assoc. (1976): Wayward Servants, Greenwood.
van der Post, L, (1961): The Heart of the Hunter, Hogarth Press.
Wigley , B ., Pitcher , R. , (1979):
From Fear to Faith,
The Developing World series , Longman.
The a uthor is a course tutor for the Op en University and has a doctorate in social anthropology. Her address
is 29 Bryntirion, Bethesda, Gwynedd LL57 3NG.
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