the policy-making process. the policymaking process every policy has a unique history, but each...
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The Policymaking Process Every policy has a unique history, but each
generally goes through five basic steps.
1. Agenda Setting2. Policy Formulation3. Policy Adoption4. Policy Implementation5. Policy Evaluation
Setting the Agenda “Agenda building may occur as the result of a
crisis, a technological change, a mass media campaign, as well as through the efforts of a strong political personality or lobby groups.”
Most important decision affecting policy-making is deciding what belongs on the political agenda -Shared beliefs determine what is legitimate.-Legitimacy affect by: Shared political values Weight of custom and tradition Impact of events (war, depressions) Changes in ways political elites think about politics
The Legitimate Scope of Government Action
Always gets larger (nothing is illegitimate today)
May be enlarged without public demand even when conditions improving
Groups: a motivating force in adding new issues May be organized (corporations) or disorganized
(urban minorities) May react to sense of relative deprivation – people’s
feeling that they are worse off than they expected (example – riots of the 1960s)
May produce an expansion of government agenda (example – new commissions and laws)
May change the values and beliefs of others (example – white response to urban riots)
Institutions: a second force adding new issues to agendaCourts- favorite method (don’t need popular support)
Make decisions that force action by other branches: school desegregation, abortion. They can change the political agenda
Bureaucracy -Source of political innovation due to size and expertise
Thinks up problems to solve Forms alliances with senators and their staffs
Senate Contrary to the intent of the Framers – a major source of
change Media
Help place issues on political agenda. Publicizes those issues raised by others, such as safety standards proposed by Senate
The Legitimate Scope of Government Action
The Legitimate Scope of Government Action
Action by the states Sometimes laws are pioneered in states Lawsuits in states can have national effect (Tobacco)
Evolution of political agendaChanges in popular attitudes- gradual change
Critical events- spur rapid changeElite attitudes and Govt actions- interdependent change, sometimes volatile
Making a Decision Nature of issue
Affects politicking Affects intensity of political conflict
Costs and benefits of proposed policy a way to understand how issue affects political power Cost: any burden, monetary or nonmonetaryBenefit: any satisfaction, monetary or
nonmonetary Two aspects of costs and benefits important:
Perception affects politics People consider whether it is legitimate for a
group to benefit
Making a Decision
Politics a process of settling disputes about who benefits and who ought to benefit
People prefer programs that provide benefits at low cost
Perceived distribution of costs and benefits shapes the kinds of political coalitions that form but not who wins
Four Points of Public PolicyMajoritarian Politics: a policy in
which almost everybody benefits and almost everybody pays.Distributed Benefits, Distributed Costs Gives benefits to large numbers Distributes costs to large numbers Initial debate in ideological or costs terms
(for example, military budget)
Four Points of Public PolicyInterest Group Politics: A policy in
which one small group benefits and another small group pays Concentrated Benefits, Concentrated Costs Gives benefits to relatively small groupCosts imposed on another small group Debate carried on by interest groups (ex.
labor unions versus businesses)Public often uninformed
Four Points of Public Policy
Client Politics: a policy in which one small group benefits and almost everybody pays. Concentrated Benefits, Distributed Costs Relatively small group benefits; group has incentive to
organize Costs distributed widely Most people unaware of costs, sometimes in form of pork
barrel projects
oPork-barrel legislation = legislation that gives tangible benefits to constituents in several districts or states in the hope of winning votes in return.
oLogrolling = a legislator supports a proposal favored by another in return for support of his or hers.
Four Points of Public PolicyEntrepreneurial Politics: a policy in which
almost everybody benefits and a small group pays the cost. Distributed Benefits, Concentrated Costs Gives benefits to large numbers Costs imposed on small groupSuccess may depend on people who work on
behalf of unorganized majorities (Ex. Ralph Nader “consumer advocate”)
Legitimacy of client claims is important Ex. Superfund sites
Types of Policy Politics: Breakdown
Costs Benefits
Majoritarian Large group Large group
Interest Group Small Group Small group
Client Large group Small group
Entrepreneurial Small group Large group
The Case of Business Regulation Which is true?
Large corporations threaten popular rulePolitics is threat to market economy
All four types of politics have had a unique history leading to policies impacting various groups of people.
= Meat Inspection Act of 1906
Majoritarian PoliticsAnti-trust legislation in the 1890’s
Public opinion strongly against monopolies (“trusts”) but was unfocused (no single target, no specific legislation)
Anti-trust laws strengthened in 20th century
Enforcement based on broad philosophies rather than interest groups
Interest Group PoliticsLabor-Management Conflict
1935 unions sought govt protection of their rights
Govt passed the Wagner Actcreated the National Labor Relations Board (NLRB)
1947 Taft-Hartley Act- made certain union practices illegal, pres could block a strike if it effected “national health or safety”
1959 Landrum Griffin Act- more restrictions…another win for business
Politics of ConflictHighly publicized struggleWinners/losers determined by partisan Congress
Client PoliticsAgency capture: when an agency charged with regulating
becomes too closely tied to the firm it’s supposed to regulate Very likely in Client Politics! The agency has been created to serve the interests of a particular group
But, regulation aren’t always a burden…sometimes they are a benefitEx. Laws regulate practice of law and medicinePrevents fraud, malpractice, safety issues and restricts
entrance into the occupation. Great for everyone!Little public opposition because:
Public not awarePeople believe regulations protect themCosts are not always obvious or not big enough to make
anyone careClient Politics for special interests is declining
Entrepreneurial PoliticsCaused by policy entrepreneur dramatizing issue, gaining
public opinion and mobilizing Congressional supportSometimes that person is in govt, sometimes a private
citizen (but they will need support from someone within)Crisis or scandal helps (or simply public fear of it)Debate on issue usually is extreme and moralistic
“Do you want you kids to get cancer??”Great risk is that the agency will be “captured” and
regulations not enforced (Ex. FDA and pharmaceutical companies)
Newer agencies less vulnerable because:Standards specific, timetables strictUsually regulate many different industries, no unified
oppositionPublic interest lobbies and media keep the agency honest
Perceptions, Beliefs, Interests, & Values
Problem of definitionCosts and benefits not completely defined in money terms
Cost/benefit a matter of perception Political conflict largely a struggle to make one set of beliefs about costs and benefits prevail over another
Types of arguments“Here-and-now” argument- tendency to discount the future
Cost argument-tendency to react more to what you will lose rather than gain
Perceptions, Beliefs, Interests, & Values
The role of values: our concept of what is good for our community or our country Emphasis on self-interest
Deregulation- end of govt-imposed regulationsEx: airline fares, long-distance telephone rates,
trucking A challenge to “iron triangles” and client politics Explanation: the power of ideas (why regulate
competitive industries?)Presidents since Ford have continued the trend by
reviewing regulationsMany groups oppose deregulation- look at means not
endProcess regulation- improve consumer, worker, or
environ. conditions
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