the processes by which dye is transferred from the liquor to the fibre are discussed briefly
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8/2/2019 The Processes by Which Dye is Transferred From the Liquor to the Fibre Are Discussed Briefly
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The processes by which dye is transferred from the liquor to the fibre
are discussed briefly. Dyes and fibres are complex in structure and
most dyeing systems are multicomponent; thus any attempt to
correlate the chemical structure of a fibre and the chemical structure
of the dyes that are used to dye it will probably have limited success.A simplified classification of some dyeing systems is given. In general,
dye-fibre systems may be divided into non-ionic and ionic systems,
the latter being subdivided into ionic systems with like and those with
unlike charges. These systems are discussed. Structural features of
the fibre that may influence the equilibrium sorption of dye are given
and the effects of fibre structure on the kinetics of dyeing are
considered. The dye-fibre system is analysed. There is no theory of
dyeing that can adequately describe practical behaviour.
(Ill) Diffusion: Accelerating the rate of diffusion of dye inside the fiber by piercing the insulating
layer
covering the fiber and interaction between dye and fiber.
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Bamboo Fiber | Bamboo Fabric | Production Process of
Bamboo Fabric | Uses of Bamboo Fabric
Bamboo fibres are cellulosic fibres produced from Bamboo Plants a type of grass. There are two
methods of producing bamboo fibres namely Mechanical method & Chemical method.
Mechanical methods are similar to Flax production ( retting, enzyme treatment, boiling,
scutching, cutting etc.,) and this gives Natural bamboo fibres. There are two types of Chemical
methods namely Bamboo Viscose Rayon method & Bamboo Lyocell method.Bamboo Viscose
Rayon method produces Bamboo fibres in the same way as Viscose Rayon production methods.
Bamboo Lyocell method produces Bamboo fibres in the same way as Lyocel / Tencel production
methods. But the majority of the bamboo fibres for textile application is produced by the Viscose
Rayon Production methods.Bamboo Fibres & Textiles are used in bed linen,...
Modern Concepts of The Theory of Dyeing
The general theory of dyeing explains the interaction between dye, fiber, water and dye auxiliary.
But the modern concept are some difference from general concept which are given below. It
appears that the mechanism of dyeing depends on the nature of both the dye and the fibre.
Textile fall into two main groups : vegetable and animals vegetable fibre is cellulose fibre, e.g.
cotton, lined, flax, hemp and jute. Animal fibres are protein fibre, e.g. wool, silk and leather.
There is also a third type of fibres, the artificial and synthetic fibres e.g. rayons (cellulose-type)
and nylons (protein-type). Dyeing was already practiced inn ancient times and has undergo many
changes in its development. The first hypothesis of purely mechanical character attempting to
explain the processes underlying...
Application of Dyeing Auxiliaries with Different Dyes |Uses of Dyeing Auxiliaries
Reactive Dyes (Anionic): They can be dyed on cellulosic fibers. The mechanism is nearly the
same as described in direct dyes. Advantage: high wet fastness due to covalent bonding
(Chemical Bonding) between fibers and dyes, easily dyed on fibers. Disadvantage: Expensive.
Dyeing Conditions: A. Continuous Process: 1 Pad-dry-bake This is very easy method for cotton
or cotton blends fibers. 2 Pad-dry-Pad (Chemical)-Steam This will give brighter and more intense
color than method 1. 3 Pad-batch This will put the goods into the dye solution and squeeze with
2 rubber rollers to get rid of excess water and then batch at room temperature for 1-2 days. B.
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Exhaustion Process: This method will be used in small factory. Dyeing conditions will be 40-
8OoC for 30-90 mm depending...
Historical background of textile Production inBangladesh
Textiles play an important role in the economic life of Bangladesh. The sector, in addition to
meeting the demand of fabrics and apparel domestically, contributes significantly to the textiles
and clothing (T&C) export trade. At present, more than 78 per cent of the countrys export
earnings come from T&C. The sector provides employment to a workforce of 4.5 million and
contributes 40 per cent value addition to the manufacturing sector. Textiles as a whole play the
most significant role in the alleviation of poverty,provision of employment to rural women and
economic empowerment of women. Thesector provides 200,000 jobs in the waste recycling
industry related to ready-madegarments (RMG), contributes 10.5 per cent to GDP, provides
indirect employment for an800,000-workforce in accessories...
Methods of Dyeing | Different Dyeing Methods | DirectDyeing | Stock Dyeing | Yarn Dyeing | Piece Dyeing |Garment Dyeing
Colour is applied to fabric by different methods of dyeing for different types of fiber and at
different stages of the textile production process. Dyeing can be done during any stage in the
textile manufacturing process. Textiles may be dyed as fibre, as yarn, as fabric, as garments,
depending upon the type of the fabric or garment being produced. These methods include direct
dyeing; Stock dyeing; top dyeing; Yarn dyeing; Piece dyeing; Solution pigmenting or dope
dyeing; Garment dyeing etc. Of these Direct dyeing and Yarn Dyeing methods are the most
popular ones. Direct Dyeing When a dye is applied directly to the fabric without the aid of an
affixing agent, it is called direct dyeing. In this method the dyestuff is either fermented (for natural
dye) or chemically reduced (for synthetic...
Dyeing Process | Process of Dyeing Technique
The dyeing process can thus be considered as taking place in three phasesAttachment of the
dye molecule to the surface of the fiber Penetration into the intermolecular spaces as well asdiffusion through the fiber & Orientation (and fixation) along the long chain molecules. Dyeing is
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governed by three factors, the dye, the fiber and the dye liquor. All the three lead an independent
assistance which influences the technique of dyeing. A dye must be water soluble in order to dye
textile materials. It may be soluble by nature of its chemical interference. The solution of the dye
from which it is applied is called the dye bath. A dye may have direct affinity for a fiber (or vice
versa) i.e., it is held by the fibre either physically (absorption) or chemically (combination) as
soon as the...
Functions of Dyeing Auxiliaries | Sequestering Agent |Dye Fixing Agent | Optical Brightener | Lubricating Agentor Anticreasing Agent | Levelling and Dispersing Agent |
Antifoamers | Desizing Agent | Mercerizing Agent |Soaping Agent / Washing off Agent | Finishing Chemicals
There are different dyeing auxiliaries. They will be classified according to their functions and
various uses. Dyeing auxiliaries provide high dyeing quality, process safety and increased
reproducibility on all kinds of substrates and machines, in a variety of processes and with all
classes of dyestuffs. Function of different dyeing auxiliaries are given below: Sequestrant: The
most undesirable impurities in Fibre, Common salt, Glauber salt, Caustic Soda and Soda ash are
the di- and tri-valent cations, e.g., Ca++, Mg ++ Cu ++, Fe+++ etc. These ions increase hardness
of the process bath and generate iron oxides in the bath. Calcium and Magnesium reacts with
alkali and precipitates as a sticky substance on the textile material, which creates patchy dyeing
and discoloration of the fibre. The...
Dyeing Auxiliaries | Classification of Dyeing AuxiliariesAccording to Function
Dyeing auxiliaries mean a chemical or formulated chemical product which enables a processingoperation in preparation, dyeing, printing or finishing to be carried out more effectively, or which
is essential if a given effect is to be obtained. Classification of Dyeing Auxiliaries According to
Function Dyeing Auxiliaries 1. Sequestrant. 2. Lubricants / Anticreasant. 3. Pretreatment
Chemicals 4. Levelling and Dispersing Agent. 5. Sewuestering, Dispersing and Levelling
Agentfor Reactive dyeing. 6. Antifoam. 7. pH Control and buffer system. 8. Desizing Agent 9.
Yarn Lubricant 10. Mercerising agent 11. Dyefixing agent 12. Optical Brightener. 13. Soaping
Agent / Washing off Agent. WQ762U88Z2W7 ...
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Dye | Classification of Dye According to Application
By definition Dyes can be said to be coloured, ionizing and aromatic organic compounds which
shows an affinity towards the substrate to which it is being applied. It is generally applied in a
solution that is aqueous. Dyes may also require a mordant to better the fastness of the dye on
the material on which it is applied. The dyes were obtained from animal, vegetable or mineral
origin with no or very little processing. By far the greatest source of dyes has been from the plant
kingdom, notably roots, berries, bark, leaves and wood, but only a few have ever been used on a
commercial scale. Classification of Dye According to ApplicationReactive Dyes Acid Dyes
Premetallized Dyes Direct Dyes Azoic (Napthol) Dyes Disperse Dyes Vat Dyes Sulfur Dyes
Basic Dyes 1. REACTIVE DYES Reactive dyes are...
Dyestuff | Characteristics for a Suitable Dyestuff |Classification of Dyestuffs
Dyestuff is organic or inorganic substances which can absorb light and reflect some lights to
show color. Actually, the dyestuff is water soluble substances. Criteria for a Suitable Dyestuff 1.
Cheap 2. Non-toxic 3. Compatible to other dyes and chemicals 4. High color strength 5. Better
brightness 6. Better fastness 7. Good levelness on the materials Exhaustion of the dye stuff to
the fibers is as follows: 1. Moving of dyestuff from dye bath to surface of the fiber 2. Adsorption of
the dyestuff into the surface of the fiber 3. Diffusion of the dyestuff into the center of the fiber.
Classification of Dyestuffs Dyestuffs can be classified according to two ways 1. According tocommon parent structure 2. According to application Classification according to common
parent...
Necessity of Auxiliaries in Textile Dyeing
A chemical or formulated chemical product which enables a processing operation
Read more:http://textilelearner.blogspot.com/2011_12_01_archive.html#ixzz1q8tRnVabaccelerating the
AVITERASE
Revolutionary Textile Dyeing Products Save Water
The next time you slip on a polo shirt from Lacoste or Marks & Spencer, you can take comfort in knowing the process
used to dye the fabric is contributing to the sustainability of one of our most precious resourceswater.
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The mills that these two clothing brands buy fabric from are using revolutionary product AVITERA SE, created by
Huntsman to significantly reduce water and energy consumption, as well as carbon dioxide(CO2) emissions during the
dyeing and washing-off process.
Why it matters
By 2030, the world demand for fresh water will increase by 40 percent. Textile dyeing and finishing processes consumevast amounts of water in the very parts of the world where it is most scarce. As environmental awareness grows, so
does demand for textiles produced in more sustainable ways yet at low cost.
Up to 26 gallons (100 liters) of water is needed to dye just two pounds (one kilogram) of cotton fabric. With AVITERA
SE, water usage is reduced to just three to f ive gallons (15 to 20 liters) per two pounds of material. With the new dyeing
technology, one quart (1.3 liters) of fresh water per person per day could potentially be saved in the major Asian textile
processing countries such as China, India and Bangladesh.
How it works
Cellulose fibers, such as cotton, viscose or linen, are the most widely used textile fibers. Depending on the year and
crop yields, about 30 millions tons of cotton are produced annually. By far the largest part of cellulose fibers is cotton.
Pure cotton is mostly dyed using reactive dyes.
The dyeing process takes place in three distinct phases:
Adsorption and DiffusionThe reactive dye is adsorbed onto the cellulose surface and then diffuses into the fiber matrix.
FixationIf conditions are favorable (high temperature and/or high pH), the reactive dye reacts with active sites in the
cellulose during this phase (fixation), resulting in a strong covalent bond.
Washing OffTo obtain the required fastness properties, all these forms of unfixed, adsorbed dye molecules must be
washed off the fiber.
Industrial practice has shown that with AVITERA SE, nearly 90 percent of the dye applied to cotton during dyeing isfixed, as opposed to 60 to 80 percent with conventional reactive dyes. This ensures higher yield.
Fabrics can be dyed and washed off at different temperatures and different quantities of water. Hot dyeing systems
require a temperature of 176F (80C) to make the bond between dyestuff and fabric permanent. These systems also
require boiling water and several rinsing baths to completely remove unfixed dyestuffs.
Conventional warm dyeing systems already offer the benefit of creating the necessary bonds at a lower temperature
140F (60C)but still require a lot of water and high temperature for an appropriate wash-off.
AVITERA SE dyes help significantly reduce water and energy consumption and CO2 emissions since dyeing and the
washing-off process never exceeds 60C.With only five percent or less unfixed dye needing to be removed, instead of
the usual 15 to 30 percent, the number of rinsing baths to obtain the required fastness properties is greatly reduced.
To ensure that AVITERA SE dyes achieve the targeted resource and cost savings, they must be correctly applied.
Huntsman Textile Effects works closely with textile mills to adapt their production processes and guarantee excellence
in operation, strict cost control and a sustainable system. Helping brands and retailers to coordinate with mills andcommunicate with consumers improves cooperation throughout the textile value chain, resulting in greater
environmental awareness and more sustainable textile process
What kinds of chemical bonds attach dyes to fibers?
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This isn't just a trivia question. The types of bonds directly
determine the properties of the dyes. The most permanent,
wash-fast dyes are the most tightly attached to the fiber
molecules. In addition, the requirements for forming the chemical
bonds are what determine the ingredients and method for each
recipe for dyeing.Fiber Reactive Dyes
Fiber reactive dyes, such as the dichlorotriazines (Procion MX
type dyes), are attached to the fiber by the same strong covalent
bonds that hold the atoms within the dye molecule together. The
dye actually becomes one molecule with the fiber molecule to
which it attaches. Covalent bonds are formed by electron sharingbetween atoms.Direct Dyes
Direct dyes, including that portion of"all purpose" dyes that is
left in cotton that has been dyed with them, are only loosely
associated with the fiber molecule through the property called
substantivity, which is the tendency of the dye to associate with
the dye without strong bonds. This substantivity is increased byincreasing the size of the dye molecule, so direct dyes tend to be
large. Small dye molecules tend to be bright, while large dye
molecules tend to be duller (as there are more parts that can
absorb additional wavelengths of light), so direct dyes are
generally much less bright in color than fiber reactive dyes.
Substantivity is said to result from a combination of the relatively
weak Van der Waals forces and some hydrogen bonding.Disperse Dyes
Disperse dyes, used for synthetic fibers such as polyester, work
by being vaporized by the heat of an iron or heat transfer press
and then condensing onto and into the fiber. (They can also by
induced to migrate into the fiber by boiling with a special carrier
chemical.) Unsurprisingly, such loosely associated dye may rub
off, though not visibly so. The fact that the dye can rub off on the
wearer makes this class of dye more allergenic than other types
of dye, though this is a problem for only a minority of people.
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Such people are happier wearing natural fibers that have been
dyed with fiber reactive dye.Acid Dyes
The attachment between acid dyes and the protein fibers thatthey join to are the most complex of all. Proteins are made of up
to twenty different amino acids, each of which has a different side
chain. At different pHs, different dyes can form rather strong
hydrogen bonding to various of these side chains. Many acid dyes
contain a sulfonic group, or, in some cases, a carboxylic group,
which can form a strong 'salt linkage' to a basic group in the wool
molecule. (See Ingamells, under "Further Reading", below.) A salt
linkage is an ionic bond between fixed ions of opposite charges,due to Coulombic interaction. The strength of this bond is
considered to be responsible for the washfastness of good acid
dyes.Note that certain specialized fiber reactive dyes are also used forwool, though the fiber reactive dyes commonly used for cotton,such as Procion MX dye, is said to not react appreciably with wool
under acid conditions; instead, the types of fiber reactive dyesused on cotton can be used simply as acid dyes with wool, even if
the reactive groups on the dye have 'gone bad' by reacting withwater. (The alkaline conditions normally used with Procion MXdye on cotton will damage wool, though they work fine on silk.)
Vat Dyes
Vat dyes, such as indigo, are trapped within the fiber by having
been converted to a form that is insoluble in water. The vat dye is
insinuated into the fiber while in a water-soluble form. This is apurely physical form of attachment, and not a chemical bond at
all. Vat dyes are very wash-fast, but have the opposite reputation
due to ring-dyeing. Ring dyeing is what happens when the dyer
fails to make sure that the dye thoroughly penetrates the fiber
shaft, but leaves only the surface of each fiber coated, so that
even a little bit of wearing removes the dyed layer. Normally this
is a sign of bad dye procedure, but the fading of blue jeans due to
abrasion is generally appreciated, as it implies greater age for agarment than is actually the case.
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Naphthol Dyes
Like Vat dyes, Naphthol dyes are held in the fiber in a water
insoluble form. The technique is quite interesting: any of a range
of diazo salts are combined on the fabricwith any of a range of
naphthols (azoic coupling agents). Their reaction results in the
formation of a water insoluble dye, typically of a very different
color than either of the two components. Various combinations
result in different colors. These dyes are widely used in batik
producting in southeast Asia; the use of wax in batik requires that
dye reactions not involve heat, so both naphthol dyes and cool
water fiber reactive dyes are suitable for this purpose. Naphtol
dyes are less expensive than many fiber reactive dyes, and
peculiarly suited to painting different colors immediately adjacent
to one another on fabric. Unfortunately, naphthol dyes are quite
toxic, and probably significantly carcinogenic, and are thus not
considered suitable for use at home or in the artist's studio.Natural Dyes
Natural dyes are, in most cases, acid dyes, which is why they will
bond to wool and other animal fibers, but not to cotton. A way to
improve attachment to wool, and to make some weak attachmentto cotton possible, is to use metal ions, sometimes including toxic
heavy metal ions, to form a bridge between the dye and the
fiber; this is called mordanting. Cotton is typically mordanted with
tannins in addition to metal ionsIndigo is a natural dye, but it is quite different from other naturaldyes, in that it is a member (the very first member) of the class
of dye known as vat dyes, see above.
Further Reading
This article is about the process of coloring usingdyes. For dying and the end of life, seedeath.
Whether to make the|reason= mandatory for the {{cleanup}}templateis being discussed. Seethe request for commentto help
reach a consensus.
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This article may requirecleanupto meet Wikipedia'squality standards. (Consider
usingmore specific cleanup instructions.) Please helpimprove this articleif you can. Thetalk
pagemay contain suggestions. (January 2011)
Pigments for sale at a market inGoa,India.
Cotton being dyed manually in contemporary India.
Dyeing is the process of adding color totextileproducts likefibers,yarns, andfabrics. Dyeing is
normally done in a specialsolutioncontainingdyesand particularchemical material. After dyeing,
dyemoleculeshave uncutChemical bondwith fiber molecules. Thetemperatureand time controlling
are two key factors in dyeing. There are mainly two classes of dye,naturalandman-made.
For most of the thousands of years in which dyeing has been used by humans to decorateclothing, or
fabrics for other uses, the primary source of dye has beennature, with the dyes being extractedfromanimalsorplants. In the last 150 years, humans have produced artificial dyes to achieve a
broader range of colors, and to render the dyes more stable to resist washing and general use.
Different classes of dyes are used for different types of fiber and at different stages of the textile
production process, from loose fibers through yarn and cloth to completed garments.
Acrylic fibers are dyed with basic dyes, Nylon and protein fibers such as wool and silk are dyed with
acid dyes, polyester yarn is dyed with disperse dyes. Cotton is dyed with a range of dye types,
including vat dyes, and modern synthetic reactive and direct dyes.
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Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Methods
o 2.1 Direct application
o 2.2 Yarn dyeing
3 Removal of dyes
4 See also
5 References
[edit]History
Main article:Natural dye
Archaeologistshave found evidence oftextiledyeing dating back to theNeolithicperiod. The earliest
surviving evidence of textile dyeing was found at the largeNeolithicsettlement atatalhykin
southernAnatolia, where traces of red dyes, possibly fromochre, aniron oxidepigmentderived
fromclay), were found.[1]
In China, dyeing with plants, barks and insects has been traced back more
than 5,000 years.[2]
Early evidence of dyeing comes from Sindh (Pakistan), where a piece of cotton
dyed with a vegetable dye has been recovered from the archaeological site atMohenjo-daro(3rd
millennium BCE).[3]
The dye used in this case wasmadder, which, along with other dyes such
asindigo, was introduced to other regions through trade.[3]
Natural insect dyes such asTyrian
purpleandkermesand plant-based dyes such aswoad, indigo and madder were important elementsof the economies of Asia and Europe until the discovery of man-madesynthetic dyesin the mid-19th
century. The first synthetic dyes wasWilliam Perkins'smauveinein 1856, derived fromcoal
tar.Alizarin, the red dye present in madder, was the first natural pigment to be duplicated
synthetically, in 1869,[4]
a development which led to the collapse of the market for naturally grown
madder.[5]
The development of new, strongly colored synthetic dyes followed quickly, and by the
1870s commercial dyeing wth natural dyestuffs was disappearing.
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an_purplehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dyeing#cite_note-bhardwaj.26jain-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigo_dyehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rubiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dyeing#cite_note-bhardwaj.26jain-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohenjo-darohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dyeing#cite_note-Goodwin11-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dyeing#cite_note-Barber223-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pigmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_oxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ochrehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatoliahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%87atalh%C3%B6y%C3%BCkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neolithichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neolithichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Textilehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archeologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_dyehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dyeing&action=edit§ion=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dyeing#Referenceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dyeing#See_alsohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dyeing#Removal_of_dyeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dyeing#Yarn_dyeinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dyeing#Direct_applicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dyeing#Methodshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dyeing#Historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dyeing 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[edit]Methods
Dyeing inFes, Morocco.
Dyes are applied to textile goods by dyeing from dye solutions and by printing from dye pastes.
[edit]Direct application
This section requiresexpansion.
The term "direct dye application" stems from some dyestuff having to be either fermented as in the
case of some natural dye or chemicallyreducedas in the case of synthetic vat and sulfur dyes before
being applied. This renders the dye soluble so that it can be absorbed by the fiber since the insoluble
dye has very little substantivity to the fiber. Direct dyes, a class of dyes largely for dyeing cotton, are
water soluble and can be applied directly to the fiber from an aqueous solution. Most other classes of
synthetic dye, other than vat and surface dyes, are also applied in this way.
The term may also be applied to dyeing without the use ofmordantsto fix the dye once it is applied.
Mordants were often required to alter the hue and intensity of natural dyes and improve their color
fastness.Chromiumsalts were until recently extensively used in dying wool with synthetic mordant
dyes. These were used for economical high color fastness dark shades such asblackandnavy.Environmental concern has now restricted their use, and they have been replaced with reactive and
metal complex dyes which need no mordant.
[edit]Yarn dyeing
There are many forms of yarn dyeing. Common forms are the at package form and the at hanks form.
Cotton yarns are mostly dyed at package form, and acrylic or wool yarn are dyed at hank form. In the
continuous filament industry, polyester or polyamide yarns are always dyed at package form, while
viscose rayon yarns are partly dyed at hank form because of technology.[6]
The common dyeing process of cotton yarn with reactive dyes at package form is as follows:
1. The raw yarn is wound on a spring tube to achieve a package suitable for dye penetration.
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2. These softened packages are loaded on a dyeing carrier's spindle one on another.
3. The packages are pressed up to a desired height to achieve suitable density of packing.
4. The carrier is loaded on the dyeing machine and the yarn is dyed.
5. After dyeing, the packages are unloaded from the carrier into a trolly.
6. Now the trolly is taken to hydro extractor where water is removed.
7. The packages are hydro extracted to remove the maximum amount of water leaving the
desired color into raw yarn.
8. The packages are then dried to achieve the final dyed package.
After this process, the dyed yarn packages are packed and delivered.
[edit]Removal of dyes
If things go wrong in the dyeing process, the dyer may be forced to remove the dye already applied by
a process that is normally known as stripping. This normally means destroying the dye with powerful
reducing agents (sodium hydrosulphite) or oxidizing agents (hydrogen peroxide or sodium
hypochlorite). The process often risks damaging the substrate (fiber). Where possible, it is often lessrisky to dye the material a darker shade, with black often being the easiest or last option.
[edit]See also
Wikimedia Commons has
media related to:Dyeing
Glossary of dyeing terms
[edit]References
1. ^Barber (1991), pp. 223-225.
2. ^Goodwin, Jill. A Dyer's Manual, Pelham, 1982. ISBN 0720713277p. 11.
3. ^abBhardwaj, H.C. & Jain, K.K., "Indian Dyes and Industry During 18th-19th Century", Indian Journal
of History of Science17(11): 70-81,New Delhi:Indian National Science Academy.
4. ^Hans-Samuel Bien, Josef Stawitz, Klaus Wunderlich Anthraquinone Dyes and Intermediates in
Ullmanns Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry 2005 Will;.,ey-VCH, Weinheim:
2005.doi:10.1002/14356007.a02355.
5. ^Goodwin (1982), p. 65
6. ^Farer Thread
2.4. Cation exchange capacity tests
Bache [37] method was used in this study because of its simplicity. The soil samples,
which dried at 105
0
C and weighed 4-5 gr, were saturated to Na
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dyeing&action=edit§ion=5http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dyeing&action=edit§ion=5http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dyeing&action=edit§ion=5http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dyeing&action=edit§ion=6http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dyeing&action=edit§ion=6http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dyeing&action=edit§ion=6http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Dyeinghttp://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Dyeinghttp://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Dyeinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_dyeing_termshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_dyeing_termshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dyeing&action=edit§ion=7http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dyeing&action=edit§ion=7http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dyeing&action=edit§ion=7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dyeing#cite_ref-Barber223_0-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dyeing#cite_ref-Barber223_0-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dyeing#cite_ref-Goodwin11_1-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dyeing#cite_ref-Goodwin11_1-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dyeing#cite_ref-bhardwaj.26jain_2-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dyeing#cite_ref-bhardwaj.26jain_2-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dyeing#cite_ref-bhardwaj.26jain_2-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dyeing#cite_ref-bhardwaj.26jain_2-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dyeing#cite_ref-bhardwaj.26jain_2-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Delhihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Delhihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Delhihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_National_Science_Academyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_National_Science_Academyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_National_Science_Academyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dyeing#cite_ref-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dyeing#cite_ref-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1002%2F14356007.a02http://dx.doi.org/10.1002%2F14356007.a02http://dx.doi.org/10.1002%2F14356007.a02http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dyeing#cite_ref-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dyeing#cite_ref-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dyeing#cite_ref-5http://www.farerthread.com/http://www.farerthread.com/http://www.farerthread.com/http://www.farerthread.com/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dyeing#cite_ref-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dyeing#cite_ref-4http://dx.doi.org/10.1002%2F14356007.a02http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dyeing#cite_ref-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_National_Science_Academyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Delhihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dyeing#cite_ref-bhardwaj.26jain_2-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dyeing#cite_ref-bhardwaj.26jain_2-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dyeing#cite_ref-Goodwin11_1-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dyeing#cite_ref-Barber223_0-0http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dyeing&action=edit§ion=7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_dyeing_termshttp://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Dyeinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dyeing&action=edit§ion=6http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dyeing&action=edit§ion=5 -
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+
with sodium acetate
(CH3COONa.3H2O) solution (1 N) at pH 8.2. When the samples were fully saturated
with Na
+
, ethanol (95%) was used to wash out excess salt and the Na
+
cations were
replaced with NH4
+
by using a ammonium acetate (CH3COONH4) solution (1 N) at pH
7.0. Then, the amount of sodium in the solution was determined by the atomic adsorption
method and the cation exchange capacity of the samples was calculate with below
equation:
N xD
W
CEC meq g f
4
10
( / 100 ) = (1)
Where Nf is concentration of sodium ion in extract, D is density coefficient of
ammonium acetate solition, and W is oven-dry sample weight (g).
2.5. pH and zeta potential tests
The pH of the samples were determined using the method of Eades and Grim [38], which
involves mixing the solids with pure water (1:5 solid: water), periodically shaking
samples, and then testing with a pH meter after 1 hour.
The zeta potential of the samples were measured using a Zeta Meter 3.0 (Zeta Meter Inc.)
-
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equipped with a microprocessor unit. The unit automatically calculates the
electrophoretic mobility of the particles and converts it to the zeta potential using the
2.6. Swelling pressure tests
The swelling pressure tests were performed on compacted soil samples using an
oedometer apparatus with a diameter of 75 mm and heigth of 20 mm following Method C
proposed ASTM (ASTM D4546). The samples were confined in the consolidation ring
and they were saturated with water and allowed to swell freely. As the samples were
swelling, the deflection of the dial gauge was set up to zero. As a result, the samples
showed no further tendency to swell and the maximum surcharge load, P, was used for
the calculation of the swelling pressure.
3. Results and Discussion
In the following sections, the effects of additives on the variatons of the CEC, the pH, the
zeta potential, and the swelling pressure in three expansive soils treated with additives are
presented. The findings of the experimental tests are discussed and compared with the
other studies in the literature
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