the homesteading handbook : a back to basics guide to growing your own food, canning, keeping...

TheHomesteadingHandbook

ABacktoBasicsGuidetoGrowingYourOwnFood,Canning,KeepingChickens,GeneratingYourOwnEnergy,

Crafting,HerbalMedicine,andMore

AbigailGehring

TableofContents

TitlePageCopyrightPagePARTONE-TheHomeGardenPlanningaGardenImprovingYourSoilConservingWaterMulchinginYourGardenandYardOrganicGardeningTerracingStartYourOwnVegetableGardenStartYourOwnFlowerGardenPlantingTreesContainerGardeningRooftopGardensRaisedBedsGrowingPlantswithoutSoilPestandDiseaseManagementHarvestingYourGarden

PARTTWO-ThePantryCanningDryingandFreezingEdibleWildPlantsandMushroomsMakeYourOwnFoods

PARTTHREEChickensDucksTurkeysBeekeepingGoats

SheepLlamas

PARTFOUR-SimpleStructuresforYourLandDoghousesBirdhousesSimpleStablesPoultryHousesFences,Gates,andPensBasicBridgesToolShedsandWorkshopsSmokehousesRootCellars

PARTFIVE-EnergySolarEnergyWindEnergyHydropowerGeothermalEnergyCompostingToiletsGreywater

PARTSIX-CraftsHandmadeCandlesMakingYourOwnSoapPotteryBasicsKnittingTyingKnots

PARTSEVEN-Well-BeingHerbalMedicineFirstAid

PARTONETheHomeGarden

“MygreenthumbcameonlyasaresultofthemistakesImadewhilelearningtoseethingsfromtheplant’spointofview.”

—H.FredAle

Creatingagarden—whetherit’sasingletomatoplantinapotonyourwindowsillorafullacrechock-fullofflowersandveggies—takesimagination,hardwork,abitofplanning,patience,andawillingnesstotakerisks.Therearesomefactorsyoucancontrol,liketheconditionofthesoilyouburyyourseedsin,thetimeofyearyoustartplanting,andwhatplantsyouputwhere.Buttherewillalwaysbesituationsyoucan’tpredict;youmightgetafrostinJune,anolddiscardedpumpkinseedmightsproutupinthemiddleofyourmagnolias,orthecatcouldknockyourbasilplantoffthecountertoitsdemiseonthekitchenfloor.Thiselementofsurpriseisoneofthejoysandchallengesofgardening.Ifyoucanlearntoskillfullynavigatethefactorsinyourcontrolandaccepttheunpredictablecircumstanceswithpatienceandasenseofhumor,you’llhavemasteredagreatlifelesson.Thefollowingpagesaremeanttohelpyouwiththatfirstpart:gainingtheknowledgeandinsightyouneedtogiveyourgardenthebestchanceofthriving.Fromunderstandingaplant’sbasicneeds,toproperlypreparingsoil,toprotectingagainstweedsandharmfulinsects,thissectioncoversallthegardeningbasics.Beyondthat,you’llfindinformationongrowingplantswithoutsoil,tipsforkeepingyourgardenorganic,andinspirationforgardeninginurbanenvironments.Thereislittleinlifeasrewardingasenjoyingasaladcomposedentirelyofthingsyou’vepickedfromyourowngarden.Butgardeningisalsoabouttheprocess:Ifyoucanlearntolovethefeelofthedirt

betweenyourfingers,theburninyourmusclesasyoudig,andthequiet,slowwayinwhichsproutsreachtowardthesun,nomomentofyourlaborwillhavebeenawaste,regardlessoftheendresults.

PlanningaGarden

BasicPlantRequirementsBeforeyoustartagarden,it’shelpfultounderstandwhatplantsneedinordertothrive.Someplants,likedandelions,aretolerantofawidevarietyofconditions,whileothers,suchasorchids,haveveryspecificrequirementsinordertogrowsuccessfully.Beforespendingtime,effort,andmoneyattemptingtogrowanewplantinagarden,todosomeresearchtolearnabouttheconditionsthataparticularplantneedsinordertogrowproperly.

Environmentalfactorsplayakeyroleinthepropergrowthofplants.Someoftheessentialfactorsthatinfluencethisnaturalprocessareasfollows:

1.LengthofDayTheamountoftimebetweensunriseandsunsetisthemostcriticalfactorinregulatingvegetativegrowth,blooming,flowerdevelopment,andtheinitiationofdormancy.Plantsutilizeincreasingdaylengthasacuetopromotetheirgrowthinspring,whiledecreasingdaylengthinfallpromptsthemtopreparefortheimpendingcoldweather.Manyplantsrequirespecificdaylengthconditionsinordertobloomandflower.

2.Light

Lightistheenergysourceforallplants.Cloudy,rainydaysoranyshadecastbynearbyplantsandstructurescansignificantlyreducetheamountoflightavailabletotheplant.Inaddition,plantsadaptedtothriveinshadyspacescannottoleratefullsunlight.Ingeneral,plantswillonlybeabletosurvivewhereadequatesunlightreachesthematlevelstheyareabletotolerate.

3.Temperature

Plantsgrowbestwithinanoptimalrangeoftemperatures.Thistemperaturerangemayvarydrasticallydependingontheplantspecies.Someplantsthrivein

environmentswherethetemperaturerangeisquitewide;otherscanonlysurvivewithinaverynarrowtemperaturevariance.Plantscanonlysurvivewheretemperaturesallowthemtocarryonlife-sustainingchemicalreactions.

Somegardensrequiremoreplanningthanothers.Flowergardenscanbecarefullyarrangedtocreatepatternsortocontainaspecificrangeofcolors,ortheycanbemorecasual,asthisgardenis.However,alwayskeepinminda

plant’sspecificenvironmentalneedsbeforechoosingaplaceforit.

Someplants,likecacti,thriveinhot,dryconditions.

4.Cold

Plantsdifferbyspeciesintheirabilitytosurvivecoldtemperatures.Temperaturesbelow60°Finjuresometropicalplants.Conversely,arcticspeciescantoleratetemperatureswellbelowzero.Theabilityofaplanttowithstandcoldisafunctionofthedegreeofdormancypresentintheplant,itswaterstatus,anditsgeneralhealth.Exposuretowind,brightsunlight,orrapidlychangingtemperaturescanalsocompromiseaplant’stolerancetothecold.

5.Heat

Aplant’sabilitytotolerateheatalsovarieswidelyfromspeciestospecies.Manyplantsthatevolvedtogrowinarid,tropicalregionsarenaturallyveryheattolerant,whilesub-arcticandalpineplantsshowverylittletoleranceforheat.

6.Water

Differenttypesofplantshavedifferentwaterneeds.Someplantscantoleratedroughtduringthesummerbutneedwinterrainsinordertoflourish.Otherplantsneedaconsistentsupplyofmoisturetogrowwell.Carefulattentiontoaplant’sneedforsupplementalwatercanhelpyoutoselectplantsthatneedaminimumofirrigationtoperformwellinyourgarden.Ifyouhavepoorlydrained,chronicallywetsoil,youcanselectlovelygardenplantsthatnaturallygrowinbogs,marshlands,andotherwetplaces.

7.SoilpH

Aplantroot’sabilitytotakeupcertainnutrientsdependsonthepH—ameasureoftheacidityoralkalinity—ofyoursoil.MostplantsgrowbestinsoilsthathaveapHbetween6.0and7.0.Mostericaceousplants,suchasazaleasandblueberries,needacidicsoilswithapHbelow6.0togrowwell.Limecanbeusedtoraisethesoil’spH,andmaterialscontainingsulfates,suchasaluminumsulfateandironsulfate,canbeusedtolowerthepH.ThesolubilityofmanytraceelementsiscontrolledbypH,andplantscanonlyusethesolubleformsoftheseimportantmicronutrients.

Feelingthesoilcangiveyouasenseofhownutrient-richitis.Dark,crumbly,softsoilisusuallyfullofnutrients.However,determiningthepHrequiresasoil

test(seepage9).

ABasicPlantGlossary

Hereissometerminologycommonlyusedinreferencetoplantsandgardening:annual—aplantthatcompletesitslifecycleinoneyearorseason.

arboretum—alandscapedspacewheretrees,shrubs,andherbaceousplantsarecultivatedforscientificstudyoreducationalpurposes,andtofosterappreciationofplants.

axil—theareabetweenaleafandthestemfromwhichtheleafarises.

bract—aleaflikestructurethatgrowsbelowaflowerorclusterofflowersandisoftencolorful.Coloredbractsattractpollinators,andareoftenmistakenforpetals.Poinsettiaandfloweringdogwoodareexamplesofplantswithprominentbracts.

coldhardy—capableofwithstandingcoldweatherconditions.

conifers—plantsthatpredatetrue,floweringplantsinevolution;coniferslacktrueflowersandproduceseparatemaleandfemalestrobili,orcones.Someconifers,suchasyews,havefruitsenclosedinafleshyseedcovering.

cultivar—acultivatedvarietyofaplantselectedforafeaturethatdistinguishesitfromthespeciesfromwhichitwasselected.

deciduous—havingleavesthatfallofforareshedseasonallytoavoidadverseweatherconditions,suchascoldordrought.

herbaceous—havinglittleornowoodytissue.Mostperennialsorannualsareherbaceous.

hybrid—aplant,orgroupofplants,thatresultsfromtheinterbreedingoftwodistinctcultivars,varieties,species,orgenera.

inflorescence—afloralaxisthatcontainsmanyindividualflowersinaspecificarrangement;alsoknownasaflowercluster.

nativeplant—aplantthatlivesorgrowsnaturallyinaparticularregionwithoutdirectorindirecthumanintervention.

panicle—apyramidal,looselybranchedflowercluster;apanicleisatypeofinflorescence.

perennial—aplantthatpersistsforseveralyears,usuallydyingbacktoaperennialcrownduringthewinterandinitiatingnewgrowtheachspringshrub—alow-growing,woodyplant,usuallylessthan15feettall,thatoftenhasmultiplestemsandmayhaveasuckeringgrowthhabit(thetendencytosproutfromtherootsystem).

taxonomy—thestudyofthegeneralprinciplesofscientificclassification,especiallytheorderlyclassificationofplantsandanimalsaccordingtotheirpresumednaturalrelationships.

tree—awoodyperennialplanthavingasingle,usuallyelongated

mainstem,ortrunk,withfewornobranchesonitslowerpart.

wildflower—aherbaceousplantthatisnativetoagivenareaandisrepresentativeofunselectedformsofitsspecies.

woodyplant—aplantwithpersistentwoodypartsthatdonotdiebackinadverseconditions.Mostwoodyplantsaretreesorshrubs.

PartsofaFlower

SelectingaSiteforYourGardenSelectingasiteforyourgardenisthefirststepingrowingthevegetables,fruits,

andherbsthatyouwant.Youdonotneedalargespaceinordertogrowasignificantamountofvegetables,fruit,andherbs.Creatingagardenthatisabout25feetsquareshouldbequitesufficientforafamily.Itisimportantthatyoudon’tstartoffwithaspacethatistoolarge—itisbettertostartsmallandthenworkyourwayupifyoufindthatgardeningissomethingthatyoutrulyenjoy.

FiveFactorstoConsiderWhenChoosingaGardenSite

1.Sunlight

Sunlightiscrucialforthegrowthofvegetablesandotherplants.Inorderforyourgardentogrow,yourplantswillneedatleastsixhoursofdirectsunlightperday.Inordertomakesureyourgardenreceivesanampleamountofsunlight,don’tselectagardensitethatwillbeintheshadeoftrees,shrubs,houses,orotherstructures.Certainvegetables,suchasbroccoliandspinach,growjustfineinshadierspots,soifyourgardendoesreceivesomeshade,makesuretoplantthosetypesofvegetablesintheshadierareas.However,onawhole,ifyourgardendoesnotreceiveatleastsixhoursofintensesunlightperday,itwillnotgrowasefficientlyorsuccessfully.

2.Proximity

Anotherconsiderationishowcloseyouplaceyourgardentoyourhome.Ifyourgardenisclosertoyourhouseandeasytoreach,youwillmostlikelyuseitmoreoften—andtoitsfullestpotential.Havingagardenclosetoyourhomewillhelpyoutopickyourvegetablesandfruitattheirpeakripeness,allowingyouaccesstoanabundanceoffreshproduceonaregularbasis.Weeding,watering,andcontrollingpestsareallmorelikelytobeattendedtoifyourgardenissituatednearyourhome.Overall,gardensplacedclosertothehomewillreceivemoreattentionandthusbehealthierandmoreproductive.

3.SoilQuality

Contrarytosomebeliefs,youdonotneedhigh-qualitysoiltostartandgrowaproductivegarden.However,itisbesttohavesoilthatisfertile,isfulloforganicmaterialsthatprovidenutrientstotheplantroots,andiseasytodigandtill.Loose,well-drainedsoilisidealforgrowingagoodgarden.Ifthereisasectionofyouryardwherewaterdoesnoteasilydrainafteragood,soakingrain,itisbestnottoplantyourgardeninthatarea,astheexcesswaterwillmost

likelydrownyourgardenplants.Furthermore,soilsthatareofaclayorsandyconsistencyarenotaseffectiveingrowingplants.Tomakethesetypesofsoilsmorenutrient-richandfertile,addinorganicmaterials(suchascompostormanure)toimprovetheirquality.

Ifyoudon’thaveenoughspaceforafullgarden,youcanplantinflowerpotsorothercontainers.Pottedplantsareespeciallyconvenientbecauseyoucanmove

themaroundtogetmorelightortomakewateringeasier.

Agardenofabout25feetsquareshouldbeadequatetoproduceenoughvegetablesforafamilyoffourtosixtoenjoy.

4.WaterAvailability

Waterisvitaltokeepingyourgardengreen,healthy,andproductive.Asuccessfulgardenneedsaround1inchofwaterperweektothrive.Rainand

irrigationsystemsareeffectiveinmaintainingthis1-inch-per-weekquota.Situatingyourgardennearaspigotorhoseisideal,allowingyoutokeepthesoilmoistandyourplantshappy.

5.Elevation

Itisessentialtomakesureyourgardenisnotlocatedinanareawhereaircannotcirculateandwherefrostquicklyforms.Placingyourgardeninalow-lyingarea,suchasatthebaseofaslope,shouldbeavoided,astheselowerareasdonotwarmasquicklyinthespring,andfrostformsquicklyduringthespringandfallsincethecoldaircollectsintheseareas.Yourgardenshould,ifatallpossible,beelevatedslightly,ongroundthatishigherup.Thisway,yourgardenplantswillbelesslikelytobeaffectedbyfrostandyou’llbeabletostartyourgardengrowingearlierinthespringandharvestwellintothefall.

SomeOtherThingstoConsider

Whenplanningoutyourgarden,itisusefultosketchadiagramofwhatyouwantyourgardentolooklike.Whatsortsofplantstoyouwanttogrow?Doyouwantagardenpurelyforgrowingvegetablesordoyouwanttomixinsomefruits,herbs,andwildflowers?Choosingtheappropriateplantstogrownexttoeachotherwillhelpyourgardengrowwellandwillprovideyouwithampleproducethroughoutthegrowingseason(seethechartsonthispage).

Gloves,atrowel,andawateringcanaresomeofthemostbasictoolsyoushouldhaveonhandforgardening.

Whenplantingagarden,besuretohaveaccesstomanytypesoftools.You’llneedaspadeordiggingforkfordiggingholesforseedsorseedlings(or,ifthe

soilislooseenough,youcanjustuseyourhands).You’llalsoneedatrowel,rake,orhoetosmoothoverthegardensurface.Ameasuringstickishelpfulwhenspacingyourplantsorseeds(ifyoudon’thaveameasuringstick,youcanuseaprecutstringtomeasure).Ifyouareplantingseedlingsorestablishedplants,youmayneedstakesandstringtotiethemup(sotheydon’tfalloverininclementweatherorwhentheystartproducingfruitorvegetables).Finally,ifyouareinterestedininstallinganirrigationsystemforyourgarden,youwillneedtobuytheappropriatematerialsforthispurpose.

CompanionPlantingPlantshavenaturalsubstancesbuiltintotheirstructuresthatrepelorattractcertaininsectsandcanhaveaneffectonthegrowthrateandeventheflavoroftheotherplantsaroundthem.Thus,someplantsaideachother’sgrowthwhenplantedincloseproximityandothersinhibiteachother.Smartcompanionplantingwillhelpyourgardenremainhealthy,beautiful,andinharmony,whiledeterringcertaininsectpestsandotherfactorsthatcouldbepotentiallydetrimentaltoyourgardenplants.

Thesechartslistvarioustypesofgardenvegetables,herbs,andflowersandtheirrespectivecompanionand“enemy”plants.

Vegetables

TypeCompanion plant(s) Avoid

Asparagus Tomatoes,parsley,basil Onion,garlic,potatoes

Beans Eggplant Tomatoes,onion,kales

Beets Mint Runnerbeans

Broccoli Onion,garlic,leeks Tomatoes,peppers,mustard

Cabbage Onion,garlic,leeks Tomatoes,peppers,beans

Carrot Leeks,beans Radish

Celery Daisies,snapdragons Corn,asterflower

Corn Legumes,squash,cucumber Tomatoes,celery

Cucumber Radishes,beets,carrots Tomatoes

Eggplant Marigolds,mint Runnerbeans

Leeks Carrots Legumes

Lettuce Radish,carrots Celery,cabbage,parsley

Melon Pumpkin,squash None

Peppers Tomatoes Beans,cabbage,kales

Onion Carrots Peas,beans

Peas Beans,corn Onion,garlic

Potato Horseradish Tomatoes,cucumber

Tomatoes Carrots,celery,parsley Corn,peas,potato,kales

Type CompanionPlant(s) Avoid

Basil Chamomile,anise Sage

Chamomile Basil,cabbage Otherherbs(itwillbecomeoily)

Cilantro Beans,peas None

Chives Carrots Peas,beans

Dill Cabbage,cucumber Tomatoes,carrots

Fennel Dill Everythingelse

Garlic Cucumber,peas,lettuce None

Oregano Basil,peppers None

Peppermint Broccoli,cabbage None

Rosemary Sage,beans,carrots None

Sage Rosemary,beans None

Summer Onion,greenbeans None

savory

Beebalmdoeswellinpartialshade.Itsbrightcolorandsweetnectarhaveatendencytoattractbeesandhummingbirds.

Flowers

TypeCompanion Plant(s) Avoid

Geraniums Roses,tomatoes None

Marigolds Tomatoes,peppers,mostplants None

Petunias Squash,asparagus None

Sunflowers Corn,tomatoes None

Tansies Roses,cucumber,squash None

PlantsfortheShadeItisbesttosituateyourgardeninanareathatreceivesatleastsixhoursofdirectsunlightperday—especiallyifyouwanttogrowvegetablesorfruits.However,

iftheonlypartofyouryardsuitableforgardeningisblockedbypartialorfullshade(orpartofyoursunlitgardenreceivespartialshadeduringtheday),youcanstillgrowplentyofthingsintheseareas—youjustneedtoselectplantsthatgrowbestinthesetypesofenvironments.Itisagoodidea,eitherwhenbuyingseedlingsfromyourlocalnurseryorplantingyourownseeds,toreadtheaccompanyinglabelorpacketordoalittleresearchbeforeplantingtomakesureyourplantswillthriveinashadierenvironment.

Floweringplantsthatdowellinpartialandfullshade:BeebalmBleedingheartColeusDaylilyFernGlobedaisyImpatiensLilyofthevalleyPansyPersianvioletRueanemoneSweetalyssumBellflowerCardinalflowerColumbineDichondraForget-me-notGoldenbleedingheartLeopardbaneMeadowruePeriwinklePrimroseSnapdragonThyme

Vegetableplantsthatcangrowinpartialshade:ArugulaBeetsBrusselssprouts

EndiveLeaflettuceRadishSwisschardBeansBroccoliCauliflowerKalePeasSpinach

Beetslikecoolweatheranddowellinshadyareaswithrichsoil.Plantbeetsatleast1inchdeepand2inchespart.Weedregularlytoensurestrongroot

development.

ImprovingYourSoil

Whengardening,itisessentialtohavenutrient-rich,fertilesoilinordertogrowthebestandhealthiestplants—plantsthatwillsupplyyouwithqualityfruits,vegetables,andflowers.Sometimes,soillosesitsfertility(orhasminimumfertilitybasedontheregioninwhichyoulive),andsomeasuresmustbetakeninordertoimproveyoursoiland,subsequently,yourgarden.

SoilQualityIndicatorsSoilqualityisanassessmentofhowwellsoilperformsallofitsfunctionsnowandhowthosefunctionsarebeingpreservedforfutureuse.Thequalityofsoilcannotjustbedeterminedbymeasuringroworgardenyield,waterquality,oranyothersingleoutcome,norcanitbemeasureddirectly.Thus,itisimportanttolookatspecificindicatorstobetterunderstandthepropertiesofsoil.Plantscanprovideuswithcluesabouthowwellthesoilisfunctioning—whetheraplantisgrowingandproducingqualityfruitsandvegetablesorfailingtoyieldsuchthingsisagoodindicatorofthequalityofthesoilit’sgrowingin.

Indicatorsaremeasurablepropertiesofsoilorplantsthatprovidecluesabouthowwellthesoilcanfunction.Indicatorscanbephysical,chemical,andbiologicalproperties,processes,orcharacteristicsofsoils.Theycanalsobevisualfeaturesofplants.

Usefulindicatorsofsoilquality:areeasytomeasuremeasurechangesinsoilfunctionsencompasschemical,biological,andphysicalpropertiesareaccessibletomanyusersaresensitivetovariationsinclimateandmanagement

Indicatorscanbeassessedbyqualitativeorquantitativetechniques,suchassoiltests.Aftermeasurementsarecollected,theycanbeevaluatedbylookingforpatternsandcomparingresultstomeasurementstakenatadifferenttime.

Goodsoilisusuallydark,moist,anddense.

Spinachandothergreen,leafyvegetablestendtodowellinshadyareas.Justbesuretheygetenoughwater;treesorothershade-producingcanopiescanalso

blockrainfall.

Examplesofsoilqualityindicators:1. SoilOrganicMatter—promotessoilfertility,structure,stability,nutrient

retention,andhelpscombatsoilerosion.2. PhysicalIndicators—theseincludesoilstructure,depth,infiltrationand

bulkdensity,andwaterholdcapacity.Qualitysoilwillretainandtransportwaterandnutrientseffectively;itwillprovidehabitatformicrobes;itwillpromotecompactionandwatermovement;and,itwillbeporousandeasytoworkwith.

3. ChemicalIndicators—theseincludepH,electricalconductivity,and

extractablenutrients.Qualitysoilwillbeatitsthresholdforplant,microbial,biological,andchemicalactivity;itwillalsohaveplantnutrientsthatarereadilyavailable.

4. BiologicalIndicators—theseincludemicrobialbiomass,mineralizablenitrogen,andsoilrespiration.Qualitysoilisagoodrepositoryfornitrogenandotherbasicnutrientsforprosperousplantgrowth;ithasahighsoilproductivityandnitrogensupply;andthereisagoodamountofmicrobialactivity.

SoilandPlantNutrients

NutrientManagement

Thereare20nutrientsthatallplantsrequire.Sixofthemostimportantnutrients,calledmacronutrients,are:calcium,magnesium,nitrogen,phosphorous,potassium,andsulfur.Ofthese,nitrogen,phosphorus,andpotassiumareessentialtohealthyplantgrowthandsoarerequiredinrelativelylargeamounts.Nitrogenisassociatedwithlushvegetativegrowth,phosphorusisrequiredforfloweringandfruiting,andpotassiumisnecessaryfordurabilityanddiseaseresistance.Calcium,sulfur,andmagnesiumarealsorequiredincomparativelylargequantitiesandaidintheoverallhealthofplants.

Theothernutrients,referredtoasmicronutrients,arerequiredinverysmallamounts.Theseincludesuchelementsascopper,zinc,iron,andboron.Whilebothmacro-andmicronutrientsarerequiredforgoodplantgrowth,over-applicationofthesenutrientscanbeasdetrimentaltotheplantasanutrientdeficiency.Over-applicationofplantnutrientsmaynotonlyimpairplantgrowth,butmayalsocontaminategroundwaterbypenetratingthroughthesoilormaypollutesurfacewaters.

SoilTesting

TestingyoursoilfornutrientsandpHisimportantinordertoprovideyourplantswiththeproperbalanceofnutrients(whileavoidingover-application).Ifyouareestablishinganewlawnorgarden,asoiltestisstronglyrecommended.Thecostofsoiltestingisminorincomparisontothecostofplantmaterialsandlabor.Correctingaproblembeforeplantingismuchsimplerandcheaperthanafterwards.

Onceyourgardenisestablished,continuetotakeperiodicsoilsamples.Whilemanypeopleroutinelylimetheirsoil,thiscanraisethepHofthesoiltoohigh.Likewise,sincemanyfertilizerstendtolowerthesoil’spH,itmaydropbelowdesirablelevelsafterseveralyears,dependingonfertilizationandothersoilfactors,sooccasionaltestingisstronglyencouraged.

HometestsforpH,nitrogen,phosphorus,andpotassiumareavailablefrommostgardencenters.Whilethesemaygiveyouageneralideaofthenutrientsinyoursoil,theyarenotasreliableastestsperformedbytheCooperativeExtensionServiceatlandgrantuniversities.Universityandothercommercialtestingserviceswillprovidemoredetail,andyoucanrequestspecialtestsformicronutrientsifyoususpectaproblem.Inadditiontotheanalysisofnutrientsinyoursoil,theseservicesoftenproviderecommendationsfortheapplicationofnutrientsorhowbesttoadjustthepHofyoursoil.

ThetestforsoilpHisverysimple.pHisameasureofhowacidicoralkalineyoursoilis.ApHof7isconsideredneutral.Below7isacidicandabove7isalkaline.SincepHgreatlyinfluencesplantnutrients,adjustingthepHwilloftencorrectanutrientproblem.AtahighpH,severalofthemicronutrientsbecomelessavailableforplantuptake.Irondeficiencyisacommonproblem,evenataneutralpH,forsuchplantsasrhododendronsandblueberries.AtaverylowsoilpH,othermicronutrientsmaybetooavailabletotheplant,resultingintoxicity.

ThiselectronicsoiltesterrunsononeAAbatteryandgivespH,nutrient,andmoisturelevelreadingswithinminutes.

Todeterminethevariouslayersofyoursoil,calledyour“soilprofile,”acoresamplecanbetaken.Thisrequiresaboringmachine,whichwillinsertahollowcorerod,or“probe”liketheseshownhere,deepintothegroundtoextractsoil.Thelayerswillbedistinguishablebythechangeinsoilcolor.Severalcore

samplescanbemixedtogetherforamoreaccuratesoiltest.

Phosphorusandpotassiumaretestedregularlybycommercialtestinglabs.Whiletherearesoiltestsfornitrogen,thesemaybelessreliable.Nitrogenispresentinthesoilinseveralformsthatcanchangerapidly.Therefore,apreciseanalysisofnitrogenismoredifficulttoobtain.Mostuniversitysoiltestlabsdonotroutinelytestfornitrogen.Hometestingkitsoftencontainatestfornitrogenthatmaygiveyouageneral,thoughnotnecessarilycompletelyaccurate,ideaofthepresenceofnitrogeninyourgardensoil.

Organicmatterisoftenpartofasoiltest.Organicmatterhasalargeinfluenceonsoilstructureandsoishighlydesirableforyourgardensoil.Goodsoilstructureimprovesaeration,watermovement,andretention.Thisencouragesincreasedmicrobialactivityandrootgrowth,bothofwhichinfluencetheavailabilityofnutrientsforplantgrowth.Soilshighinorganicmattertendtohaveagreatersupplyofplantnutrientscomparedtomanysoilslowinorganicmatter.Organicmattertendstobindupsomesoilpesticides,reducingtheireffectiveness,andsothisshouldbetakenintoconsiderationifyouareplanningtoapplypesticidestoyourgarden.

Testsformicronutrientsareusuallynotperformedunlessthereisreasontosuspectaproblem.Certainplantshavegreaterrequirementsforspecific

micronutrientsandmayshowdeficiencysymptomsifthosenutrientsarenotreadilyavailable.(Seethechartlistingnutrientdeficiencysymptomsonpage57.)

StepsforTakingaSoilTest

1. Ifyouintendtosendyoursampletothelandgrantuniversityinyourstate,contactthelocalCooperativeExtensionServiceforinformationandsamplebags.Ifyouintendtosendyoursampletoaprivatetestinglab,contactthemforspecificdetailsaboutsubmittingasample.

2. Followthedirectionscarefullyforsubmittingthesample.Thefollowingaregeneralguidelinesfortakingasoilsample:

Samplewhenthesoilismoistbutnotwet.Obtainacleanpailorsimilarcontainer.Clearawaythesurfacelitterorgrass.Withaspadeorsoilauger,digasmallamountofsoiltoadepthof6inches.Placethesoilinthecleanpail.Repeatsteps3through5untiltherequirednumberofsampleshasbeencollected.Mixthesamplestogetherthoroughly.Fromthemixture,takethesamplethatwillbesentforanalysis.Sendimmediately.Donotdrybeforesending.

3. Ifyouareusingahomesoiltestingkit,followtheabovestepsfortakingyoursample.Followthedirectionsinthetestkitcarefullysoyoureceivethemostaccuratereadingpossible.

EnrichingYourSoil

OrganicandCommercialFertilizersandReturning

NutrientstoYourSoil

Onceyouhavetheresultsofthesoiltest,youcanaddnutrientsorsoilamendmentsasneededtoalterthepH.Ifyouneedtoraisethesoil’spH,uselime.Limeismosteffectivewhenitismixedintothesoil;therefore,itisbesttoapplybeforeplanting(ifyouapplylimeinthefall,ithasabetterchanceofcorrectinganysoilacidityproblemsforthenextgrowingseason).Forlargeareas,rototillingismosteffective.Forsmallareasoraroundplants,workingthelimeintothesoilwithaspadeorcultivatorispreferable.Whenworkingaroundplants,becarefulnottodigtoodeeplyorroughlysothatyoudamageplantroots.Dependingontheformoflimeandthesoilconditions,thechangeinpHmaybegradual.Itmaytakeseveralmonthsbeforeasignificantchangeisnoted.SoilshighinorganicmatterandclaytendtotakelargeramountsoflimetochangethepHthandosandysoils.

IfyouneedtolowerthepHsignificantly,especiallyforplantssuchasrhododendrons,youcanusealuminumsulfate.Inallcases,followthesoiltestormanufacturer’srecommendedratesofapplication.Again,mixingwellintothesoilisrecommended.

Afterrototillingormixinginthefertilizerwithaspade,youmaywishtorakeoutthesoiltomakeitsmoothandwellaerated.

Therearenumerouschoicesforprovidingnitrogen,phosphorus,andpotassium,thenutrientsyourplantsneedtothrive.Nitrogen(N)isneededforhealthy,greengrowthandregulationofothernutrients.Phosphorus(P)helpsrootsandseedsproperlydevelopandresistdisease.Potassium(K)isalsoimportantinrootdevelopmentanddiseaseresistance.Ifyoursoilisofadequatefertility,applyingcompostmaybethebestmethodofintroducingadditional

nutrients.Whilecompostisrelativelylowinnutrientscomparedtocommercialfertilizers,itisespeciallybeneficialinimprovingtheconditionofthesoilandisnontoxic.Bykeepingthesoilloose,compostallowsplantrootstogrowwellthroughoutthesoil,helpingthemtoextractnutrientsfromalargerarea.Aloosesoilenrichedwithcompostisalsoanexcellenthabitatforearthwormsandotherbeneficialsoilmicroorganismsthatareessentialforreleasingnutrientsforplantuse.Thenutrientsfromcompostarealsoreleasedslowly,sothereisnoconcernabout“burning”theplantwithanover-applicationofsyntheticfertilizer.

Manureisalsoanexcellentsourceofplantnutrientsandisanorganicmatter.Manureshouldbecompostedbeforeapplying,asfreshmanuremaybetoostrongandcaninjureplants.Becarefulwhencompostingmanure.Ifleftintheopen,exposedtorain,nutrientsmayleachoutofthemanureandtherunoffcancontaminatenearbywaterways.Makesurethemanureisstoredinalocationawayfromwellsandanywaterwaysandthatanyrunoffisconfinedorslowlyreleasedintoavegetatedarea.Improperlyappliedmanurealsocanbeasourceofpollution.Ifyouarenotcompostingyourownmanure,youcanpurchasesomeatyourlocalgardenstore.Forbestresults,workcompostedmanureintothesoilaroundtheplantsorinyourgardenbeforeplanting.

Ifpreparingabedbeforeplanting,compostandmanuremaybeworkedintothesoiltoadepthof8to12inches.Ifaddingtoexistingplants,workcarefullyaroundtheplantssoasnottoharmtheexistingroots.

Greenmanuresareanothersourceoforganicmatterandplantnutrients.Greenmanuresarecropsthataregrownandthentilledintothesoil.Astheybreakdown,nitrogenandotherplantnutrientsbecomeavailable.Thesemanuresmayalsoprovideadditionalbenefitsofreducingsoilerosion.Greenmanures,suchasryeandoats,areoftenplantedinthefallafterthecropshavebeenharvested.Inthespring,thesearetilledunderbeforeplanting.

Withallorganicsourcesofnitrogen,whethercompostormanure,thenitrogenmustbechangedtoaninorganicformbeforetheplantscanuseit.Therefore,itisimportanttohavewell-drained,aeratedsoilsthatprovidethefavorablehabitatforthesoilmicroorganismsresponsiblefortheseconversions.

Therearealsonumeroussourcesofcommercialfertilizersthatsupplynitrogen,phosphorus,andpotassium,thoughitispreferabletouseorganicfertilizers,suchascompostandmanures.However,ifyouchoosetouseacommercialfertilizer,itisimportanttoknowhowtoreadtheamountofnutrientscontainedineachbag.Thefirstnumberonthefertilizeranalysisisthe

percentageofnitrogen;thesecondnumberisphosphorus;andthethirdnumberisthepotassiumcontent.Afertilizerthathasa10-20-10analysiscontainstwiceasmuchofeachofthenutrientsasa5-10-5.Howmuchofeachnutrientyouneeddependsonyoursoiltestresultsandtheplantsyouarefertilizing.

Aswasmentionedbefore,nitrogenstimulatesvegetativegrowthwhilephosphorusstimulatesflowering.

Soil TestReading WhattoDo

Highph Yoursoilisalkaline.Tolowerph,addelementalsulfur,gypsum,orcottonseedmeal.Sulfurcantakeseveralmonthstoloweryoursoil’sph,asitmustfirstconverttosulfuricacidwiththehelpofthesoil’sbacteria.

Lowph Yoursoilistooacidic.Addlimeorwoodashes.

Lownitrogen

Addmanure,hornorhoofmeal,cottonseedmeal,fishmeal,ordriedblood.

Highnitrogen

Yoursoilmaybeover-fertilized.Waterthesoilfrequentlyanddon’taddanyfertilizer.

Lowphosphorus

Addcottonseedmeal,bonemeal,fishmeal,rockphosphate,driedblood,orwoodashes.

Highphosphorous

Yoursoilmaybeover-fertilized.Avoidaddingphosphorous-richmaterialsandgrowlotsofplantstouseuptheexcess.

Lowpotassium

Addpotash,woodashes,manure,driedseaweed,fishmeal,orcottonseedmeal.

Highpotassium

Continuetofertilizewithnitrogenandphosphorous-richsoiladditions,butavoidpotassium-richfertilizersforatleasttwoyears.

Poordrainageortoomuch

Ifyoursoilisaheavy,clay-likeconsistency,itwon’tdrainwell.Ifit’stoosandy,itwon’tabsorbnutrientsasitshould.Mixinpeatmossorcomposttoachieveabettertexture.

toomuchdrainage

Mixinpeatmossorcomposttoachieveabettertexture.

Toomuchnitrogencaninhibitfloweringandfruitproduction.Formanyflowersandvegetables,afertilizerhigherinphosphorusthannitrogenispreferred,suchasa5-10-5.Forlawns,nitrogenisusuallyrequiredingreateramounts,soafertilizerwithagreateramountofnitrogenismorebeneficial.

Forpottedplants,youcanapplyfertilizeraroundtheedgeofthepotifneeded,buttrytoavoiddirectcontactbetweentheplant’sroots,leaves,orstem,andthe

fertilizer.

FertilizerApplication

Commercialfertilizersarenormallyappliedasadry,granularmaterialormixedwithwaterandpouredontothegarden.Ifusinggranularmaterials,avoidspillingonsidewalksanddrivewaysbecausethesematerialsarewatersolubleandcancausepollutionproblemsifrinsedintostormsewers.Granularfertilizersareatypeofsalt,andifappliedtooheavily,theyhavethecapabilityofburningtheplants.Ifusingaliquidfertilizer,applydirectlytooraroundthebaseofeachplantandtrytocontainitwithinthegardenonly.

Inordertodecreasethepotentialforpollutionandtogainthegreatestbenefitsfromfertilizer,whetherit’sacommercialvariety,compost,orotherorganic

materials,applyitwhentheplantshavethegreatestneedforthenutrients.Plantsthatarenotactivelygrowingdonothaveahighrequirementfornutrients;thus,nutrientsappliedtodormantplants,orplantsgrowingslowlyduetocooltemperatures,aremorelikelytobewasted.Whilelightapplicationsofnitrogenmayberecommendedforlawnsinthefall,generally,nitrogenfertilizersshouldnotbeappliedtomostplantsinthefallinregionsofthecountrythatexperiencecoldwinters.Sincenitrogenencouragesvegetativegrowth,ifitisappliedinthefallitmayreducetheplant’sabilitytohardenproperlyforwinter.

Insomegardens,youcanreducefertilizerusebyapplyingitaroundtheindividualplantsratherthanbroadcastingitacrosstheentiregarden.Muchofthephosphorusinfertilizerbecomesunavailabletotheplantsoncespreadonthesoil.Forbetterplantuptake,applythefertilizerinabandneartheplant.Donotapplydirectlytotheplantorincontactwiththeroots,asitmayburnanddamagetheplantanditsrootsystem.

ACheapWaytoFertilize

Ifyouarelookingtosavemoneywhilestillprovidingyourlawnandgardenwithextranutrients,youcandosobysimplymowingyourlawnonaregularbasisandleavingthegrassclippingstodecomposeonthelawn,orspreadingthemaroundyourgardentodecomposeintothesoil.Annually,thiswillprovidenutrientsequivalenttooneortwofertilizerapplicationsanditisacompletelyorganicmeansofboostingasoil’snutrientcontent.

Thefertilizerinthisgardenhasonlybeenappliedtothegardenrows.

RulesofThumbforProperFertilizerUse

Itisbesttoapplyfertilizerbeforeoratthetimeofplanting.Fertilizerscaneitherbespreadoveralargeareaorconfinedtogardenrows,dependingontheconditionofyoursoilandthetypesofplantsyouwillbegrowing.Afterspreading,tillthefertilizerintothesoilabout3to4inchesdeep.Onlyspreadaboutonehalfofthefertilizerthiswayandthendispatchtherest3inchestothesidesofeachrowandalsoalittlebeloweachseedorestablishedplant.Thismethod,minusthespreader,isusedwhenapplyingfertilizertospecificrowsorplantsbyhand.

HowtoProperlyApplyFertilizertoYourGarden

Applyfertilizerwhenthesoilismoist,andthenwaterlightly.Thiswillhelpthefertilizermoveintotherootzonewhereitsnutrientsareavailabletotheplants,ratherthanstayingontopofthesoilwhereitcanbeblownorwashedaway.Watchtheweather.Avoidapplyingfertilizerimmediatelybeforeaheavyrainsystemispredictedtoarrive.Toomuchrain(orsprinklerwater)willtakethenutrientsawayfromthe

lawn’srootzoneandcouldmovethefertilizerintoanotherwatersystem,contaminatingit.Usetheminimumamountoffertilizernecessaryandapplyitinsmall,frequentapplications.Anapplicationoftwopoundsoffertilizer,fivetimesperyear,isbetterthanfivepoundsoffertilizertwiceayear.Ifyouarespreadingthefertilizerbyhandinyourgarden,weargardeningglovesandbesurenottodamagetheplantorrootsaroundwhichyouarefertilizing.

CompostinginYourBackyardCompostingisnature’sownwayofrecyclingyardandhouseholdwastesbyconvertingthemintovaluablefertilizer,soilorganicmatter,andasourceofplantnutrients.Theresultofthiscontrolleddecompositionoforganicmatter—adark,crumbly,earthy-smellingmaterial—workswondersonallkindsofsoilbyprovidingvitalnutrientsandcontributingtogoodaerationandmoisture-holdingcapacity,tohelpplantsgrowandlookbetter.

Compostingcanbeassimpleorasinvolvedasyouwouldlike,dependingonhowmuchyardwasteyouhave,howfastyouwantresults,andtheeffortyouarewillingtoinvest.Sinceallorganicmattereventuallydecomposes,compostingspeedsuptheprocessbyprovidinganidealenvironmentforbacteriaandotherdecomposingmicroorganisms.Thecompostingseasoncoincideswiththegrowingseason,whenconditionsarefavorableforplantgrowth,sothosesameconditionsworkwellforbiologicalactivityinthecompostpile.However,sincecompostgeneratesheat,theprocessmaycontinuelaterintothefallorwinter.Thefinalproduct—calledhumusorcompost—looksandfeelslikefertilegardensoil.

CommonCompostingMaterials

Cardboard

Coffeegrounds

Corncobs

Cornstalks

Foodscraps

Grassclippings

Hedgetrimmings

Livestockmanure

Newspapers

Plantstalks

Pineneedles

Oldpottingsoil

Sawdust

Seaweed

Shreddedpaper

Teabags

Telephonebooks

Treeleavesandtwigs

Vegetablescraps

Weedswithoutseedheads

Woodchips

Woodybrush

Avoidusing:

Breadandgrains

Cookingoil

Dairyproducts

Deadanimals

Diseasedplantmaterial

Dogorcatmanure

Greaseoroilyfoods

Meatorfishscraps

Noxiousorinvasiveweeds

Weedswithseedheads

CompostPreparation

Whileamultitudeoforganisms,fungi,andbacteriaisinvolvedintheoverallprocess,therearefourbasicingredientsforcomposting:nitrogen,carbon,water,andair.

Awiderangeofmaterialsmaybecompostedbecauseanythingthatwasoncealivewillnaturallydecompose.Thestartingmaterialsforcomposting,commonlyreferredtoasfeedstocks,includeleaves,grassclippings,straw,vegetableandfruitscraps,coffeegrounds,livestockmanure,sawdust,andshreddedpaper.However,somematerialsthatshouldalwaysbeavoidedincludediseasedplants,deadanimals,noxiousweeds,meatscrapsthatmayattractanimals,anddogorcatmanure,whichcancarrydisease.Sinceaddingkitchenwastestocompostmayattractfliesandinsects,makeaholeinthecenterofyourpileandburythewaste.

Mostofyourhouseholdfoodwastecanbecomposted.Avoidcompostingmeatscraps,dairyproducts,grains,orverygreasyfoods.

Thecalciumineggshellsencouragescellgrowthinplants.Youcanevenmixcrushedeggshellsdirectlyintothesoilaroundtomatoes,zucchini,squash,andpepperstopreventblossomendrot.Eggshellsalsohelpdeterslugs,snails,and

cutworm.

Forbestresults,youwillwantanevenratioofgreen,orwet,material,which

ishighinnitrogen,andbrown,ordry,material,whichishighincarbon.Simplylayerormixlandscapetrimmingsandgrassclippings,forexample,withdriedleavesandtwigsinapileorenclosure.Ifthereisnotagoodsupplyofnitrogen-richmaterial,ahandfulofgenerallawnfertilizerorbarnyardmanurewillhelpevenouttheratio.

Thoughrainprovidesthemoisture,youmayneedtowaterthepileindryweatherorcoveritinextremelywetweather.Themicroorganismsinthecompostpilefunctionbestwhenthematerialsareasdampasawrung-outsponge—notsaturatedwithwater.Amoisturecontentof40to60percentispreferable.Totestforadequatemoisture,reachintoyourcompostpile,grabahandfulofmaterial,andsqueezeit.Ifafewdropsofwatercomeout,itprobablyhasenoughmoisture.Ifitdoesn’t,addwaterbyputtingahoseintothepilesothatyouaren’tjustwettingthetop,or,betteryet,waterthepileasyouturnit.

Airistheonlypartthatcannotbeaddedinexcess.Forproperaeration,you’llneedtopunchholesinthepilesoithasmanyairpassages.Theairinthepileisusuallyusedupfasterthanthemoisture,andextremesofsunorraincanadverselyaffectthisbalance,sothematerialsmustbeturnedormixedupoftenwithapitchfork,rake,orothergardentooltoaddairthatwillsustainhightemperatures,controlodor,andyieldfasterdecomposition.

Overtime,you’llseethatthemicroorganisms,whicharesmallformsofplantandanimallife,willbreakdowntheorganicmaterial.Bacteriaarethefirsttobreakdownplanttissueandarethemostnumerousandeffectivecompostmakersinyourcompostpile.Fungiandprotozoanssoonjointhebacteriaand,laterinthecycle,centipedes,millipedes,beetles,sowbugs,nematodes,worms,andnumerousotherscompletethecompostingprocess.Withtherightingredientsandfavorableweatherconditions,youcanhaveafinishedcompostpileinafewweeks.

HowtoMakeYourOwnBackyardCompostingHeap1. Choosealevel,well-drainedsite,preferablynearyourgarden.2. Decidewhetheryouwillbeusingabinaftercheckingonanylocalorstate

regulationsforcompostinginurbanareas,assomecommunitiesrequirerodent-proofbins.Therearenumerousstylesofcompostbinsavailable,dependingonyourneeds,rangingfromamoveablebinformedbywiremeshtoamoresubstantialwoodenstructureconsistingofseveralcompartments.Youcanalsoeasilymakeyourownbinusingchickenwireorscrapwood.Whileabinwillhelpcontainthepile,itisnotabsolutely

necessary,asyoucanbuildyourpiledirectlyontheground.Tohelpwithaeration,youmaywanttoplacesomewoodymaterialonthegroundwhereyouwillbuildyourpile.

3. Ensurethatyourpilewillhaveaminimumdimensionof3feetallaround,butisnotallerthan5feet,asnotenoughairwillreachthemicroorganismsatthecenterifitistootall.Ifyoudon’thavethisamountatonetime,simplystockpileyourmaterialsuntilasufficientquantityisavailableforpropermixing.Whencompostingiscompleted,thetotalvolumeoftheoriginalmaterialsisusuallyreducedby30to50percent.

4. Buildyourpilebyusingeitheralternatingequallayersofhigh-carbonandhigh-nitrogenmaterialorbymixingequalpartsofbothtogetherandthenheapingitintoapile.Ifyouchoosetoalternatelayers,makeeachlayer2to4inchesthick.Somecompostersfindthatmixingthetwotogetherismoreeffectivethanlayering.Addingafewshovelsofsoilwillalsohelpgetthepileofftoagoodstartbecausesoiladdscommonlyfound,decomposingorganismstoyourcompost.

Asyourcompostbeginstobreakdown,youmaynoticegasesescapingfromthepile.

Anylargebucketcanbeturnedintoacompostbarrel.Youcancutoutapieceofthebarrelforeasyaccesstothecompost,asshownhere,orsimplyaccessthecompostthroughthelid.Drillingholesinthesidesandlidsofthebucketwillincreaseaircirculationandspeeduptheprocess.Leaveyourbucketinthesunandshakeit,rollit,orstirthecontentsregularly.

5. Keepthepilemoistbutnotwet.Soggypilesencouragethegrowthoforganismsthatcanlivewithoutoxygenandcauseunpleasantodors.

6. Punchholesinthesidesofthepileforaeration.Thepilewillheatupandthenbegintocool.Themostefficientdecomposingbacteriathriveintemperaturesbetween110and160°F.Youcantrackthiswithacompostthermometer,oryoucansimplyreachintothepiletodetermineifitisuncomfortablyhottothetouch.Atthesetemperatures,thepilekillsmostweedseedsandplantdiseases.However,studieshaveshownthatcompostproducedatthesetemperatureshaslessabilitytosuppressdiseasesinthesoil,sincethesetemperaturesmaykillsomeofthebeneficialbacterianecessarytosuppressdisease.

8.Checkyourbinregularlyduringthecompostingseasontoassureoptimummoistureandaerationarepresentinthematerialbeingcomposted.

9.Movematerialsfromthecentertotheoutsideofthepileandviceversa.Turneverydayortwoandyoushouldgetcompostinlessthanfourweeks.Turningeveryotherweekwillmakecompostinonetothreemonths.Finishedcompostwillsmellsweetandbecoolandcrumblytothetouch.

OtherTypesofComposting

ColdorSlowComposting

Coldcompostingallowsyoutojustpileorganicmaterialonthegroundorinabin.Thismethodrequiresnomaintenance,butitwilltakeseveralmonthstoayearormoreforthepiletodecompose,thoughtheprocessisfasterinwarmerclimatesthanincoolerareas.Coldcompostingworkswellifyouareshortontimeneededtotendtothecompostpileatleasteveryotherday,havelittleyardwaste,andarenotinahurrytousethecompost.

Grassclippings,weeds,andotherplantdebriscanallbeaddedtoyourcompostpile.

Forthismethod,addyardwasteasitaccumulates.Tospeeduptheprocess,shredorchopthematerialsbyrunningoversmallpilesoftrimmingswithyourlawnmower,becausethemoresurfaceareathemicroorganismshavetofeedon,thefasterthematerialswillbreakdown.

Coldcompostinghasbeenshowntobebetteratsuppressingsoil-bornediseasesthanhotcompostingandalsoleavesmorenon-decomposedbitsofmaterial,whichcanbescreenedoutifdesired.However,becauseofthelowtemperaturesachievedduringdecomposition,weedseedsanddisease-causingorganismsmaynotbedestroyed.

Vermicomposting

Vermicompostinguseswormstocompost.Thistakesupverylittlespaceandcanbedoneyear-roundinabasementorgarage.Itisanexcellentwaytodisposeofkitchenwastes.

Here’showtomakeyourownvermicompostingpile:1. Obtainaplasticstoragebin.Onebinmeasuring1footby2feetby3½feet

willbeenoughtomeettheneedsofafamilyofsix.2. Drill8to10holesabout¼inchindiameterinthebottomofthebinfor

drainage.3. Linethebottomofthebinwithafinenylonmeshtokeepthewormsfrom

escaping.4. Putatrayunderneathtocatchthedrainage.5. Ripnewspaperintopiecestouseasbeddingandpourwateroverthestrips

untiltheyarethoroughlymoist.Placetheseshreddedbitsononesideofyourbin.Donotletthemdryout.

6. Addwormstoyourbin.It’sbesttohaveabouttwopoundsofworms(roughly2,000worms)peronepoundoffoodwaste.Youmaywanttostartwithlessfoodwasteandincreasetheamountasyourwormpopulationgrows.Redwormsarerecommendedforbestcomposting,butotherspeciescanbeused.Redwormsarethecommon,smallwormsfoundinmostgardensandlawns.Youcancollectthemfromunderapileofmulchororderthemfromagardencatalog.

Wormswillfilteryourorganicwastethroughtheirsystemsandturnitintonutrient-richhumus.

7. Providewormswithfoodwastessuchasvegetablepeelings.Donotaddfatormeatproducts.Limittheirfeed,astoomuchatoncemaycausethematerialtorot.

8. Keepthebininadarklocationawayfromextremetemperatures.9. Waitaboutthreemonthsandyou’llseethatthewormshavechangedthe

beddingandfoodwastesintocompost.Atthistime,openyourbininabrightlightandthewormswillburrowintothebedding.Addfreshbeddingandmorefoodtotheothersideofthebin.Thewormsshouldmigratetothe

newfoodsupply.10. Scoopoutthefinishedcompostandapplytoyourplantsorsavetousein

thespring.

UsesforCompost

Compostcontainsnutrients,butitisnotasubstituteforfertilizers.Compostholdsnutrientsinthesoiluntilplantscanusethem,loosensandaeratesclaysoils,andretainswaterinsandysoils.

Touseasasoilamendment,mix2to5inchesofcompostintovegetableandflowergardenseachyearbeforeplanting.Inapottingmixture,addonepartcomposttotwopartscommercialpottingsoil,ormakeyourownmixturebyusingequalpartsofcompostandsand,orPerlite.

Asamulch,spreadaninchortwoofcompostaroundannualflowersandvegetables,andupto6inchesaroundtreesandshrubs.Studieshaveshownthatcompostusedasmulch,ormixedwiththetop1-inchlayerofsoil,canhelppreventsomeplantdiseases,includingsomeofthosethatcausedampingofseedlings.

Asatopdressing,mixfinelysiftedcompostwithsandandsprinkleevenlyoverlawns.

CommonProblemsCompostingisnotanexactscience.Experiencewilltellyouwhatworksbestforyou.Ifyounoticethatnothingishappening,youmayneedtoaddmorenitrogen,water,orair,chiporgrindthematerials,oradjustthesizeofthepile.

Ifthepileistoohot,youprobablyhavetoomuchnitrogenandneedtoaddadditionalcarbonmaterialstoreducetheheating.

Abadsmellmayindicatenotenoughairortoomuchmoisture.Simplyturnthepileoradddrymaterialstothewetpiletogetridoftheodor.

PlantingYourGarden

Onceyou’vechosenaspotforyourgarden(aswellasthesizeyouwanttomakeyourgardenbed),andpreparedthesoilwithcompostorotherfertilizer,it’stimetostartplanting.Seedsareveryinexpensiveatyourlocalgardencenter,oryoucanbrowsethroughseedcatalogsandorderseedsthatwilldowellinyourarea.Alternately,youcanstartwithbeddingplants(orseedlings)availableatnurseriesandgardencenters.

Readtheinstructionsonthebackoftheseedpackageorontheplastictaginyourplantpot.Youmayhavetoaskexpertswhentoplanttheseedsifthisinformationisnotstatedonthebackofthepackage.Someseeds(suchastomatoes)shouldbestartedindoors,insmallpotsorseedtrays,beforethelastfrost,andonlytransplantedoutdoorswhentheweatherwarmsup.Forestablishedplantsorseedlings,besuretoplantasdirectedontheplanttagorconsultyourlocalnurseryaboutthebestplantingtimes.

Someplugsarebiodegradablesothatyoucaninsertthemdirectlyintothegardenbed,ratherthanhavingtotransplantthem.

Seedlings

Ifyouliveinacoolerregionwithashortergrowingperiod,youwillwantto

startsomeofyourplantsindoors.Todothis,obtainplugflats(traysseparatedintomanysmallcupsor“cells”)ormakeyourownsmallplantersbypokingholesinthebottomofpapercups.Fillthecupstwo-thirdsfullwithpottingsoilorcompostedsoil.Burytheseedattherecommendeddepth,accordingtotheinstructionsonthepackage.Tampdownthesoillightlyandwater.Keeptheseedlingsinawarm,well-litplace,suchasthekitchen,toencouragegermination.

Oncetheweatherbeginstowarmupandyouarefairlycertainyouwon’tbegettinganymorefrosts(youcancontactyourlocalextensionofficetofindoutthelast“frostfree”dateforyourarea)youcanbegintoacclimateyourseedlingstothegreatoutdoors.Firstplacetheminapartiallyshadyspotoutdoorsthatisprotectedfromstrongwind.Afteracoupleofdays,movethemintodirectsunlight,andthenfinallytransplantthemtothegarden.

Seedscanbesproutedandeatenonsandwiches,salads,orstirfriesanytimeoftheyear.Theyaredeliciousandfullofvitaminsandproteins.Mungbean,soybean,alfalfa,wheat,corn,barley,mustard,clover,chickpeas,radish,andlentilsallmakegoodsprouts.Findseedsforsproutingfromyourlocalhealthfoodstoreorusedriedpeas,beans,orlentilsfromthegrocerystore.Neveruseseedsintendedforplantingunlessyou’veharvestedtheseedsyourself—commerciallyavailableplantingseedsareoftentreatedwithapoisonouschemicalfungicide.

Togrowsprouts,thoroughlyrinseandstraintheseeds,thensoakovernightincoolwater.You’llneedaboutfourtimesasmuchwaterasyouhaveseeds.Draintheseedsandplacetheminawide-mouthedbowloronacookiesheetwithalip.Sprinklewithwatertokeeptheseedsslightlydamp.Youmaywishtoplacetheseedsonadamppapertoweltobetterholdinthemoisture.Keeptheseedsat60to80°Fandrinsetwiceaday,returningthemtotheirbowlortrayafter.Oncesproutsare1to1½incheslong(generallyafter3to5days),theyarereadytoeat.

Radishsproutsaredeliciousontheirownorinsandwichesorsalads

Recommendedplantstostartasseedlings

Youcangrowseedlingsinanywood,metal,orplasticcontainerthatisatleast3inchesdeep.Eggcartonsworkverywellifyoudon’thaveaccesstoregularplug

flats.Justpunchholesinthebottomfordrainage.

HowtoBestWaterYourSoilAfteryourseedsorseedlingsareplanted,thenextstepistowateryoursoil.Differentsoiltypeshavedifferentwateringneeds.Youdon’tneedtobeasoilscientisttoknowhowtowateryoursoilproperly.Herearesometipsthatcanhelptomakeyoursoilmoistandprimedforgardening:1. Loosenthesoilaroundplantssowaterandnutrientscanbequickly

absorbed.2. Usea1-to2-inchprotectivelayerofmulchonthesoilsurfaceabovethe

rootarea.Cultivatingandmulchinghelpreduceevaporationandsoilerosion.

3. Wateryourplantsattheappropriatetimeofday.Earlymorningornightisthebesttimeforwatering,asevaporationislesslikelytooccuratthesetimes.Donotwateryourplantswhenitisextremelywindyoutside.Windwillpreventthewaterfromreachingthesoilwhereyouwantittogo.

Agentlespraywillsoakintothesoilwithoutdamagingtheplants.Thethinlayerofmulchwillhelptokeepthewaterfromevaporatingtooquickly.

Agoodold-fashionedwateringcanisgreatforsmallgardensandpottedplants.

TypesofSoilandTheirWaterRetention

Knowingthetypeofsoilyouareplantinginwillhelpyoubestunderstandhowtoproperlywaterandgrowyourgardenplants.Threecommontypesofsoilandtheirvariousabilitiestoabsorbwaterarelistedbelow:

Claysoil:Inordertomakethistypeofsoilmoreloamy,addorganicmaterials,suchascompost,peatmoss,andwell-rottedleaves,inthespringbeforegrowingandalsointhefallafterharvestingyourvegetablesandfruits.Addingtheseorganicmaterialsallowsthistypeofsoiltoholdmorenutrientsforhealthyplantgrowth.Tillorspadetohelploosenthesoil.

Sinceclaysoilabsorbswaterveryslowly,wateronlyasfastasthesoilcanabsorbthewater.

Sandysoil:Aswithclaysoil,addingorganicmaterialsinthespringandfallwillhelpsupplementthesandysoilandpromotebetterplantgrowthandwaterabsorption.

Leftonitsown(withnoaddedorganicmatter)thewaterwillrunthroughsandysoilsoquicklythatplantswon’tbeabletoabsorbitthroughtheirrootsandwillfailtogrowandthrive.

Loamsoil:Thisisthebestkindofsoilforgardening.It’sacombinationofsand,silt,andclay.Loamysoilisfertile,deep,easilycrumbles,andismadeupoforganicmatter.Itwillhelppromotethegrowthofqualityfruitsandvegetables,aswellasflowersandotherplants.

Loamabsorbswaterreadilyandstoresitforplantstouse.Waterasfrequentlyasthesoilneedstomaintainitsmoistureandtopromoteplantgrowth.

Sandysoilisusuallylighterincolorandwon’teasilyclumptogetherinyourhands.Itneedsorganicmatterandplentyofwater

tobesuitableforgrowing.

ConservingWater

Wiseuseofwaterforhydratingyourgardenandlawnnotonlyhelpsprotecttheenvironment,butsavesmoneyandalsoprovidesoptimumgrowingconditionsforyourplants.Therearesimplewaysofreducingtheamountofwaterusedforirrigation,suchasgrowingxeriphyticspecies(plantsthatareadaptedtodryconditions),mulching,addingwater-retainingorganicmattertothesoil,andinstallingwindbreaksandfencestoslowwindsandreduceevapotranspiration.

Youcanconservewaterbywateringyourplantsandlawnintheearlymorning,beforethesunistoointense.Thishelpsreducetheamountofwaterlostduetoevaporation.Furthermore,installingrainguttersandcollectingwaterfromdownspouts—incollectionbinssuchasrainbarrels—alsohelpsreducewateruse.

HowPlantsUseWaterWaterisacriticalcomponentofphotosynthesis,theprocessbywhichplantsmanufacturetheirownfoodfromcarbondioxideandwaterinthepresenceoflight.Waterisoneofthemanyfactorsthatcanlimitplantgrowth.Otherimportantfactorsincludenutrients,temperature,andamountanddurationofsunlight.

Plantstakeincarbondioxidethroughtheirstomata—microscopicopeningsontheundersidesoftheleaves.Thestomataarealsotheplacewherewaterislost,inaprocesscalledtranspiration.Transpiration,alongwithevaporationfromthesoil’ssurface,accountsformostofthemoisturelostfromthesoilandsubsequentlyfromtheplants.

Whenthereisalackofwaterintheplanttissue,thestomataclosetotrytolimitexcessivewaterloss.Ifthetissueslosetoomuchwater,theplantwillwilt.Plantsadaptedtodryconditionshavedevelopedcertaincharacteristicsthatsupportnumerousmechanismsforreducingwaterloss—theytypicallyhavenarrow,hairyleavesandthick,fleshystemsandleaves.Pines,hemlocks,andjunipersarealsowell-adaptedtosurviveextendedperiodsofdryconditions—anenvironmentalfactortheyencountereachwinterwhenthefrozensoilprevents

theuptakeofwater.Cacti,whichhavethickstemsandleavesreducedtospines,arethebestexampleofplantswell-adaptedtoextremelydryenvironments.

Evenverydryareascanbemadeattractivewithtastefulplacementofgrasses,yarrow,andsimilarplants.

Heathflowersarewell-adaptedtodryenvironmentsandmakeaveryattractivegroundcover.

ChoosingPlantsforLowWaterUseYouarenotlimitedtocacti,succulents,ornarrow-leafedevergreenswhen

selectingplantsadaptedtolowwaterrequirements.Manyplantsgrowinginhumidenvironmentsarewell-adaptedtolowlevelsofsoilmoisture.Numerousplantsfoundgrowingincoastalormountainousregionshavedevelopedmechanismsfordealingwithextremelysandy,excessivelywell-drainedsoilsorrocky,coldsoilsinwhichmoistureislimitedformonthsatatime.Tryalfalfa,aloe,artichokes,asparagus,bluehibiscus,chives,columbine,eucalyptus,garlic,germander,lamb’sear,lavender,ornamentalgrasses,prairieturnip,rosemary,sage,sedum,shrubroses,thyme,yarrow,yucca,andverbena.

InstallingIrrigationSystemsAnirrigationsystemcanbeeasytoinstall,andtherearemanydifferentproductsavailableforhomeirrigationsystems.Thesimplestsystemconsistsofasoakerhosethatislaidoutaroundtheplantsandconnectedtoanoutdoorspigot.Noinstallationisrequired,andthehosecanbemovedasneededtowatertheentiregarden.

Aslightlymoresophisticatedsystemisaslottedpipesystem.Herearethestepsneededinordertoinstallthistypeofirrigationsysteminyourgarden:1. Sketchthelayoutofyourgardensoyouknowwhatmaterialsyouwillneed.

Ifyouintendtowateravegetablegarden,youmaywantonepipenexttoeveryroworonepipebetweeneverytworows.

2. Dependingonthelayoutandtypeofgarden,purchasetherequiredlengthsofpipe.Youwillneedalengthofsolidpipeforthewidthofyourgarden,andperforatedpipesthatarethelengthofyourlateralrows(andremembertobuyonepipeforeachrowortwo).

3. Measurethedistancesbetweenrowsandcutthesolidpipetotheproperlengths.

4. PlaceT-connectorsbetweenthepiecesofsolidpipe.5. Intheapproximatecenterofthesolidpipe,placeaT-connectortowhicha

hoseconnectorwillbefitted.

Aslottedpipeirrigationsystem.

TrickleIrrigationSystems

Trickleirrigationanddripirrigationsystemshelpreducewateruseandsuccessfullymeettheneedsofmostplants.Withthesesystems,verysmallamountsofwateraresuppliedtothebasesoftheplants.Sincethewaterisapplieddirectlytothesoil—ratherthanontotheplant—evaporationfromtheleafsurfacesisreduced,thusallowingmorewatertoeffectivelyreachtheroots.Inthesetypesofsystems,thewaterisnotwastedbybeingspreadalloverthegarden;rather,itisapplieddirectlytotheappropriatesource.

Asimpletrickleirrigationsystem.

6. Cuttheperforatedpipetothelengthoftherows.7. AttachtheperforatedpipestotheT-connectorssothattheperforationsare

facingdownward.Captheendofthepipe.8. Connectagardenhosetothehoseconnectoronthesolidpipe.Adjustthe

pressureofthewaterflowingfromthespigotuntilthewaterslowlyemergesfromeachoftheperforatedpipes.

RainBarrelsAnotherveryefficientandeasywaytoconservewater—andsavemoney—istobuyormakeyourownrainbarrel.Arainbarrelisalargebinthatisplacedbeneathadownspoutandthatcollectsrainwaterrunofffromaroof.Thewatercollectedintherainbarrelcanthenberoutedthroughagardenhoseandusedto

wateryourgardenandlawn.

Rainbarrelscanbepurchasedfromspecialtyhomeandgardenstores,butasimplerainbarrelisalsoquiteeasytomake.Herearesimpleinstructionsonhowtomakeyourownrainbarrel.

Instructions1. Obtainasuitableplasticbarrel,alargeplastictrashcanwithalid,ora

woodenbarrel(e.g.,awinebarrel)thathasnotbeenstoreddryfortoomanyseasons,sinceitcanstarttoleak.Goodplacestofindplasticbarrelsincludesuppliersofdairyproducts,metalplatingcompanies,andbulkfoodsuppliers.Justbesurethatnothingtoxicorharmfultoplantsandanimals(includingyou!)wasstoredinthebarrel.Awinebarrelcanbeobtainedthroughawinery.Barrelsthatallowlesslighttopenetratethroughwilleliminatetheriskofalgaegrowthandtheestablishmentofothermicroorganisms.

2. Onceyouhaveyourbarrel,findalocationforitunderornearoneofyourhome’sdownspouts.Inorderforthebarreltofit,youwillprobablyneedtoshortenthedownspoutbyafewfeet.Youcandothisbyremovingthescrewsorrivetslocatedatajointofthedownspout,orbysimplycuttingoffthelastfewfeetwithahacksaworothercutter.Ifyourbarrelwillnotbeabletofitunderneaththedownspout,youcanpurchaseaflexibledownspoutatyourlocalhomeimprovementstore.Theseflexibletubeswilldirectthewaterfromthedownspoutintothebarrel.Analternative,andaestheticallyappealing,optionistousearainchain—alarge,metalchainthatwatercanrundown.

3. Createalevel,stableplatformforyourrainbarreltositonbyrakingthedirtunderthespout,addinggraveltosmoothoutlawnbumps,orusingbricksorconcreteblockstomakealowplatform.Keepinmindthatabarrelfullofwaterisveryheavy,soifyoudecidetobuildaplatform,makesureitissturdyenoughtoholdsuchheavyweight.

4. Ifyourbarrelhasasolidtop,you’llneedtomakeagood-sizedholeinitforthedownspouttopourinto.Youcandothisusingahole-cuttingattachmentonapowerdrillorbydrillingaseriesofsmallerholesclosetogetherandthencuttingouttheremainingmaterialwithahacksawbladeorascrollsaw.

5. Mosquitoesaredrawntostandingwater,sotoreducetheriskofbreedingtheseinsects,andtoalsokeepdebrisfromenteringthebarrel,fastenapieceofwindowscreentotheundersideofthetopsoitcoverstheentirehole.

6. Next,drillaholesothehosebibyou’llattachtothesideofthebarrelfitssnugly.Placethehosebibasclosetothebottomofthebarrelaspossible,soyou’llbeabletogainaccesstothemaximumamountofwaterinthebarrel.Attachthehosebibusingscrewsdrivenintothebarrel.You’llprobablyneedtoapplysomecaulking,plumber’sputty,orsiliconsealantaroundthejointbetweenthebarrelandthehosebibtopreventleaks,dependingonthetypeofhardwareyou’reusingandhowsnugitfitsintheholeyoudrilled.

7. Attachasecondhosebibtothesideofthebarrelnearthetop,toactasanoverflowdrain.Attachashortpieceofgardenhosetothishosebibandrouteittoaflowerbed,lawn,oranothernearbyareathatwon’tbedamagedbysomerunningwaterifyourbarrelgetstoofull(or,ifyouwanttohaveasecondrainbarrelforexcesswater,youcanattachittoanotherhosebibonasecondbarrel.Ifyouarechainingmultiplebarrelstogether,oneofthemshouldhaveahoseattachedtodrainofftheoverflow.

8. Attachagardenhosetothelowerhosebibandopenthevalvetoallowcollectedrainwatertoflowtoyourplants.Thelowerbibcanalsobeusedtoconnectmultiplerainbarrelstogetherforalargerwaterreservoir.

9. Considerusingadripirrigationsysteminconjunctionwiththerainbarrels.Rainbarrelsdon’tachieveanythingnearthepressureofcitywatersupplies,soyouwon’tbeabletousemicrosprinklerattachments,andyouwillneedtousebuttonattachmentsthatareintendedtodeliverfourtimestheamountofcity-suppliedwateryouneed.

10. Now,waitforaheavydownpourandstartenjoyingyourrainbarrel!

Rainbarrelscanbemadefromanylargebucket.Itisespeciallyconvenienttohaveaspigotcomingfromthebottomofthebucketsoyoucanfillsmaller

containerswithwaterasneeded.

MaryMaddoxandherhusbandandchildrenmaintainafullvegetablegardenandraisechickens,ducks,turkeys,andagooseonlessthanhalfanacreofland.Theydescribetheirexperiencesandsharetipsontheirblog,“TheYardstead,”

www.yardstead.com.

Myhusband,children,andIliveinasmalltowninNorthFlorida.Likemostofourneighborsweliveonalittlelessthan½acrelot.Wedreamofbecominghomesteaderson10to15acresbutuntilthatdreambecomesreality,wedowhatwecanonoursmallplot.Wecurrentlymaintaina30ft.x30ft.vegetablegarden,andkeepchickens,ducks,turkeys,andagoose.Thesebirdsonlyrequire3-4sq.ft.perbirdandareeasytocareforinanappropriatesizepen.

Wekeepbetween10and20chickensmostofthetimeina72sq.ft.pen,withanadjoining200sq.ft.penforafewducks,turkeys,andagoose.Wesupplyourfamily,friends,andneighborswithfresheggsyearroundandputafewchickensinthefreezeraswell.Werecentlyweregivenaroosterbyoneofourneighborsandourhenshavehatchedtheirfirstbabiesthisspring.

Wetrytokeepsomethinggrowinginthegardenallyearround.Eachyearweareabletogrowenoughsquashandzucchinitoeatfreshallspringandsummerandputenoughupinthefreezertolastthroughthewinter.Wealsogrowenoughonionsandgarlicmostyearstomeetallourneedsandsharewithourfriendsandfamily.Wedabbleinothervegetablesandgrowavarietyofgourdsonourfencelineeachyear.

Wehavelandscapedtheyardwithmostlyedibleplantsandtrees.Ourbackyardshadeisprovidedbyapecan,mulberry,persimmon,andothertrees.Wehavechosensomenativeshrubs,likethepineappleguava,thatalsoproducesedibleflowersandfruit.Wekeepseveraldwarfcitrusaspottedplantsthatcanbemovedinandoutofthehousedependingonourwintertemperatureseachyear.Lastfallweplantedafewsmallcanesofsugarcane.Theseclumpsofsugarcanewillbemostlyforourchildrentoenjoyinlatesummereachyear.

Wetrytogardenandcareforouranimalsandyardwithanemphasisonpermacultureandwefolloworganicpracticesasmuchaspossible.Alloftheyardwasteandfoodwasteweproducegofirsttothechickensandotherbirdswholovetoeattablescrapsaswellasgrassclippingsandthelike.Theyeatwhattheylikeandtheleftoversalongwiththerichdroppingsarerakedoutoccasionallyandaddedtothecompostpile.Thisprovidesusaconstantsupplyofrichcompost,whichisthefertilizerweuseinthegarden.Wealsoletsomechickensroamthegardenaftertheplantshavegrowntoan8-10in.height.Theydoanexcellentjobofkeepingthegardenpestfreebyeatingeverybugtheycanfind.

HowtoMakeaSimpleRainBarrel

ThingsYou’llNeed

Aclean,plasticbarrel,talltrashcanwithlid,orawoodenbarrelthatdoesnotleak—a55gallonplasticdrumorbarreldoesaverygoodjobatholdingrainwaterTwohosebibs(avalvewithafittingforagardenhoseononeendandaflangewithashortpipestickingoutofitattheotherend)GardenhosePlywoodandpaint(ifyourbarreldoesn’talreadyhaveatop)WindowscreenWoodscrewsVegetableoilAdrillAhacksawAscrewdriver

Weloveteachingourchildrenaboutgardeningandcaringforanimalsandweallenjoyahealthysenseofself-reliance.Weshareourproduceasmuchaspossibleandalsotrytoshareasmuchknowledgeaspossiblewithanyonewhoisinterested.

ThingstoConsider

Putsomewaterinthebarrelfromagardenhoseonceeverythingisinplaceandanysealantshavehadtimetothoroughlydry.Thefirstgooddownpourisnotthetimetofindoutthere’saleakinyourbarrel.Ifyoudon’townthepropertyonwhichyouarethinkingofinstallingarainbarrel,besuretogetpermissionbeforealteringthedownspouts.Ifyourbarreldoesn’talreadyhaveasolidtop,coveritsecurelywithacircleofpaintedplywood,anoldtrashcanlidscrewedtothewallsofthebarrel,oraheavytarpsecuredoverthetopofthebarrelwithbungeecords.Thiswillprotectchildrenandsmallanimalsfromfallingintothebarrelanddrowning.Asstatedbefore,stagnantwaterisanexcellentbreedinggroundformosquitoes,soitwouldbeagoodideatotakeadditionalstepstokeepthemoutofyourbarrelbysealingalltheopeningsintothebarrelwithcaulkorputty.Youmightalsoconsideraddingenoughnon-toxicoil(suchasvegetablecookingoil)tothebarreltoformafilmontopofthewaterthatwillpreventmosquitolarvaefromhatching.

Alwaysdoublechecktomakesurethebarrelyou’reusing(particularlyifitisfromafooddistributioncenterorotherrecycledsource)didnotcontainpesticides,industrialchemicals,weedkillers,orothertoxinsorbiologicalmaterialsthatcouldbeharmfultoyou,yourplants,ortheenvironment.Ifyouareconcernedaboutthis,itisbesttopurchaseanewbarrelortrashcansothereisnodoubtaboutitssafety.

MulchinginYourGardenandYard

Mulchingisoneofthesimplestandmostbeneficialpracticesyoucanuseinyourgarden.Mulchissimplyaprotectivelayerofmaterialthatisspreadontopofthesoiltoenrichthesoil,preventweedgrowth,andhelpprovideabettergrowingenvironmentforyourgardenplantsandflowers.

Mulchescaneitherbeorganic—suchasgrassclippings,barkchips,compost,groundcorncobs,choppedcornstalks,leaves,manure,newspaper,peanutshells,peatmoss,pineneedles,sawdust,straw,andwoodshavings—orinorganic—suchasstones,brickchips,andplastic.Bothorganicandinorganicmulcheshavenumerousbenefits,including:1. Protectingthesoilfromerosion2. Reducingcompactionfromtheimpactofheavyrains3. Conservingmoisture,thusreducingtheneedforfrequentwatering4. Maintainingamoreevensoiltemperature5. Preventingweedgrowth6. Keepingfruitsandvegetablesclean7. Keepingfeetcleanandallowingaccesstothegardenevenwhenit’sdamp8. Providinga“finished”looktothegarden

Organicmulchesalsohavethebenefitofimprovingtheconditionofthesoil.Asthesemulchesslowlydecompose,theyprovideorganicmattertohelpkeepthesoilloose.Thisimprovesrootgrowth,increasestheinfiltrationofwater,improvesthewater-holdingcapacityofthesoil,providesasourceofplantnutrients,andestablishesanidealenvironmentforearthwormsandotherbeneficialsoilorganisms.

Whileinorganicmulcheshavetheirplaceincertainlandscapes,theylackthesoil-improvingpropertiesoforganicmulches.Inorganicmulches,becauseoftheirpermanence,maybedifficulttoremoveifyoudecidetochangeyourgardenplansatalaterdate.

Woodchipsorshavingsaresomeofthemostcommonformsofmulch.

WheretoFindMulchMaterialsYoucanfindmulchmaterialsrightinyourownbackyard.Theyinclude:1. Lawnclippings.Theymakeanexcellentmulchinthevegetablegardenif

spreadimmediatelytoavoidheatingandrotting.Thefinetextureallowsthemtobespreadeasily,evenaroundsmallplants.

2. Newspaper.Asamulch,newspaperworksespeciallywelltocontrolweeds.Saveyourownnewspapersandonlyusethetextpages,orthosewithblackink,ascolordyesmaybeharmfultosoilmicrofloraandfaunaifcompostedandused.Usethreeorfoursheetstogether,anchoredwithgrassclippingsorothermulchmaterialtopreventthemfromblowingaway.

3. Leaves.Leafmold,orthedecomposedremainsofleaves,givestheforestflooritsabsorbent,spongystructure.Collectleavesinthefallandchopwithalawnmowerorshredder.Compostleavesoverwinter,assomestudieshaveindicatedthatfreshlychoppedleavesmayinhibitthegrowthofcertaincrops.

4. Compost.Themixturemakeswonderfulmulch—ifyouhavealargesupply—asitnotonlyimprovesthesoilstructurebutalsoprovidesanexcellentsourceofplantnutrients.

5. Barkchipsandcompostedbarkmulch.Thesematerialsareavailableatgardencentersandaresometimesusedwithlandscapefabricorplasticthat

isspreadatopthesoilandbeneaththemulchtoprovideadditionalprotectionagainstweeds.However,thebarrierbetweenthesoilandthemulchalsopreventsanyimprovementinthesoilconditionandmakesplantingadditionalplantsmoredifficult.Withoutthebarrier,barkmulchmakesaneatfinishtothegardenbedandwilleventuallyimprovetheconditionofthesoil.Itmaylastforonetothreeyearsormore,dependingonthesizeofthechipsorhowwell-compostedthebarkmulchis.Smallerchipsareeasiertospread,especiallyaroundsmallplants.

Mulchcanbeneatandattractive,especiallyifkeptfromspillingintoyouryardwitharoworcircleofstones.

Atrowelandhandforkarehelpfulformulchingsmallareasaroundandbetweenplants.

6. Hayandstraw.Theseworkwellinthevegetablegarden,althoughtheymayharborweedseeds.

7. Seaweedmulch,groundcorncobs,andpineneedles.Dependingonwhereyoulive,thesematerialsmaybereadilyavailableandcanalsobeusedasmulch.However,pineneedlestendtoincreasetheacidityofthesoil,sotheyworkbestaroundacid-lovingplants,suchasrhododendronsandblueberries.

Whenchoosingamulchmaterial,thinkofyourprimaryobjective.Newspaperandgrassclippingsaregreatforweedcontrol,whilebarkmulchgivesaperfect,finishingtouchtoafront-yardperennialgarden.Ifyou’relookingforacheapsolution,considerusingmaterialsfoundinyourownyardorseeifyourcommunityofferschippedwoodorcomposttoitsresidents.

Ifyouwantthemulchtostayinplaceforseveralyearsaroundshrubs,forexample,youmightwanttoconsiderusinginorganicmulches.Whiletheywillnotprovideorganicmattertothesoil,theywillbemoreorlesspermanent.

CommonOrganicMulchingMaterials

Barkchips

Compost

Groundcorncobs

Leaves

Newspaper

Peatmoss

Sawdust

Woodshavings

Choppedcornstalks

Grassclippings

Manure

Peanutshells

Pineneedles

Hayandstrawmakeexcellent,inexpensivemulch.

WhentoApplyMulchTimeofapplicationdependsonwhatyouhopetoachievebymulching.Mulches,byprovidinganinsulatingbarrierbetweenthesoilandtheair,moderatethesoiltemperature.Thismeansthatamulchedsoilinthesummer

willbecoolerthananadjacent,unmulchedsoil;whileinthewinter,themulchedsoilmaynotfreezeasdeeply.However,sincemulchactsasaninsulatinglayer,mulchedsoilstendtowarmupmoreslowlyinthespringandcooldownmoreslowlyinthefallthanunmulchedsoils.

Ifyouareusingmulchesinyourvegetableorflowergarden,itisbesttoapplyoraddadditionalmulchafterthesoilhaswarmedupinthespring.Organicmulchesreducethesoiltemperatureby8to10°Fduringthesummer,soiftheyareappliedtocoldgardensoils,thesoilwillwarmupmoreslowlyandplantmaturitywillbedelayed.

Mulchesusedtohelpmoderatewintertemperaturescanbeappliedlateinthefallafterthegroundhasfrozen,butbeforethecoldesttemperaturesarrive.Applyingmulchesbeforethegroundhasfrozenmayattractrodentslookingforawarmover-winteringsite.Delayedapplicationsofmulchshouldpreventthisproblem.

Mulchesusedtoprotectplantsoverthewintershouldbecomposedofloosematerial,suchasstraw,hay,orpineboughsthatwillhelpinsulatetheplantswithoutcompactingundertheweightofsnowandice.Oneofthebenefitsfromwinterapplicationsofmulchisthereductioninthefreezingandthawingofthesoilinthelatewinterandearlyspring.Theserepeatedcyclesoffreezingatnightandthenthawinginthewarmthofthesuncausemanysmallorshallow-rootedplantstobeheavedoutofthesoil.Thisleavestheirrootsystemsexposedandresultsininjury,ordeath,oftheplant.Mulchinghelpspreventtheserapidfluctuationsinsoiltemperatureandreducesthechancesofheaving.

GeneralMulchingGuidelines

Mulchismeasuredincubicfeet,so,forexample,ifyouhaveanareameasuring10feetby10feet,andyouwishtoapply3inches(1/4foot)ofmulch,youwouldneed25cubicfeettodothejobcorrectly.

Whilesomemulchcancomefromrecycledmaterialinyourownyard,itcanalsobepurchasedbaggedorinbulkfromagardencenter.Buyinginbulkmaybecheaperifyouneedalargevolumeandhaveawaytohaulit.Baggedmulchisofteneasiertohandle,especiallyforsmallerprojects,asmostbaggedmulchcomesin3-

cubic-footbags.

Tostart,removeanyweeds.Beginmulchingbyspreadingthematerialsinyourgarden,beingcarefulnottoapplymulchtotheplantsthemselves.Leaveaninchorsoofspacenexttotheplantstohelppreventdiseasesfromflourishingintimesofexcesshumidity.

HowMuchDoIApply?Theamountofmulchtoapplytoyourgardendependsonthemulching

materialused.Spreadbarkmulchandwoodchips2to4inchesdeep,keepingitaninchortwoawayfromtreetrunks.

Scatterchoppedandcompostedleaves3to4inchesdeep.Ifusingdryleaves,applyabout6inches.

Grassclippings,ifspreadtoothick,tendtocompactandrot,becomingquiteslimyandsmelly.Theyshouldbeapplied2to3inchesdeep,andadditionallayersshouldbeaddedasclippingsdecompose.Makesurenottouseclippingsfromlawnstreatedwithherbicides.

Sheetsofnewspapershouldonlybe¼inchthickandcoveredlightlywithgrassclippingsorothermulchmaterialtoanchorthem.Ifothermulchmaterialsarenotavailable,covertheedgesofthenewspaperwithsoil.

Ifusingcompost,apply3to4inchesdeep,asit’sanexcellentmaterialforenrichingthesoil.

Gatherfallenleavesinthefallandcompostthemorusetheminlargeplasticbagsasextrahouseinsulationoverthewinter.Comespring,thedecomposed

leaveswillbereadyformulch.

OrganicGardening

“Organicallygrown”foodisfoodgrownandprocessedusingnosyntheticfertilizersorpesticides.Pesticidesderivedfromnaturalsources(suchasbiologicalpesticides—compostandmanure)maybeusedinproducingorganicallygrownfood.

Organicgardenersgrowthehealthiest,highestqualityfoodsandflowers—allwithouttheadditionofchemicalfertilizers,pesticides,orherbicides.Organicgardeningmethodsarehealthier,environmentallyfriendly,safeforanimalsandhumans,andaretypicallylessexpensive,sinceyouareworkingwithnaturalmaterials.Itiseasytogrowandharvestorganicfoodsinyourbackyardgardenandtypically,organicgardensareeasiertomaintainthangardensthatrelyonchemicalandunnaturalcomponentstohelpthemgroweffectively.

Organicproductionisnotsimplytheavoidanceofconventionalchemicalinputs,norisitthesubstitutionofnaturalinputsforsyntheticones.Organicfarmersapplytechniquesfirstusedthousandsofyearsago,suchascroprotationsandtheuseofcompostedanimalmanuresandgreenmanurecrops,inwaysthatareeconomicallysustainableintoday’sworld.

Organicfarmingentails:Useofcovercrops,greenmanures,animalmanures,andcroprotationstofertilizethesoil,maximizebiologicalactivity,andmaintainlong-termsoilhealth.Useofbiologicalcontrol,croprotations,andothertechniquestomanageweeds,insects,anddiseases.Anemphasisonbiodiversityoftheagriculturalsystemandthesurroundingenvironment.Reductionofexternalandoff-farminputsandeliminationofsyntheticpesticidesandfertilizersandothermaterials,suchashormonesandantibiotics.Afocusonrenewableresources,soilandwaterconservation,andmanagementpracticesthatrestore,maintain,andenhanceecologicalbalance.

HowtoStartYourOwnOrganicGarden

StepOne:ChooseaSiteforYourGarden1. Thinksmall,atleastatfirst.Asmallgardentakeslessworkandmaterials

thanalargeone.Ifdonewell,a4x4-footgardenwillyieldenoughvegetablesandfruitforyouandyourfamilytoenjoy.

2. Becarefulnottoover-plantyourgarden.Youdonotwanttoendupwithtoomanyvegetablesthatwillendupover-ripeningorrottinginyourgarden.

3. Youcanevenstartagardeninawindowboxifyouareunsureofyourtimeanddedicationtoalargerbed.

StepTwo:MakeaCompostPile

1.Compostisthemainingredientforcreatingandmaintainingrich,fertilesoil.Youcanusemostorganicmaterialstomakecompostthatwillprovideyoursoilwithessentialnutrients.Tostartacompostpile,allyouneedarefallenleaves,weeds,grassclippings,andothervegetationthatisinyouryard.(SeetheCompostchapterformoredetailsonhowtomakecompost.)

StepThree:AddSoil

1.Inordertohaveathrivingorganicgarden,youmusthaveexcellentsoil.Addingorganicmaterial(suchasthatinyourcompostpile)toyourexistingsoilwillonlymakeitbetter.Soilcontainingcopiousamountsoforganicmaterialisverygoodforyourgarden.Organicallyrichsoil:

Nourishesyourplantswithoutanychemicals,keepingthemnaturalIseasytousewhenplantingseedsorseedlings,anditalsoallowsforweedstobemoreeasilypickedIssofterthanchemicallytreatedsoil,sotherootsofyourplantscanspreadandgrowdeeperHelpswaterandairfindtheroots

StepFour:WeedControl1. Weedsareinvasivetoyourgardenplantsandthusmustberemovedin

orderforyourorganicgardentogrowefficiently.Commonweedsthatcaninvadeyourgardenareivy,mint,anddandelions.

2. Usingasharphoe,goovereachareaofexposedsoilfrequentlytokeepweedsfromsprouting.Also,pluckingoffthegreenportionsofweedswilldeprivethemofthenutrientstheyneedtosurvive.

3. Gentlypulloutweedsbyhandtoremovetheirrootsystemsandtostopcontinuedgrowth.Becarefulwhenweedingaroundestablishedplantssoyoudon’tuprootthemaswell.

4. Mulchunplantedareasofyourgardensothatweedswillbelesslikelytogrow.Youcanfindorganicmulches,suchaswoodchipsandgrassclippings,atyourlocalgardenstore.Thesemulcheswillnotonlydiscourageweedgrowthbutwillalsoeventuallybreakdownandhelpenrichthesoil.Mulchingalsohelpsregulatesoiltemperaturesandhelpsinconservingwaterbydecreasingevaporation.(Seethe“Mulch”chapterformoreonmulching.)

Yourgardencanbeassmallorlargeasyourspaceallows,butbesuretostartwithasizeyoucanmanage.

Arowoflettucethrivesinthecompost-fertilizedsoil.

StepFive:BeCarefulofLawnFertilizers

Ifyouhavealawnandyourorganicgardenissituatedinit,bemindfulthatanychemicalsyoumightplaceonyourlawnmayfindtheirwayintoyourorganicgarden.Therefore,refrainfromfertilizingyourlawnwithchemicalsand,

ifyouwishtoreturnnutrientstoyourgrass,simplyletyourcutgrassclippingsremainintheyardtodecomposenaturallyandenrichthesoilbeneath.

ThingstoConsider“Organic”meansthatyoudon’tuseanykindsofmaterials,suchaspaperorcardboard,thatcontainchemicals,andespeciallynotfertilizerorpesticides.Makesurethattheseproductsdonotfindtheirwayintoyourgardenorcompostpile.Ifyouareaddinggrassclippingstoyourcompostpile,makesuretheydon’tcomefromalawnthathasbeentreatedwithchemicalfertilizer.Ifyoudon’twanttostartacompostpile,simplyaddleavesandgrassclippingsdirectlytoyourgardenbed.Thiswillactlikeamulch,deterweedsfromgrowing,andwilleventuallybreakdowntohelpreturnnutrientstoyoursoil.Ifyoufindinsectsattackingyourplants,thebestwaytocontrolthemisbypickingthemoffbyhand.Alsopracticecroprotation(plantingdifferenttypesofplantsinagivenareafromyeartoyear),whichmightreduceyourpestproblem.Forsomeinsects,justastrongstreamofwateriseffectiveinremovingthemfromyourplants.Shyawayfromusingbarkmulch.Itrobsnitrogenfromthesoilasitdecomposesandcanalsoattracttermites.

Ahandforkcanbeusefulindigginguptoughrootsofpeskyweeds.

Terracing

Terracescancreateseveralmini-gardensinyourbackyard.Onsteepslopes,terracingcanmakeplantingagardenpossible.Terracesalsopreventerosionbyshorteningalongslopeintoaseriesofshorter,morelevelsteps.Thisallowsheavyrainstosoakintothesoilratherthantorunoffandcauseerosionandpoorplantgrowth.

MaterialsNeededforTerracesNumerousmaterialsareavailableforbuildingterraces.Treatedwoodisoftenusedinterracebuildingandhasseveraladvantages:Itiseasytoworkwith,itblendswellwithplantsandthesurroundingenvironment,anditisoftenlessexpensivethanothermaterials.Therearemanytypesoftreatedwoodavailableforterracing—railroadtiesandlandscapingtimbersarejusttwoexamples.Thesematerialswilllastforyears,whichiscrucialifyouarehopingtokeepyourterracedgardenintactforanylengthoftime.Therehasbeensomeconcernaboutusingthesetreatedmaterialsaroundplants,butstudiesbyTexasA&MUniversityandtheSouthwestResearchInstituteconcludedthatthesematerialsarenotharmfultogardensorpeoplewhenusedasrecommended.

Othermaterialsforterracesincludebricks,rocks,concreteblocks,andsimilarmasonrymaterials.Somemasonrymaterialsaremadespecificallyforwallsandterracesandcanbemoreeasilyinstalledbyahomeownerthanothermaterials.Theseincludefieldstoneandbrick.Onedrawbackisthatmoststoneormasonryproductstendtobemoreexpensivethanwood,soifyouarelookingtosavemoney,treatedwoodwillmakeasufficientterracewall.

Terraceshelppreventerosionandencouragevegetationonslopedground.

HowHighShouldtheTerraceWallsBe?Thesteepnessoftheslopeonwhichyouwishtogardenoftendictatestheappropriateheightoftheterracewall.Maketheterracesinyouryardhighenoughsothelandbetweenthemisfairlylevel.Besuretheterracematerialisstrongenoughandanchoredwelltostayinplacethroughfreezingandthawing,andduringheavyrainstorms.Donotunderestimatethepressureofwaterloggedsoilbehindawall—itcanbeenormousandwillcauseimproperlyconstructedwallstobulgeorcollapse.

Manycommunitieshavebuildingcodesforwallsandterraces.Largeprojectswillmostlikelyneedtheexpertiseofaprofessionallandscapertomakesurethewallscanstanduptowaterpressureinthesoil.Largeterracesalsoneedtobebuiltwithadequatedrainageandtiedbackintotheslopeproperly.Becauseoftheexpertiseandequipmentrequiredtodothiscorrectly,youwillprobablywanttorestrictterracesyoubuildonyourowntonomorethanafootortwohigh.

BuildingYourOwnTerraceThesafestwaytobuildaterraceisbyusingthecutandfillmethod.Withthismethod,littlesoilisdisturbed,givingyouprotectionfromerosionshoulda

suddenstormoccurwhiletheworkisinprogress.Thismethodwillalsorequirelittle,ifany,additionalsoil.Herearethestepsneededtobuildyourownterrace:1. Contactyourutilitycompaniestoidentifythelocationofanyburiedutility

linesandpipesbeforestartingtodig.2. Determinetheriseandrunofyourslope.Theriseistheverticaldistance

fromthebottomoftheslopetothetop.Therunisthehorizontaldistancebetweenthetopandthebottom.Thiswillallowyoutodeterminehowmanyterracesyouwillneed.Forexample,ifyourrunis20feetandtheriseis8feet,andyouwanteachbedtobe5feetwide,youwillneedfourbeds.Theriseofeachbedwillbe2feet.

3. Startbuildingthebedsatthebottomofyourslope.Youwillneedtodigatrenchinwhichtoplaceyourfirsttier.Thedepthandwidthofthetrenchwillvarydependingonhowtalltheterracewillbeandthespecificbuildingmaterialsyouareusing.Followthemanufacturer’sinstructionscarefullywhenusingmasonryproducts,asmanyofthesehavelimitsonthenumberoftiersortheheightthatcanbesafelybuilt.Ifyouareusinglandscapetimbersandyourterraceislow(lessthan2feet),youonlyneedtoburythetimbertoabouthalfitsthicknessorless.Thewidthofthetrenchshouldbeslightlywiderthanyourtimber.Makesurethebottomofthetrenchisfirmlypackedandcompletelylevel,andthenplaceyourtimbersintothetrench.

4. Forthesidesofyourterrace,digatrenchintotheslope.Thebottomofthistrenchmustbelevelwiththebottomofthefirsttrench.Whenthedepthofthetrenchisoneinchgreaterthanthethicknessofyourtimber,youhavereachedthebackoftheterraceandcanstopdigging.

5. Cutapieceoftimbertothecorrectlengthandplaceitintothetrench.6. Drillholesthroughyourtimbersandpoundlongspikes,orpipes,through

theholesandintotheground.Aminimumof18inchesofpipelengthisrecommended,andlongerpipesmaybeneededinhigherterracesforaddedstability.

7. Placethenexttieroftimbersontopofthefirst,overlappingthecornersandjoints.Poundaspikethroughbothtierstofusethemtogether.

8. Movethesoilfromthebackofthebedtothefrontofthebeduntilthesurfaceislevel.Addanothertierasneeded.

Neatrowsofgreenplantslinethisterracedhill,whichwouldotherwiselikelybebarren.

Heathergrowswildinmanyareasbutcanalsobeplantedonyourhillsidestohelppreventerosion.

9. Repeat,startingwithstep2,tocreatetheremainingterraces.Incontinuouslyconnectedterracesystems,thefirsttimberofthesecondtier

willalsobethebackwallofyourfirstterrace.10. Thebackwallofthelastbedwillbelevelwithitsfrontwall.11. Whenfinished,youcanstarttoplantandmulchyourterracedgarden.

OtherWaystoMakeUseofSlopesinYourYardIfterracesarebeyondthelimitsofyourtimeormoney,youmaywanttoconsiderotheroptionsforbackyardslopes.Ifyouhaveaslopethatishardtomow,considerusinggroundcoversonthesloperatherthangrass.Therearemanyplantsadaptedtoawiderangeoflightandmoistureconditionsthatrequirelittlecare(anddonotneedmowing)andprovidesoilerosionprotection.Theseinclude:

JuniperWintercreeperPeriwinkleCotoneasterPotentillaHeathersandheaths

Strip-croppingisanotherwaytodealwithlongslopesinyouryard.Ratherthanterracingtomakegardenbedslevel,plantperennialbedsandstripsofgrassacrosstheslope.Onceestablished,manyperennialsareeffectiveinreducingerosion.Addingmulchalsohelpsreduceerosion.Iferosiondoesoccur,itwillbebasicallylimitedtothegardenedarea.Thegrassstripswillactasfilterstocatchmuchofthesoilthatmayrunoffthebeds.Grassstripsshouldbewideenoughtomoweasily,aswellaswideenoughtoreduceerosioneffectively.

Periwinklesrequirelittlemaintenance,spreadquickly,andwillgroweasilyonaslopeinyouryard.

StartYourOwnVegetableGarden

Ifyouwanttostartyourownvegetablegarden,justfollowthesesimplestepsandyou’llbeonyourwaytogrowingyourownyummyvegetables—rightinyourownbackyard.

StepstoMakingYourOwnVegetableGarden1. Selectasiteforyourgarden.

Vegetablesgrowbestinwell-drained,fertilesoil(loamysoilsarethebest).Somevegetablescancopewithshadyconditions,butmostpreferasitewithagoodamountofsunshine—atleastsixhoursadayofdirectsunlight.

2. Removeallweedsinyourselectedspotanddisposeofthem.Ifyouareusingcomposttosupplementyourgardensoil,donotputtheweedsonthecompostheap,astheymaygerminateonceagainandcausemoreweedgrowthamongyourvegetableplants.

3. Preparethesoilbytillingit.Thiswillbreakuplargesoilclumpsandallowyoutoseeandremovepeskyweedroots.Thiswouldalsobetheappropriatetimetoaddorganicmaterials(suchascompost)totheexistingsoiltohelpmakeitmorefertile.Thetoolsusedfortillingwilldependonthesizeofyourgarden.Someexamplesare:

Shovelandturningfork—usingthesetoolsishardwork,requiringstrongupperbodystrength.Rotarytiller—thiswillhelpcutupweedrootsandmixthesoil.

4. Afterthesoilhasbeentilled,youarereadytobeginplanting.Ifyouwouldlikestraightrowsinyourgarden,aguidecanbemadefromtwowoodenstakesandabitofrope.

Aftersoilistilleditshouldbelooseandfreefromweedsorrootsystems.

Youcanoftengrowtwocropsofcabbageorothergreenleafyvegetablesinonegrowingseasonifyoustartthegardenearlyenough.

5. Vegetablescanbegrownfromseedsortransplanted.

Ifyourgardenhasproblemswithpestssuchasslugs,it’sbesttotransplantolderplants,astheyaremorelikelytosurviveattacksfromtheseorganisms.Transplantingworkswellforvegetablesliketomatoesandonions,whichusuallyneedaheadstarttomaturewithinashortergrowingseason.Thesecanbegerminatedindoorsonseedtraysonawindowsillbeforethegrowingseasonbegins.

6. Followthesebasicstepstogrowvegetablesfromseeds:Informationonwhenandhowdeeptoplantvegetableseedsisusuallyprintedonseedpackagesoronvariouswebsites.Youcanalsocontactyourlocalnurseryorgardencentertoinquireafterthisinformation.Measurethewidthoftheseedtodeterminehowdeepitshouldbeplanted.Takethewidthandmultiplyby2.Thatishowdeeptheseedshouldbeplacedinthehole.Asageneralrule,thelargertheseed,thedeeperitshouldbeplanted.

7. Watertheplantsandseedswelltoensureagoodstart.Makesuretheyreceivewateratleasteveryotherday,especiallyifthereisnorainintheforecast.

Tomatoplantswillgrowbestifbegunasseedlingsindoorsandthenthentransplantedintoyourgardenwellafterthelastfrost.

Ashovelisperfectlyadequateforturningoversoilinasmallgarden.

ThingstoConsiderIntheearlydaysofavegetablegarden,allyourplantsarevulnerabletoattackbyinsectsandanimals.Itisbesttoplantmultiplesofthesameplanttoensurethatsomesurvive.Placingnettingandfencesaroundyourgardencanhelpkeepoutcertainanimalpests.Coffeegrainsorslugtrapsfilledwithbeerwillalsohelpprotectyourplantsagainstinsectpests.Ifsowingseedstraightontoyourbed,besuretoobtainaphotographofwhatyourseedlingswilllooklikesoyoudon’tmistakethegrowingplantforaweed.Weedingearlyonisveryimportanttotheoverallsuccessofyourgarden.Weedsstealwater,nutrients,andlightfromyourvegetables,whichwillstunttheirgrowthandmakeitmoredifficultforthemtothrive.

Seedsshouldbeplantedatadepthoftwicetheirwidth.Iftheseedis¼inchwide,itshouldbeplanted½inchbelowthesurface.

Forverysmallseeds,suchascarrotseeds,youcansprinkle15to20seedsperinchinashallowchannel.Tomaketherowstraight,tieastringtotwosmallsticksanddriveeachstickintothegroundoneithersideofyourgardensothatthestringistaut.Useahoetodigashallowchannelinthestring’sshadow.

StartYourOwnFlowerGarden

Ifyouarelookingtogrowabeautifulgardenfullofflowers,justfollowthesesimplestepstoachievetheperfectbeginner’sflowergarden.

StepOne:StartwithaSmallGarden

Gardeningtakesalotofwork,andsoforthebeginnergardener,tacklingalargegardencanbeoverwhelming.Startwithasmallflowerbedaround25squarefeet.Thiswillprovideyouwithroomforabout20to30plants—enoughroomforthreetypesofannualsandtwotypesofperennials.Asyourgardeningexperiencegrows,socanthesizeofyourgarden!

Ifyouarelookingtostartevensmaller,youcanalwaysbeginyourfirstflowergardeninacontainer,orcreateaborderfromtreatedwoodorbricksandstonesaroundyourexistingbed.Thatway,whenyouarereadytoexpandyourgarden,allyouneedtodoisremovethetemporaryborderandyou’llbeallset.Evenasmallcontainerfilledwithafewdifferenttypesofplantscanbeawonderfuladditiontoanyyard.

StepTwo:PlanYourFlowerGarden

Drawupaplanofhowyou’dlikeyourgardentolook,andthendigaflowerbedtofitthatplan.Planningyourgardenbeforegatheringtheseedsorplantsandbeginningthediggingcangiveyouaclearersenseofhowyourgardenwillbeorganizedandcanfacilitatetheplantingprocess.

StepThree:ChooseaSpotforYourGarden

Itisimportant,whenchoosingwhereyourflowergardenwillbelocated,thatyouconsideranareathatreceivesatleastsixhoursofdirectsunlightperday,asthiswillbeadequateforalargevarietyofgardenplants.Becarefulthatyouwillnotbediggingintoutilitylinesorpipes,andthatyouplaceyourgardenatleastashortdistanceawayfromfencesorotherstructures.

Ifyouliveinapartofthecountrythatisquitehot,itmightbebeneficialforyourflowerstobeplacedinanareathatgetssomeshadeduringthehotafternoonsun.Placingyourgardenontheeastsideofyourhomewillhelpyourflowersflourish.Ifyourgardenwillgetmorethansixhoursofsunlightperday,itwouldbewisetochooseflowersthatthriveinhot,sunnyspaces,andmakesuretowaterthemfrequently.

Itisalsoimportanttochooseaspotthathasgood,fertilesoilinwhichyourflowerscangrow.Trytoavoidanyareaswithrocky,shallowsoilorwherewatercollectsandpools.Makesureyourgardenisawayfromlargetreesandshrubs,astheseplantswillcompetewithyourflowersforwaterandnutrients.Ifyouareconcernedthatyoursoilmaynotcontainenoughnutrientsforyourflowerstogrowproperly,youcanhaveasoiltestdone,whichwilltellyouthepHofthesoil.Dependingontheresults,youcanthenadjustthetypesofnutrientsneededinyoursoilbyaddingorganicmaterialsorcertaintypesoffertilizers.

Flowergardensdonotneedtobeascarefullyorganizedasvegetablegardens.Experimentwithdifferentcolorcombinationsandflowervarieties.Ingeneral,it’sbesttoputtallerplantstowardthecenterorbackofyourgardensothatthe

shorterflowerswillstillbevisible.

Someflowers,likelilies,dobestifstartedinpotsandthentransplantedintoyourgarden.

StepFour:StartDigging

Nowthatyouhaveasitepickedout,markouttheboundarieswithahoseorstring.Removethesodandanyweedrootsthatmayre-grow.Useyourspadeor

gardenforktodigupthebedatleast8to12inchesdeep,removinganyrocksordebrisyoucomeacross.

Onceyourbedisdug,levelitandbreakupthesoilwitharake.Addcompostormanureifthesoilisnotfertile.Ifyoursoilissandy,addingpeatmossorgrassclippingswillhelpitholdmorewater.Workanyadditionsintothetop6inchesofsoil.

StepFive:PurchaseYourSeedsorPlants

Onceyou’vechosenwhichtypesofflowersyou’dliketogrowinyourgarden,visityourlocalgardenstoreornurseryandpickoutalready-establishedplantsorpackagedseeds.Followtheplantinginstructionsontheplanttabsorseedpackets.Thesmallerplantsshouldbesituatedinthefrontofthebed.Onceyourplantsorseedsareintheirholes,packinthesoilaroundthem.Makesuretoleaveamplespacebetweenyourseedsorplantsforthemtogrowandspreadout(mostlabelsandpacketswillalertyoutohowlargeyourflowershouldbeexpectedtogrow,soyoucanadjustthespacingasneeded).

StepSix:WaterYourFlowerGarden

Afteryourplantsorseedsarefirstputintotheground,besuretheygetathoroughwatering.Continuetocheckyourgardentoseewhetherornotthesoilisdryingout.Ifso,giveyourgardenagoodsoakingwiththegardenhoseorwateringcan.Theamountofwateryourgardenneedsisdependantontheclimateyoulivein,theexposuretothesun,andhowmuchrainyourareahasreceived.

Totransplantflowersfromonegrowinglocationtoanother,diguptheplant,beingcarefulnottodamagetherootsystem.Wraptherootballinalargeleaforaclothandtieatthetoparoundthestemstokeeptherootsfromdryingout.Leafwrappingsdonotneedtoberemovedbeforereplanting.Besuretowater

theplantthoroughlyafterplantingitinitsnewlocation.

StepSeven:CuttingYourFlowers

Onceyourflowersbegintobloom,feelfreetocutthemanddisplaythebeautifulbloomsinyourhome.Pruningyourflowergarden(cuttingthedeadordyingbloomsofftheplant)willhelpcertainplantstore-bloom.Also,ifyouhaveplantsthatarebecomingtopheavy,supportthemwithastakeandsomestringsoyoucanenjoytheirblossomstothefullest.

ThingstoConsider•Annualsareplantsthatyouneedtoreplanteveryyear.Theyareofteninexpensive,andmanyhavebrightlycoloredflowers.Annualscanberewardingforbeginnergardeners,astheytakelittleeffortandprovidelovelycolortoyourgarden.Thefollowingseason,you’llneedtoreplantorstartoverfromseed.

Echinaceaisbeautifulaswellasusefulformedicinalpurposes.Itgrowsbestinsunnyareas.Plantinearlyspringforsummerblooming,orabouttwomonths

beforethefirstfrostforflowersthenextyear.

Bright,fragrantflowerswillattractbutterfliestoyourgarden.

•Perennialslastfromoneyeartothenext.They,too,willrequireannualmaintenancebutnotyearlyreplanting.Perennialsmayrequiredivision,support,andextracareduringwintermonths.Perennialsmayalsoneedtheiroldbloomsandstemsprunedandcutbackeverysooften.

•Healthy,happyplantstendnottobeassusceptibletopestsanddiseases.Itiseasiertopracticepreventionratherthancuringexistingproblems.Doyourbesttogiveyourplantsgoodsoil,nutrients,andappropriatemoisture,andchooseplantsthatarewell-suitedtoyourclimate.Thisway,yourgardenwillbemorelikelytogrowtoitsmaximumpotentialandyourplantswillbestrongandhealthy.

BarrelPlantHolder

Ifyouhavesomeperennialsyouwanttodisplayinyouryardawayfromyourflowergarden,youcancreateaplanteroutofanoldbarrel.Thisplantholderismadebysawinganoldbarrel(woodenormetal)intotwopiecesandmountingitonshortortalllegs—whicheverdesignfitsbetterinyouryard.Youcanchoosetoeitherpaintitorleaveitnatural.Fillingtheplanterwithgoodqualitysoilandcompostandplantinganarrayofmulti-coloredflowersintothebarrelplanterwillbrightenupyouryardallsummerlong.Ifyoudonotwanttomountthebarrelonlegs,itcanbeplacedontheground

onasmoothandlevelsurfacewhereitwon’teasilytipover.

Gardencentersorfarmstandsoftensellflowersthatarestartedinflatsorplugs.Becausetherootsystemsarealreadyestablished,theyareeasiertogrow

andcreateaninstantlyattractivegarden.

RusticPlantStand

Ifyou’dliketoincorporatearustic,natural-lookingplantstandinyourgardenoronyourpatioordeck,onecaneasilybemadefromapreexistingwoodenboxorbynailingboardstogether.Thisboxshouldbemountedonlegs(seepicture

below).Tomakethelegs,sawthepieceofwoodmeantfortheleginhalftoalengthfromthetopequaltothedepthofthebox.Then,crosscutandremoveonehalf.Thecorneroftheboxcanthenbeinsertedinthemiddleofthecrosscutandthelegnailedtothesideofthebox.

Theplantstandcanbedecoratedtosuityourneedsandpreference.Youcannailsmaller,alternatingtwigsorcutbranchesaroundthestandtogiveitamorenaturalfeeloryoucansimplypaintitasoothing,naturalcolorandplaceitinyouryard.

Afencecanbesetuparoundyourgardentokeepoutdeerandotherwildanimals.Seepage181forfenceconstructionideas.

WoodenWindowBox

Plantingperennialflowersandcascadingplantsinwindowboxesistheperfectwaytobrightenupthefrontexteriorofyourhome.

Makingasimplewoodenwindowboxtoholdyourflowersandplantsisquiteeasy.Theseboxescanbemadefrompreexistingwoodenboxes(suchasfruitcrates)oryoucanmakeyourownoutofsimpleboards.Whatevermethodyouchoose,makesuretheboardsarestoutenoughtoholdthebradsfirmly.

Thesizeofyourwindowwillultimatelydeterminethesizeofyourbox,butthisplancallsforaboxroughly21x7x7inches.Youcandecorateyourboxeswithwaterproofpaintoryoucannailstripsofwoodorstickstothepanels.Makesuretocutafewholesinthebottomoftheboxtoallowforwaterdrainage.

PlantingTrees

Treesinyouryardcanbecomehometomanydifferenttypesofwildlife.Treesalsoreduceyourcoolingcostsbyprovidingshade,helpcleantheair,addbeautyandcolor,provideshelterfromthewindandthesun,andaddvaluetoyourhome.

ChoosingaTreeChoosingatreeshouldbeawell-thought-outdecision.Treeplantingcanbeasignificantinvestment,bothinmoneyandtime.Selectingthepropertreeforyouryardcanprovideyouwithyearsofenjoyment,aswellassignificantlyincreasethevalueofyourproperty.However,atreethatisinappropriateforyourpropertycanbeaconstantmaintenanceproblem,orevenadangertoyourandothers’safety.Beforeyoudecidetopurchaseatree,takeadvantageofthemanyreferencesongardeningatlocallibraries,universities,arboretums,nativeplantandgardeningclubs,andnurseries.Somequestionstoconsiderinselectingatreeinclude:

1.Whatpurposewillthistreeserve?

Treescanservenumerouslandscapefunctions,includingbeautification,screeningofsightsandsounds,shadeandenergyconservation,andwildlifehabitat.

2.Isthespeciesappropriateforyourarea?

Reliablenurserieswillnotsellplantsthatarenotsuitableforyourarea.However,somemassmarketershavetreesandshrubsthatarenotfittedfortheenvironmentinwhichtheyaresold.Evenifatreeishardy,itmaynotflowerconsistentlyfromyeartoyeariftheenvironmentalfactorsarenotconduciveforittodoso.Ifyouarebuyingatreeforitsspringflowersandfallfruits,considerclimatewhendecidingwhichspeciesoftreetoplant.

Beawareofmicroclimates.Microclimatesarelocalizedareaswhereweatherconditionsmayvaryfromthenorm.Averyshelteredyardmay

supportvegetationnotnormallyadaptedtotheregion.Ontheotherhand,anorth-facingslopemaybesignificantlycoolerorwindierthansurroundingareas,andsurvivalofnormallyadaptedplantsmaybelimited.Selecttreesnativetoyourarea.Thesetreeswillbemoretolerantoflocalweatherandsoilconditions,enhancenaturalbiodiversityinyourneighborhood,andbemorebeneficialtowildlifethanmanynon-nativetrees.Avoidexotictreesthatcaninvadeotherareas,crowdoutnativeplants,andharmnaturalecosystems.

3.Howbigwillitget?

Whenplantingasmalltree,itisoftendifficulttoimaginethatin20yearsitwillmostlikelybeshadingyourentireyard.Unfortunately,manytreesareplantedandlaterremovedwhenthetreegrowsbeyondthedimensionsoftheproperty.

4.Whatistheaveragelifeexpectancyofthetree?

Sometreescanliveforhundredsofyears.Othersareconsidered“short-lived”andmayliveforonly20to30years.Manyshort-livedtreestendtobesmaller,ornamentalspecies.Short-livedspeciesshouldnotnecessarilyberuledoutwhenconsideringplantings,astheymayhaveotherdesirablecharacteristics,suchassize,shape,toleranceofshade,orfruit,thatwouldbeusefulinthelandscape.Thesespeciesmayalsofillavoidinayounglandscapeandcanberemovedasotherlarger,longer-livedspeciesmature.

Fruittreesprovidesweet-smellingflowersinthespringandfruitinthefall.

Full-growntreescreateashade-producingcanopyofbranchesandleaves.Shadecanbeagoodadditiontoyourproperty,butbesureyoudon’tplanttrees

inanareawhereyouwantagardenthatrequiresfullsun.

5.Doesithaveanyparticularornamentalvalue,suchasleafcolororflowersandfruits?

Somespeciesprovidebeautifuldisplaysofcolorforshortperiodsinthespringorfall.Otherspeciesmayhavefoliagethatisreddishorvariegatedandcanaddcolorinyouryardyear-round.Treesbearingfruitsornutscanprovideanexcellentsourceoffoodformanyspeciesofwildlife.

6.Doesithaveanyparticularinsect,disease,orotherproblemthatmayreduceitsusefulnessinthefuture?

Certaininsectsanddiseasescancauseseriousproblemsforsomedesirablespeciesincertainregions.Dependingonthepest,controloftheproblemmaybedifficultandthepestmaysignificantlyreducetheattractiveness,ifnotthelifeexpectancy,ofthetree.Otherspecies,suchasthesilvermaple,areknowntohaveweakwoodthatissusceptibletodamageinicestormsorheavywinds.Allthesefactorsshouldbekeptinmind,ascontrollingpestsordealingwithtreelimbsthathavesnappedinfoulweathercanbeexpensiveandpotentiallydamaging.

7.Howcommonisthisspeciesinyourneighborhoodortown?

Somespeciesareover-planted.Increasingthenaturaldiversityinyourareawillprovidehabitatforwildlifeandhelplimittheopportunityforasinglepesttodestroylargenumbersoftrees.

8.Isthetreeevergreenordeciduous?

Evergreentreeswillprovidecoverandshadeyear-round.Theymayalsobemoreeffectiveaswindandnoisebarriers.Ontheotherhand,deciduoustreeswillgiveyousummershadebutallowthewintersuntoshinein.Ifplantingadeciduoustree,keeptheseheatingandcoolingfactorsinmindwhenplacingthetreeinyouryard.

PlacementofTreesProperplacementoftreesiscriticalforyourenjoymentandfortheirlong-termsurvival.Checkwithlocalauthoritiesaboutregulationspertainingtoplacementoftreesinyourarea.Somecommunitieshaveordinancesrestrictingplacementoftreeswithinaspecifieddistancefromastreet,sidewalk,streetlight,orothercityutilities.

Beforeplantingyourtree,considerthetree’spotentialmaximumsize.Askyourselfthesesimplequestions:1. Whenthetreenearsmaturity,willitbetooclosetoyouroraneighbor’s

house?Anevergreentreeplantedonyournorthsidemayblockthewintersunfromyournext-doorneighbor.

2. Willitprovidetoomuchshadeforyourvegetableandflowergardens?Mostvegetablesandmanyflowersrequireconsiderableamountsofsun.Ifyouintendtogrowtheseplantsinyouryard,considerhowtheplacementoftreeswillaffectthesegardens.

3. Willthetreeobstructanydrivewaysorsidewalks?4. Willitcauseproblemsforburiedoroverheadpowerlinesandutilitypipes?

Onceyouhavetakenthesequestionsintoconsiderationandhaveboughttheperfecttreeforyouryard,itistimetostartdigging!

PlantingaTreeAproperlyplantedandmaintainedtreewillgrowfasterandlivelongerthanonethatisincorrectlyplanted.Treescanbeplantedalmostanytimeoftheyear,aslongasthegroundisnotfrozen.Latesummerorearlyfallistheoptimumtimetoplanttreesinmanyareas.Byplantingduringthesetimes,thetreehasa

chancetoestablishnewrootsbeforewinterarrivesandthegroundfreezes.Whenspringcomes,thetreeisthenreadytogrow.Anotherfeasibletimeforplantingtreesislatewinterorearlyspring.Plantinginhotsummerweathershouldbeavoidedifpossibleastheheatmaycausetheyoungtreetowilt.Plantinginfrozensoilduringthewinterisverydifficultandistoughontreeroots.Whenthetreeisdormantandthegroundisfrozen,thereisnoopportunityforthenewrootstobegingrowing.

Treescanbepurchasedascontainer-grown,balledandburlapped(B&B),orbareroot.Generally,container-grownaretheeasiesttoplantandsuccessfullyestablishinanyseason,includingsummer.Withcontainer-grownstock,theplanthasbeengrowinginacontainerforaperiodoftime.Whenplantingcontainer-growntrees,littledamageisdonetotherootsastheplantistransferredtothesoil.Container-growntreesrangeinsizefromverysmallplantsingallonpotsuptolargetreesinhugepots.

Bareroottreesareusuallyextremelysmallplants.Becausethereisnosoilaroundtheroots,theymustbeplantedwhentheyaredormanttoavoiddryingout,andtherootsmustbekeptmoistuntilplanted.Frequently,bareroottreesareofferedbyseedandnurserymailordercatalogs,orinthewholesaletrade.Manystate-operatednurseriesandlocalconservationdistrictsalsosellbarerootstockinbulkquantitiesforonlyafewcentsperplant.Barerootplantsareusuallyofferedintheearlyspringandshouldbeplantedassoonaspossible.

B&Btreesaredugfromanursery,wrappedinburlap,andkeptinthenurseryforanadditionalperiodoftime,givingtherootsopportunitytoregenerate.B&B

plantscanbequitelarge.

Besuretocarefullyfollowtheplantinginstructionsthatcomewithyourtree.Ifspecificinstructionsarenotavailable,herearesomegeneraltree-plantingguidelines:1. Beforestartinganydigging,callyourlocalutilitycompaniestoidentifythe

locationofanyundergroundwiresorlines.IntheU.S.,youcancall811tohaveyourutilitylinesmarkedforfree.

2. Digaholetwiceaswideas,andslightlyshallowerthan,therootball.Roughenthesidesandbottomoftheholewithapickorshovelsothattherootscaneasilypenetratethesoil.

3. Withapottedtree,gentlyremovethetreefromthecontainer.Todothis,laythetreeonitssidewiththecontainerendneartheplantinghole.Hitthebottomandsidesofthecontaineruntiltherootballisloosened.Ifrootsaregrowinginacircularpatternaroundtherootball,slicethroughtherootsonacoupleofsidesoftherootball.Withtreeswrappedinburlap,removethestringorwirethatholdstheburlaptotherootcrown;itisnotnecessarytoremovetheburlapcompletely.Plasticwrapsmustbecompletelyremoved.Gentlyseparatecirclingrootsontherootball.Shortenexceptionallylongrootsandguidetheshortenedrootsdownwardandoutward.Roottipsdiequicklywhenexposedtolightandair,socompletethisstepasquicklyas

possible.4. Placetherootballinthehole.Leavethetopoftherootball(wherethe

rootsendandthetrunkbegins)½to1inchabovethesurroundingsoil,makingsurenottocoveritunlesstherootsareexposed.Forbarerootplants,makeamoundofsoilinthemiddleoftheholeandspreadplantrootsoutevenlyoverthemound.Donotsetthetreetoodeepintothehole.

5. Asyouaddsoiltofillinaroundthetree,lightlytapthesoiltocollapseairpockets,oraddwatertohelpsettlethesoil.Formatemporarywaterbasinaroundthebaseofthetreetoencouragewaterpenetration,andbesuretowaterthetreethoroughlyafterplanting.Atreewithadryrootballcannotabsorbwater;iftherootballisextremelydry,allowwatertotrickleintothesoilbyplacingthehoseatthetrunkofthetree.

Burlapwrapsdonotneedtoberemovedbeforeplantingyourtree.Theywilldecomposeinthesoilwithtime.

6. Placemulcharoundthetree.Acircleofmulch,3-footindiameter,iscommon.

7. Dependingonthesizeofthetreeandthesitecondiions,stakingthetreeinplacemaybebeneficial.Stakingsupportsthetreeuntiltherootsarewellestablishedtoproperlyanchorit.Stakingshouldallowforsomemovementofthetreeonwindydays.Aftertreesareestablished,removeallsupportingwires.Ifthesearenotremoved,theycangirdlethetree,cutintothetrunk,andeventuallykillthetree.

MaintenanceForthefirstyearortwo,especiallyafteraweekorsoofespeciallyhotordryweather,watchyourtreecloselyforsignsofmoisturestress.Ifyouseeanyleafwiltingorhard,cakedsoil,waterthetreewellandslowlyenoughtoallowthewatertosoakin.Thiswillencouragedeeprootgrowth.Keeptheareaunderthetreemulched.

Somespeciesofevergreentreesmayneedprotectionagainstwintersunandwind.Athoroughwateringinthefallbeforethegroundfreezesisrecommended.

Fertilizationisusuallynotneededfornewlyplantedtrees.Dependingonthesoilandgrowingconditions,fertilizermaybebeneficialatalatertime.

ThingsYou’llNeed

TreeShovelWateringcanorgardenhoseMeasuringstickMulchOptional:scissorsorknifetocuttheburlaporcontainer,stakes,andsupportingwires

Pruning

Usually,pruningisnotneededonnewlyplantedtrees.Asthetreegrows,lowerbranchesmaybeprunedtoprovideclearanceabovetheground,ortoremovedeadordamagedlimbsorsuckersthatsproutfromthetrunk.Sometimeslargertreesneedpruningtoallowmorelighttoenterthecanopy.Smallbranchescanberemovedeasilywithpruners.Largebranchesshouldberemovedwitha

pruningsaw.Allcutsshouldbevertical.Thiswillallowthetreetohealquicklywithouttheuseofanyartificialsealants.Majorpruningshouldbedoneinlatewinterorearlyspring.Atthistime,thetreeismorelikelyto“bleed,”assapisrisingthroughtheplant.Thisisactuallyhealthyandwillhelppreventinvasionbymanydisease-carryingorganisms.Undernocircumstanceshouldtreesbetopped(toppingis

choppingofflargetoptreebranches).Notonlydoesthispracticeruinthenaturalshapeofthetree,butitalsoincreasesitssusceptibilitytodiseasesandresultsinverynarrowcrotchitssusceptibilitytodiseasesandresultsinverynarrowangles(theanglebetweenthetrunkandthesidebranch).Narrowcrotchanglesareweakerthanwideonesandmoresusceptibletodamagefromwindandice.Ifalargetreerequiresmajorreductioninheightorsize,contactaprofessionallytrainedarborist.

Youngtreesneedprotectionagainstrodents,frostcracks,sunscald,lawnmowers,andweedwhackers.Inthewintermonths,miceandrabbitsfrequentlygirdlesmalltreesbychewingawaythebarkatthesnowlevel.Sincethetissuesthattransportnutrientsinthetreearelocatedjustunderthebark,agirdledtreeoftendiesinthespringwhengrowthresumes.Weedwhackersarealsoacommoncauseofgirdling.Inordertopreventgirdlingfromoccurring,useplasticguards,whichareinexpensiveandeasytocontrol.

Frostcrackingiscausedbythesunnysideofthetreeexpandingatadifferentratethanthecolder,shadedside.Thiscancauselargesplitsinthetrunk.Topreventthis,wrapyoungtreeswithpapertreewrap,startingfromthebaseandwrappinguptothebottombranches.Sunscaldcanoccurwhenayoungtreeissuddenlymovedfromashadyspotintodirectsunlight.Light-coloredtreewrapscanbeusedtoprotectthetrunkfromsunscald.

FinalThoughtsTreesarenaturalwindbreaks,slowingthewindandprovidingshelterandfood

forwildlife.Treescanhelpprotectlivestock,gardens,andlargercrops.Theyalsohelppreventdustparticlesfromaddingtosmogoverurbanareas.Treeplantingsarekeycomponentsofaneffectiveconservationsystemandcanprovideyouryardwithbeauty,shade,andrich,naturalresources.

ContainerGardening

Analternativetogrowingvegetables,flowers,andherbsinatraditionalgardenistogrowthemincontainers.Whiletheamountthatcanbegrowninacontaineriscertainlylimited,containergardensworkwellfortomatoes,peppers,cucumbers,herbs,saladgreens,andmanyfloweringannuals.Choosevegetablevarietiesthathavebeenspecificallybredforcontainergrowing.Youcanobtainthisinformationonlineoratyourgardencenter.Containergardeningalsobringsbirdsandbutterfliesrighttoyourdoorstep.Hangingbasketsoffuchsiaorpotsofsnapdragonsarefrequentlyvisitedbyhummingbirds,allowingforup-closeobservation.

Containergardeningisanexcellentmethodofgrowingvegetables,herbs,andflowers,especiallyifyoudonothaveadequateoutdoorspaceforafullgardenbed.Acontainergardencanbeplacedanywhere—onthepatio,balcony,rooftop,orwindowsill.Vegetablessuchasleaflettuce,radishes,smalltomatoes,andbabycarrotscanallbegrownsuccessfullyinpots.

HowtoGrowVegetablesinaContainerGardenHerearesomesimplestepstofollowforgrowingvegetablesincontainers.1. Chooseasunnyareaforyourcontainerplants.Yourplantswillneedat

leastfivetosixhoursofsunlightaday.Someplants,suchascucumbers,mayneedmore.Selectplantsthataresuitableforcontainergrowing.Usuallytheirnamewillhavewordssuchas“patio,”“bush,”“dwarf,”“toy,”or“miniature”inthem.Peppers,onions,andcarrotsarealsogoodchoices.

2. Chooseaplanterthatisatleast5gallons,unlesstheplantisverysmall.Pokeholesinthebottomiftheydon’talreadyexist;thesoilmustbeabletodraininordertopreventtherootsfromrotting.Avoidterracottaordarkcoloredpotsastheytendtodryoutquickly.

Youonlyneedafewsimpletoolsforcontainergardening.

3. Fillyourcontainerwithpottingsoil.Goodpottingsoilwillhaveamixtureofpeatmossandvermiculite.Youcanmakeyourownpottingsoilusingcompostedsoil(seepage13).Readthedirectionsontheseedpacketorlabeltodeterminehowdeeptoplantyourseeds.

4. Checkthemoistureofthesoilfrequently.Youdon’twantthesoiltobecomemuddy,butthesoilshouldalwaysfeeldamptothetouch.Donotwaituntiltheplantiswiltingtowaterit—atthatpoint,itmaybetoolate.

ThingstoConsiderFollownormalplantingschedulesforyourclimatewhendeterminingwhentoplantyourcontainergarden.Youmaywishtolineyourcontainerwithporousmaterialssuchasshreddednewspaperorragstokeepthesoilfromwashingout.Besurethewatercanstilldraineasily.

HowtoGrowHerbsinaContainerHerbswillthriveincontainersifcaredforproperly.Andifyoukeepthemnearyourkitchen,youcaneasilysnipoffpiecestouseincooking.Here’showtostartyourownherbcontainergarden:1. Ifyourcontainerdoesn’talreadyhaveholesinthebottom,pokeseveralto

allowthesoiltodrain.Pourgravelintothecontaineruntilitisaboutaquarterofthewayfull.Thiswillhelpthewaterdrainandhelptokeepthesoilfromwashingout.

2. Fillyourcontainerthree-quartersofthewaywithpottingsoilorasoil-basedcompost.

3. It’sbesttouseseedlingswhenplantingherbsincontainers.Teasetherootsslightly,gentlyspreadingthemapartwithyourfingertips.Thiswillencouragethemtospreadonceplanted.Placeeachherbintothepotandcovertherootbasewithsoil.Placeherbsthatwillgrowtallerinthecenterofyourcontainer,andthesmalleronesaroundtheedges.Leaveaboutfoursquareinchesofspacebetweeneachseedling.

4. Asyougentlypressinsoilbetweentheplants,leaveaninchorsobetweenthecontainer’stopandthesoil.Youdon’twantthecontainertooverflowwhenyouwatertheherbs.

5. Cutthetopsoffthetallerherbplantstoencouragethemtogrowfasterandtoproducemoreleaves.

6. Pourwaterintothecontaineruntilitbeginstoleakoutthebottom.Mostherbsliketodryoutbetweenwatering,andover-wateringcancausesomeherbstorotanddie,soonlywatereveryfewdaysunlesstheplantsareinaveryhotplace.

It’seasiesttogrowherbsfromseedlingslikethese,thoughyoucancertainlygrowthemfromseeds,too.

ThingstoConsiderGrowingseveralkindsofherbstogetherhelpstheplantstothrive.Afewexceptionstothisruleareoregano,lemonbalm,andteabalm.Theseherbsshouldbeplantedontheirownbecausetheywillovertaketheotherherbsinyourcontainer.

Youmaywishtochooseyourherbsaccordingtocolortocreateattractivearrangementsforyourhome.Anyofthefollowingherbswillgrowwellincontainers:Silverherbs:artemsias,curryplans,santolinasGoldenherbs:lemonthyme,calendula,nasturtium,sage,lemonbalmBlueherbs:borage,hyssop,rosemary,catnipGreenherbs:basil,mint,marjoram,thyme,parsley,chives,tarragonPinkandpurpleherbs:oregano(theflowers)arepink,lavenderIfyoudecidetotransplantyourherbsinthesummermonths,theywillgrowquitewelloutdoorsandwillgiveyoualargerharvest.

HowtoGrowFlowersfromSeedsinaContainer1. Coverthedrainageholeinthebottomofthepotwithaflatstone.Thiswill

keepthesoilfromtricklingoutwhentheplantiswatered.2. Fillthecontainerwithsoil.Thecontainershouldbefilledalmosttothetop

andforthebestresults,usepottingsoilfromyourlocalnurseryorgardencenter.

3. Makeholesfortheseeds.Refertotheseedpackettoseehowdeeptomaketheholes.Alwayssavetheseedpacketforfuturereference—itmostlikelyhashelpfuldirectionsaboutthinningyoungplants.

4. Placeaseedineachhole.Patthesoilgentlyontopofeachseed.

5. Usealightmisttowateryourseeds,makingsurethatthesoilisonlymoistandnotsoaked.

6. Makesureyourseedsgetthecorrectamountofsunlight.Refertotheseedpacketfortheadequateamountofsunlighteachseedlingneeds.

7. Watchyourseedsgrow.Mostseedstake3to17daystosprout.Oncetheplantsstartsprouting,besuretopulloutplantsthataretooclosetogethersotheremainingplantswillhaveenoughspacetoestablishgoodrootsystems.

8. Remembertowaterandfeedyourcontainerplants.Keepthesoilmoistsoyourplantscangrow.Andinnotimeatall,youshouldhavewonderfulflowersgrowinginyourcontainergarden.

PreservingYourContainerPlantsAsfallapproaches,frostwillsoondescendonyourcontainerplantsandcanultimatelydestroyyourgarden.Containerplantsareparticularlysusceptibletofrostdamage,especiallyifyouaregrowingtropicalplants,perennials,andhardywoodyplantsinasinglecontainergarden.Therearemanywaysthatyoucanpreserveandmaintainyourcontainergardenplantsthroughoutthewinterseason.

Preservationtechniqueswillvarydependingontheplantsinyourcontainergarden.Tropicalplantscanbeover-winteredusingmethodsreplicatingadryseason,forcingtheplantintodormancy;hardyperennialsandwoodyshrubsneedacolddormancytogrowinthespring,sotheymuststayoutside;cactiandsucculentsprefertheirwinterswarmanddryandmustbebroughtinside,whilemanyannualscanbepropagatedbystemcuttingsorcanjustberepottedandmaintainedinside.

Cinderblocksorsimplewoodenplantersmadeofscrapwoodcanmakeinexpensivecontainergardens.

PreservingTropicalBulbsandTubers

Manytropicalplants,suchascannas,elephantears,andangel’strumpetscanbesavedfromanuntimelydeathbyover-winteringtheminadarkcornerorsunnywindowofyourhome,dependingonthetypeofplant.Alotofbulbousandtuberoustropicalplantshaveanaturaldryseason(analogoustoourwinter)whentheirleafypartsdieoff,leavingthebulbbehind.Don’tthrowthebulbsaway.Afterheavyfroststurntheabovegroundplantpartstomush,cutthedamagedfoliageoffabout4inchesabovethethickenedbulb.Then,digthemupandremoveallexcesssoilfromtheroots.Atthispoint,youcandetermineiftheclumpneedsdividing.Ifitneedsdividing,besuretodustallcutsurfaceswithasulfurbasedfungicidemadeforbulbstopreventthewoundsfromrotting.Cuttherootsbackto1inchfromthebulbandleavetodryoutevenly.Rottenbulbsorrootsneedtobethrownawaysoinfectiondoesn’tspreadtothehealthybulbs.

Abulb’sortuber’sdryingtimecanlastuptotwoweeksifitissittingonsomethingabsorbentlikenewspaperandlocatedsomewhereshadedanddry—preferablyaround50°F—suchasagarageorbasement.Oncecleananddry,bulbsshouldbestoredallwinterindamp(notsoggy)milledpeatmoss.Thispreventsthebulbsfromdryingoutanyfurther,whichcouldcausethemtodie.

Manygardenersdon’thaveaperfectlycoolbasementorgaragetokeepbulbsdormant.Alternativemethodsfordrystorageincludeadarkclosetwiththedoorcrackedforcirculation,acabinet,orunderneathabedinacardboardboxwithafewholespunchedforairflow.Theimportantthingtokeepinmindisthatthebulbneedstobekeptonthedryside,inthedark,andmoderatelywarm.

Growingflowersfromseeds.

Ifabulbwasgrownasasinglespecimeninitsownpot,theentirepotcanbeplacedinagaragethatstaysabove50°Foracoolbasementandallowedtodryoutcompletely.Cutallabovegroundplantpartsflushwiththesoilanddon’twateruntiltheoutsidetemperaturesstabilizeabove60°F.Often,bulbsbreakdormancyunexpectedlyinthisdrypotmethod.Ifthishappens,potscanbemovedtoasunnylocationnearawindowandwateredsparinglyuntiltheycanbeplacedoutside.Theemergingleaveswillbestunted,butonceoutside,theplantwillreplaceanyspindlyleaveswithlush,newones.

Annuals

Manyherbaceousannualscanalsobesavedforthefollowingyear.Byrootingstemcuttingsinwateronasunnywindowsill,plantslikeimpatiens,coleus,sweetpotatovinecultivars,andpurpleheartcanbeheldoverwinteruntilneededinthespring.Otherwise,theplantscanbecutbackbyhalf,pottedinapeat-based,soillessmix,andplacedonasunnywindowsill.Withawideassortmentof“annuals”availableonthemarket,someresearchisrequiredtodeterminewhichannualscanbeover-winteredsuccessfully.Trueannuals(suchasbasils,cockscomb,andzinnias)—regardlessofanytreatmentgiven—willgotoseedanddiewhenbroughtinside.

CactiandSucculents

Ifyouplantedamixeddrycontainerthisyearandwanttoretainanyoftheplantsfornextyear,theyshouldberemovedfromthemaincontainerandrepottedintoahigh-sand-contentsoilmixforcactiandsucculents.Keepthemnearasunnywindowandwaterwhendry.Manysucculentsandcactidowellindoors,eitherinaheatedgarageoramoderatelysunnycornerofalivingroom.

Youcanmakecontainergardensoutofalmostanything.

Aswithothertropicalplants,succulentsalsoneedtimetoadjusttosunnierconditionsinthespring.Movethemtoashadyspotoutsidewhentemperatureshavestabilizedabove60°Fandthengraduallyintroducethemtobrighterconditions.

HardyPerennials,Shrubs,andVines

Hardyperennials,woodyshrubs,andvinesneedn’tbethrownawaywhenit’stimetogetridofaccentcontainers.Crack-resistant,four-seasoncontainerscanhouseperennialsandwoodyshrubsyear-round.Belowisalistofspecific

perennialsandwoodyplantsthatdowellinbothhotandcoldweather,indoorsandout:

Shadeperennials,likecoralbells,lentenrose,assortedhardyferns,andJapaneseforestgrassaregreatforallweathercontainers.Sun-lovingperennials,suchassedges,somesalvias,purpleconeflower,daylily,spiderwort,andbeeblossomarealsoveryhardyanddowellinyear-roundcontainers.Interplantthemwithcoolgrowingplants,likekale,pansies,andSwisschard,forfallandspringinterest.Woodyshrubsandvines—manyofwhichhavegreatfoliageinterestwithfour-seasonappeal—areidealforcontainergardens.Red-twiggeddogwoodcultivars,clematisvinecultivars,anddwarfcrapemyrtlecultivarsaregreatcontaineradditionsthatcanstayoutdoorsyear-round.

Ifthecontainerhastoberemoved,hardyperennialsandwoodyshrubscanbetemporarilyplantedinthegroundandmulched.Digthemfromthegardeninthespring,ifyouwish,andreplantintoacontainer.Or,leavethemintheirgardenspotandstartoverwithfreshideasandnewplantmaterialforyourcontainergarden.

SustainablePlantsandMoneyinYourPocket

Over-winteringisagreatformofsustainableplantconservationachievedsimplyandeffectivelybyadheringtoeachplant’sculturalandenvironmentalneeds.Withcarefulplanningandstoragetechniques,you’llsavemoneyaswellasplantmaterial.Thebeautyandinterestyou’vecreatedinthisseason’swell-growncontainergardencanalsoprovideenjoymentforyearstocome.

RooftopGardens

Ifyouliveinanurbanareaanddon’thavealawn,thatdoesnotmeanthatyoucannothaveagarden.Whetheryouliveinanapartmentbuildingorownyourownhomewithoutyardspace,youcangrowyourveryowngarden,rightonyourroof!

IsYourRoofSuitableforaRooftopGarden?Theoretically,anyroofsurfacecanbegreened—evenslopedorcurvedroofscansupportalayerofsodorwildflowers.However,iftheangleofyourroofisover30degreesyoushouldconsultwithaspecialist.Veryslantedroofsmakeitdifficulttokeepthesoilinplaceuntiltheplant’srootstakehold.Certainly,aflatroof,approximatinglevelgroundconditionsistheeasiestonwhichtogrowagarden,thoughaslightslantcanbehelpfulinallowingdrainage.

Alsoconsiderhowmuchweightyourroofcanbear.Asimple,lightweightrooftopgardenwillweighbetween13and30poundspersquarefoot.Addtothisyourownweight—orthatofanyonewhowillbetendingorenjoyingthegarden—gardeningtools,and,ifyouliveinacolderclimate,theadditionalweightofsnowinthewinter.

WillaRooftopGardenCauseWaterLeakageorOtherDamage?No.Infact,plantingbedsorsurfacesareoftenusedtoprotectandinsulateroofs.However,youshouldtakesomeprecautionstoprotectyourroof:1. Coveryourroofwithalayerofwaterproofmaterial,suchasaheavy-duty

pondliner.Youmaywanttoplaceanoldrugontopofthewaterproofmaterialtohelpitstayinplaceandtogiveadditionalsupporttothematerialsontop.

Rooftopgardensarebecomingmorepopularinurbanareasaroundtheworld.

Youcanusecontainerplantsonyourrooftopratherthanlayingagardendirectlyontheroof.However,stillbesurethatyourroofissturdyenough

toholdthepotsandthepeoplewhowillbetendingthem.

2. Placeaprotectivedrainagelayerontopofthewaterproofmaterial.Otherwise,shovels,shoeheels,ordroppedtoolscouldpuncturetheroof.Useacoarsematerialsuchasgravel,pumice,orexpandedshale.

3. Placeafilterlayerontopofthedrainagelayertokeepsoilinplacesothatitwon’tclogupyourdrainage.Alightweightpolyestergeotextile(aninexpensive,non-wovenfabricfoundatmosthomeimprovementstores)isidealforthis.Notethatifyourroofhasanangleofover10degrees,onlyinstallthefilterlayeraroundtheedgesoftheroofasitcanincreaseslippage.

4. Usingmoveableplantersorcontainers,modularwalkwaysandsurfacingtreatment,andcompartmentalizedplantingbedswillmakeiteasiertofixleaksshouldtheyappear.

BenefitsofRooftopGardening

Createmoreoutdoorgreenspacewithinyoururbanenvironment.Growyourownfreshvegetables—eveninthecity.ImproveairqualityandreduceCO2emissions.Helpdelaystormwaterrunoff.Giveadditionalinsulationtobuildingroofs.Reducenoise.

ThingstoConsider1. Ifyouliveinaveryhotarea,youmaywanttobuildsmallwooden

platformstoelevateyourplantsabovethehotrooftop.Thiswillhelpincreasetheventilationaroundtheplants.

2. Whendeterminingwhetherornotyourroofisstrongenoughtosupportagarden,rememberthatlargepotsfullofwaterandsoilwillbeveryheavy,andiftheroofisnotstrongenough,yourgardencouldcausestructuraldamage.

3. Youcanusepotsorothercontainersonyourrooftopratherthanmakingafullgardenbed.Youshouldstillfirstfindouthowmuchweightyourroofcanholdandchooselightweightcontainers.

4. Consideraddingafenceorrailingaroundyourroof,especiallyifchildrenwillbehelpinginthegarden.

HowtoMakeaRooftopGarden

Preparation1. Beforeyoubegin,findoutifitispossibleandlegaltocreatea

gardenonyourroof.Youdon’twanttospendlotsoftimeand

moneypreparingforagardenandthenfindoutthatitisprohibited.

2. Makesurethattheroofisabletoholdtheweightofarooftopgarden.Ifso,figureouthowmuchweightitcanhold.Rememberthiswhenmakingthegardenanduselightercontainersandsoilasneeded.

SettingUptheGarden1. Installyourwaterproof,protectivedrainage,andfilterlayers,as

describedearlier.Ifyourroofisangled,youmaywanttoplaceawoodenframearoundtheedgesoftherooftokeepthelayersfromslidingoff.Besuretouserot-resistantwoodandcutoutletsintotheframetoallowexcesswatertodrainaway.Layerpebblesaroundtheoutletstoaiddrainageandtokeepvegetationfromcloggingthem.

2. Addsoiltoyourgarden.Itshouldbe1–4inchesthickandwillbebestifit’samixof¾inorganicsoil(crushedbrickorasimilargranularmaterial)and¼organiccompost.

PlantingandMaintainingtheGarden1. Startplanting.Youcanplantseeds,seedlings,ortransplant

matureplants.Chooseplantsthatarewind-resistantandwon’tneedagreatdealofmaintenance.Sedumsmakeexcellentrooftopplantsastheyrequireverylittleattentiononceplanted,arehardy,andareattractivethroughoutmostoftheyear.Mostvegetablescanbegrownin-seasononrooftops,thoughthewindwillmaketallervegetables(likecornorbeans)difficulttogrow.Ifyourroofisslanted,plantdrought-resistantplantvarietiesnearthepeak,asthey’llgetlesswater.

2. Wateryourgardenimmediatelyafterplanting,andthenregularlythroughoutthegrowingseason,unlessraindoestheworkforyou.

RaisedBeds

Ifyouliveinanareawherethesoiliswet(preventingagoodvegetablegardenfromgrowinginthespring),finditdifficulttobendovertoplantandcultivateyourvegetablesorflowers,orifyoujustwantadifferentlooktoyourbackyardgarden,considerbuildingaraisedbed.

Araisedbedisaninterestingandaffordablewaytogarden.Itcreatesanidealenvironmentforgrowingvegetables,sincethesoilconcentrationcanbecloselymonitoredand,asitisraisedabovetheground,itreducesthecompactionofplantsfrompeoplewalkingonthesoil.

Raisedbedsaretypically2to6feetwideandaslongasneeded.Inmostcases,araisedbedconsistsofa“frame”thatisfilledinwithnutrient-richsoil(includingcompostororganicfertilizers)andisthenplantedwithavarietyofvegetablesorflowers,dependingonthegardener’spreference.Bycontrollingthebed’sconstructionandthesoilmixturethatgoesintothebed,agardenercaneffectivelyreducetheamountofweedsthatwillgrowinthegarden.

Whenplantingseedsoryoungsproutsinaraisedbed,itisbesttospacetheplantsequallyfromeachotheronallsides.Thiswillensurethattheleaveswillbetouchingoncetheplantismature,thussavingspaceandreducingthesoil’smoistureloss.

HowtoMakeaRaisedBed

StepOne:PlanOutYourRaisedBed1. Thinkabouthowyou’dlikeyourraisedbedtolook,andthendesignthe

shape.Araisedbedisnotextremelycomplicated,andallyouneedtodoisbuildanopen-topandopen-bottombox(ifyouareambitious,youcancreatearaisedbedintheshapeofacircle,hexagon,orstar).Themainpurposeofthisboxistoholdsoil.

2. Makeadrawingofyourraisedbed,measureyouravailablegardenspace,andaddthosemeasurementstoyourdrawing.Thiswillallowyoutodeterminehowmuchmaterialisneeded.Generally,yourbedshouldbeat

least24inchesinheight.

Raisedbedsmakeneat,attractivegardensandmakeiteasytomonitortheconditionofthesoil.

3. Decidewhatkindofmaterialyouwanttouseforyourraisedbed.Youcanuselumber,plastic,syntheticwood,railroadties,bricks,rocks,oranumberofotheritemstoholdthedirt.Usinglumberistheeasiestandmostefficientmethod.

4. Gatheryoursupplies.

StepTwo:BuildYourRaisedBed1. Makesureyourbedwillbesituatedinaplacethatgetsplentyofsunlight.

Carefullyassessyourplacement,asyourraisedbedwillbefairlypermanent.

2. Connectthesidesofyourbedtogether(witheitherscrewsornails)toformthedesiredshapeofyourbed.Ifyouareusinglumber,youcanuse4x4-inchpoststoserveasthecornersofyourbed,andthennailorscrewthesidestothesecornerposts.Bydoingso,youwillincreasethestrengthofthestructureandensurethatthedirtwillstayinside.

3. Cutapieceofgardeningplastictofitinsideyourraisedbed,andlayitoutintheappropriatelocation.Thiswillsignificantlyreducetheamountofweedsgrowinginyourgarden.

4. Placeyourframeoverthegardeningplastic(thismighttaketwopeople).

StepThree:StartPlanting1. Addsomecompostintothebottomofthebedandthenlayerpottingsoilon

topofthecompost.Ifyouhavesoilfromotherpartsofyouryard,feelfreetousethatinadditiontothecompostandpottingsoil.Planonfillingatleastı⁄3ofyourraisedbedwithcompostorcompostedmanure(availablefromnurseriesorgardencentersin40-poundbags).

2. Mixindryorganicfertilizers(likewoodash,bonemeal,andbloodmeal)whilebuildingyourbed.Followthepackageinstructionsforhowbesttomixitin.

3. Decidewhatyouwanttoplant.Somepeopleliketogrowflowersintheirraisedbeds;othersprefertogrowvegetables.Ifyoudowanttogrowfood,raisedbedsareexcellentchoicesforsaladgreens,carrots,onions,radishes,beets,andotherrootcrops.

ThingstoConsider1. Tosavemoney,trytodigupandusesoilfromyouryard.Pottingsoilcan

beexpensive,andyardsoilisjustaseffectivewhenmixedwithcompost.2. Becreativewhenbuildingyourraisedplantingbed.Youcanconstructa

greatraisedbedoutofrecycledgoodsoroldlumber.3. Youcanconvertyourraisedbedintoagreenhouse.Justaddhoopstoyour

bedbybendingandconnectingPVCpipeoverthebed.Thenclip

greenhouseplastictothePVCpipes,andyouhaveyourowngreenhouse.4. Makesuretowateryourraisedbedoften.Becauseitisaboveground,your

raisedbedwillnotretainwateraswellasthesoilintheground.Ifyoukeepyourbednarrow,itwillhelpconservewater.

5. Decorateorilluminateyourraisedbedtomakeitafocalpointinyouryard.6. Ifyouuselumbertoconstructyourraisedbed,keepawatchoutfor

termites.7. Bewareofold,pressure-treatedlumber,asitmaycontainarsenicandcould

potentiallyleakintotherootsystemsofanyvegetablesyoumightgrowinyourraisedbed.Newerpressure-treatedlumbershouldnotcontainthesetoxicchemicals.

ThingsYou’llNeed

Formsforyourraisedbed(considerusing4x4-inchpostscutto24inchesinheightforcorners,and2x12-inchboardsforthesides)NailsorscrewsHammerorscrewdriverPlasticliner(toactasaweedbarrieratthebottomofyourbed)ShovelCompost,orcompostingmanureSoil(eitherpottingsoilorsoilfromanotherpartofyouryard)Rake(tosmoothoutthesoilonceinthebed)SeedsoryoungplantsOptional:PVCpipingandgreenhouseplastic(toconvertyourraisedbedtoagreenhouse)

GrowingPlantswithoutSoil

Plantsgrowninsoillessculturesstillneedthebasicrequirementsofplantgrowth,suchastemperature,light(ifindoors,useaheat-lampandsetthecontainernearoronawindowsill),water,oxygen(youcanproducegoodairflowbyusingasmall,rotatingfanindoors),carbondioxide,andmineralnutrients(derivedfromsolutions).Butpalntsgrownwithoutsoilhavetheirrootseitherfree-floatinginanutrient-richsolutionorbeddedinasoil-likemedium,suchassand,gravel,brickshards,Perlite,orrockwool.Theseplantsdonothavetoexertasmuchenergytogathernutrientsfromthesoilandthustheygrowmorequicklyand,usually,moreproductively.

TypesofSoillessSystemsTherearetwomaintypesofsoillessculturesthatcanbeusedinordertogrowplantsandvegetables.Thefirstisawaterculture,inwhichplantsaresuppliedwithmineralnutrientsdirectlyfromthewatersolution.Thesecond,calledaggregatecultureor“sandculture,”usesanaggregate(suchassand,gravel,orPerlite)assoiltoprovideananchoringsupportfortheplantroots.Bothtypesofhydroponicsareeffectiveingrowingsoillessplantsandinprovidingessentialnutrientsforhealthyandproductiveplantgrowth.

TheBenefitsandDrawbacksofGrowingPlantsinaHydroponicsSystemHydroponicsisthemethodofgrowingplantsinacontainerfilledwithanutrient-richbath(waterwithspecialfertilizer)andnosoil.

Lettuceisespeciallywell-suitedtohydroponicssystems.

Inthistypeofhydroponicssystem,adripperreleasesthenutrientsolutionintothetoplayerofpiping.Itthenflowsinasteadystreamdownthroughtheother

layersofpiping.

Benefits:Plantscanbegrowninareaswherenormalplantagricultureisdifficult(suchasdesertsandotheraridplaces,orcities).

Mostterrestrialplantswillgrowinahydroponicssystem.Thereisminimalweedgrowth.Thesystemtakesuplessspacethansoilsystem.Itconserveswater.Nofearofcontaminatedrunofffromgardenfertilizers.Thereislesslaborandcostinvolved.Certainseasonalplantscanberaisedduringanyseason.Thequalityofproduceisgenerallyconsistent.Oldnutrientsolutioncanbeusedtowaterhouseplants.

Drawbacks:Cancausesalmonellatogrowduetothewetandconfinedconditions.Moredifficulttogrowrootvegetables,suchascarrotsandpotatoes.Ifnutrientsolutionisnotregularlychanged,plantscanbecomenutrientdeficientandthusnotgroworproduce.

WaterCultureThemainadvantageofusingawaterculturesystemisthatasignificantpartofthenutrientsolutionisalwaysincontactwiththeplants’roots.Thisprovidesanadequateamountofwaterandnutrients.Themainchallengesofthissystemareprovidingsufficientairsupplyfortherootsandprovidingtherootswithpropersupportandanchorage.

Waterculturesystemsarenotextremelyexpensive,thoughthecostdoesdependonthepriceofthechemicalsandwaterusedinthepreparationofthenutrientsolutions,thesizeofyourcontainer,andwhetherornotyourareusingmechanizedobjects,suchaspumpsandfilters.Youcandecreasethecostbystartingsmallandusingreadilyavailablematerials.

MaterialsNeededtoMakeYourOwnWaterCulture

Alargewaterculturesystemwillneedeitherawoodorconcretetank6to18inchesdeepand2to3feetwide.Ifyouuseawoodencontainer,besuretherearenoknotsinthewoodandsealthetankwithnon-creosoteortarasphalt.

Forsmallwaterculturesystems,whicharerecommendedforbeginners,glassjars,earthenwarecrocks,orplasticbucketswillsufficeasyourholdingtanks.Ifyourcontaineristransparent,besuretopainttheoutsideofthecontainerwith

blackpainttokeepthelightout(andtokeepalgaefromgrowinginsideyoursystem).Keepanarrow,verticalstripunpaintedinordertoseethelevelofthenutrientsolutioninsideyourcontainer.

Theplantbedshouldbe3ormoreinchesdeepandlargeenoughtocoverthecontainerortank.Inordertosupporttheweightofthelitter(whereyourseedsorseedlingsareplaced),coverthebottomofthebedwithchickenwireandthenfillthebedwithlitter(woodshavings,sphagnummoss,peat,orotherorganicmaterialsthatdonoteasilydecay).Ifyouarestartingyourplantsfromseeds,germinatetheseedsinabedofsandandthentransplanttothewaterculturebed,keepingthebedmoistuntiltheplantsgettheirrootsdownintothenutrientsolution.

Inawaterculturesystem,therootsarealwaysincontactwiththenutrientsolution.

Aeration

Adifficultyinusingwatercultureiskeepingthesolutionproperlyaerated.Itisimportanttokeepenoughspacebetweentheseedbedandthenutrientsolutionsotheplant’srootscanreceiveproperoxygen.Inordertomakesurethataircaneasilyflowintothecontainer,eitherpropuptheseedbedslightlytoallowairflowordrillaholeinyourcontainerjustabovethehighestsolutionlevel.

Tomakesurethereissufficientoxygenreachingtheplantroots,youcaninstallanaquariumpumpinyourwaterculturesystem.Justmakesurethatthewaterisnotagitatedtoomuchortherootsmaybedamaged.Youcanalsouseanairstoneorperforatedpipetogentlyintroduceairflowintoyourcontainer.

WaterSupply

Yourhydroponicssystemneedsanadequatesupplyoffreshwatertomaintainhealthyplantlife.Makesurethatthenaturalmineralsinyourwaterarenotgoingtoadverselyaffectyourhydroponicsplants.Ifthereistoomuchsodiuminyourwater(usuallyaneffectofsoftenedwater),itcouldbecometoxictoyourplants.Ingeneral,themineralsinwaterarenotharmfultothegrowthofyourplants.

NutrientSolution

Youmayaddnutrientsolutionbyhand,byagravity-feedsystem,ormechanically.Insmallerwaterculturesystems,mixingthenutrientsolutioninasmallcontainerandaddingitbyhand,asneeded,istypicallyadequate.

Ifyouareusingalargersetup,agravity-feedsystemwillworkquitewell.Inthistypeofsystem,thenutrientsolutionismixedinavatandthentappedfromthevatintoyourcontainerasneeded.Youcanuseaplasticcontainerorlargerearthenwarejarasthevat.

Apumpcanalsobeusedtosupplyyoursystemwithadequatenutrientsolution.Youcaninsertthepumpintothevatandthentransferthesolutiontoyourhydroponicssystem.

Whenyourplantsareyoung,itisimportanttokeepthespacebetweenyourseedbedandthenutrientsolutionsmall(thatway,theyoungplantrootscanreachthenutrients).Asyourplantsgrow,theamountofspacebetweenthebedandsolutionshouldincrease(butdothisslowlyandkeepthelevelratherconsistent).

Ifthetemperatureisratherhighandthereisincreasedevaporation,itisimportanttokeeptherootsatthecorrectlevelinthewaterandchangethenutrientsolutioneveryday,ifneeded.

Drainyourcontainereverytwoweeksandthenrenewthenutrientsolutionfromyourvatorbyhand.Thismustbedoneinashortamountoftimesotherootsdonotdryout.

Transplanting

Whentransplantingyourseedlings,it’simportantthatyouarecarefulwiththe

tinyrootsystems.Gentlywork

ThingsYou’llNeed

ExternalpumpAirlineortubingAirstonesWaterproofbin,bucket,orfishtanktouseasareserveStyrofoamNetpotsTypeofgrowingmedium,suchasrockwoolorgrowrocksHydroponicsnutrients,suchasgrowformula,bloomformula,supplements,andpHBlackspraypaint(thisisonlyrequiredifthereservoiristransparent)Knife,boxcutter,orscissorsTapemeasuretherootsthroughthesupportnettinganddownintothenutrientsolution.Thenfillinthesupportnettingwithlittertohelptheplantremainupright.

HowtoBuildaSimple,HomemadeHydroponicsSystem

StepstoBuildingYourHydroponicsSystem:1. Findacontainertouseasareservoir,suchasafishtank,abin,orabucket

ofsomesort.Thereservoirshouldbepaintedblackifitisnotlightproof(orcoveredwithathick,blacktrashbagifyouwanttoreusethetankatsomepoint),andallowedtodrybeforemovingontothenextstep.Allowinglighttoenterthereservoirwillpromotethegrowthofalgae.Itisagoodideatouseareservoirthatisthesamedimensions(lengthandwidth)fromtoptobottom.

2. Usingaknifeorsharpobject,scorealineonthetank(scratchoffsomepaintinastraightlinefromtoptobottom).Thiswillbeyourwaterlevelmeter,whichwillallowyoutoseehowmuchwaterisinthereservoirand

willgiveyouamoreaccurateandconvenientviewofthenutrientsolutionlevelinyourtank.

3. Useatapemeasuretodeterminethelengthandwidthofyourreservoir.Measuretheinsideofthereservoirfromoneendtotheother.Onceyouhavethedimensions,cuttheStyrofoam¼inchsmallerthanthesizeofthereservoir.Forexample,ifyourdimensionsare36x20inches,youshouldcuttheStyrofoamto35¾x19¾inches.TheStyrofoamshouldfitnicelyinthereservoir,withjustenoughroomtoadjusttoanywaterlevelchanges.Ifthereservoirtapersoffatthebottom(thebottomissmallerindimensionthanthetop)thefloater(Styrofoam)shouldbe2to4inchessmallerthanthereservoir,ormoreifnecessary.

Asimplehydroponicssystem.

4. DonotplacetheStyrofoaminthereservoiryet.First,youneedtocutholesforthenetpots.PutthenetpotsontheStyrofoamwhereyouwanttoplaceeachplant.Usingapenorpencil,tracearoundthebottomofeachnetpot.Useaknifeorboxcuttertofollowthetracelinesandcuttheholesforpots.OnoneendoftheStyrofoam,cutasmallholefortheairlinetorunintothereservoir.

5. Thenumberofplantsyoucangrowwilldependonthesizeofthegardenyoubuildandthetypesofcropsyouwanttogrow.Remembertospaceplantsappropriatelysothateachreceivesampleamountsoflight.

6. Thepumpyouchoosemustbestrongenoughtoprovideenoughoxygentosustainplantlife.Askforadvicechoosingapumpatyourlocalhydroponicssupplystoreorgardencenter.

7. Connecttheairlinetothepumpandattachtheairstonetothefreeend.Theairlineshouldbelongenoughtotravelfromthepumpintothebottomofthereservoir,oratleastfloatinthemiddleofthetanksotheoxygenbubblescangettotheplantroots.Italsomustbetherightsizeforthepumpyouchoose.Mostpumpswillcomewiththecorrectsizeairline.To

determinethetank’scapacity,useaone-gallonbucketorbottleandfillthereservoir.Remembertocounthowmanygallonsittakestofillthereservoirandyouwillknowthecorrectcapacityofyourtank.

SettingUpYourHydroponicsSystem1. Fillthereservoirwiththenutrientsolution.2. PlacetheStyrofoamintothereservoir.3. Runtheairlinethroughthedesignatedholeornotch.

ThingstoConsiderAhomemadehydroponicssystemlikethisisnotidealforlarge-scaleproductionofplantsorforcommercialusage.Thisparticularsystemdoesnotofferawaytoconvenientlychangethenutrientsolution.Anextracontainerwouldberequiredtoholdthefloaterwhileyouchangethesolution.Lettuce,watercress,tomatoes,cucumbers,andherbsgrowespeciallywellhydroponically.

4. Fillthenetpotswithgrowingmediumandplaceoneplantineachpot.5. PutthenetpotsintothedesignatedholesintheStyrofoam.6. Pluginthepump,turniton,andstartgrowingwithyourfullyfunctional,

homemadehydroponicssystem.

AggregateCultureAggregateculturesystemsutilizedifferentmediumsthatactinplaceofsoiltostabilizetheplantanditsroots.Theaggregateinthecontainerisfloodedwiththenutrientsolution.Theadvantageofthistypeofsystemisthatthereisnotasmuchtroublewithaeratingtheroots.Also,aggregateculturesystemsallowfortheeasytransplantationofseedlingsintotheaggregatemediumanditislessexpensive.

MaterialsNeededforanAggregateCultureSystem

Thecontainershouldbewatertighttohelpconservethenutrientsolution.Large

tankscanbemadeofconcreteorwood,andsmalleroperationscaneffectivelybedoneinglassjars,earthenwarecontainers,orplasticbuckets.Makesuretopainttransparentcontainersblack.

Aggregatematerialsmaydiffergreatly,dependingonwhattypeyouchoosetouse.Silicasand(wellwashed)isoneofthebestmaterialsthatcanbeused.Anyothertypeofcoarse-texturedsandisalsoeffective,butmakesureitdoesnotcontainlime.Sandholdsmoisturequitewellanditallowsforeasytransplantation.Amixtureofsandandgraveltogetherisalsoaneffectiveaggregate.Othermaterials,suchaspeatmoss,vermiculite,woodshavings,andcocopeat,arealsogoodaggregates.Youcanfindaggregatematerialsatyourlocalgardencenter,homecenter,orgarden-supplyhouse.

Aeration

Aggregateculturesystemsallowmucheasieraerationthanwaterculturesystems.Drainingandrefillingthecontainerwithnutrientsolutionhelpstheairtomoveinandoutoftheaggregatematerial.Thisbringsafreshsupplyofoxygentotheplantroots.

WaterSupply

Thesamewaterrequirementsareneededforthistypeofhydroponicssystemasforawaterculturesystem.Mineralsinthewatertendtocollectintheaggregatematerial,soit’sagoodideatoflushthematerialwithfreshwatereveryfewweeks.

NutrientSolution

Thesimplestwayofaddingthenutrientsolutiontoaggregateculturesistopouritovertheaggregatesbyhand.Youmayalsouseamanualgravity-feedsystem

withbucketsorvats.Attachthevattothebottomofthecontainerwithaflexiblehose,raisethevattofloodthecontainer,andlowerittodrainit.Coverthevattopreventevaporationandreplenishitwithnewnutrientsolutiononceeverytwoweeks.

Agravitydrip-feedsystemalsoworkswellandhelpsreducetheamountofworkyoudo.Placethevathigherthanthecontainer,andthencontrolthesolutiondripsoitisjustfastenoughtokeeptheaggregatemoist.

Itisimportantthatthenutrientsolutionisaddedanddrainedorraisedandloweredatleastonceaday.Inhotterweather,theaggregatematerialmayneedmorewettingwiththesolution.Makesurethatthematerialisnotdryingouttheroots.Drenchingtheaggregatewithsolutionoftenwillnotharmtheplantsbutlettingtherootsdryoutcouldhavedetrimentaleffects.

Alwaysreplaceyournutrientsolutionaftertwoweeks.Notreplacingthesolutionwillcausesaltsandharmfulfertilizerresiduestobuildup,whichmayultimatelydamageyourplants.

Planting

Youmayuseeitherseedlingsorrootedcuttingsinanaggregateculturesystem.Theaggregateshouldbefloodedandsolutiondrainedbeforeplantingtocreateamoist,compactedseedbed.Seedsmayalsobeplanteddirectlyintotheaggregatematerial.Donotplanttheseedstoodeep,andfloodthecontainerfrequentlywithwatertokeeptheaggregatemoist.Oncetheseedlingshavegerminated,youmaystartusingthenutrientsolution.

Ifyouaretransplantingseedlingsfromagerminationbed,makesuretheyhavegerminatedinsoillessmaterial,asanysoilleftontherootsmaycausethemtorotandmayhampertheminobtainingnutrientsfromthesolution.

Pre-mixedChemicalsManyoftheessentialnutrientsneededforhydroponicplantgrowtharenowavailablealreadymixedintheircorrectproportions.Youmayfindthesesolutionsincatalogsorfromgarden-supplystores.Theyaretypicallyinexpensiveandonlysmallquantitiesareneededtohelpyourplantsgrowstrongandhealthy.Alwaysfollowthedirectionsonthecontainerwhenusingpre-mixedchemicals.

MakingYourOwnSolution

Intheeventthatyouwanttomakeyourownnutrientsolution,hereisaformulaforasolutionthatwillprovideallthemajorelementsrequiredforyourplantstogrow.

Youcanobtainallofthesechemicalsfromgarden-supplystoresordrugstores.

MakingNutrientSolutions

Forplantstogrowproperly,theymustreceivenitrogen,phosphorous,potassium,calcium,magnesium,sulfur,iron,manganese,boron,zinc,copper,molybdenum,andchlorine.Thereisawiderangeofnutrientsolutionsthatcanbeused.Ifyourplantsarereceivinginadequateamountsofnutrients,theywillshowthisindifferentways.Thismeansthatyoumustproceedwithcautionwhenselectingandaddingthemineralsthatwillbepresentinyournutrientsolution.

Itisimportanttohavepurenutrientmaterialswhenpreparingthesolution.Usingfertilizer-gradechemicalsisalwaysthebestroutetogo,asitischeapest.Makesurethecontainersareclosedandnotexposedtoair.Evaporatedsolutionsincreasetheamountofsaltwhichcouldharmyourplants.

Afterallthechemicalshavebeenmixedintothesolution,checkthepHofthesolution.ApHof7.0isneutral;anythingbelow7.0isacidicandanythingaboveisalkaline.CertainplantsgrowbestincertainpHs.PlantsthatgrowwellatalowerpH(between4.5and5.5)areazaleas,buttercups,gardenias,androses;plantsthatgrowwellataneutralpHarepotatoes,zinnias,andpumpkins;most

plantsgrowbestinaslightlyacidicpH(between5.5and6.5).

TodeterminethepHofyoursolution,useapHindicator(theseareusuallypaperstrips).ThestripwillchangecolorwhenplacedindifferentlevelsofpH.IfyoufindyourpHleveltobeaboveyourdesiredrange,youcanbringitdownbyaddingdilutesulfuricacidinsmallquantitiesusinganeyedropper.KeepretestinguntilyoureachyourdesiredpHlevel.

PlantNutrientDeficienciesWhenplantsarelackingnutrients,theytypicallydisplaythesedeficienciesoutwardly.Followingisalistofsymptomsthatmightoccurifaplantislackingacertaintypeofnutrient.Ifyourplantsdisplayanyofthesesymptoms,itisimperativethatthelevelofthatparticularnutrientbeincreased.

DeficientNutrient Symptoms

Boron Tipoftheshootdies;stemsandpetiolesarebrittle

Calcium Tipoftheshootdies;tipsoftheyoungleavesdie;tipsoftheleavesarehooked

Iron Newupperleavesturnyellowbetweentheveins;edgesandtipsofleavesmaydie

Magnesium Lowerleavesareyellowbetweentheveins;leafmarginscurlupordown;leavesdie

Manganese Newupperleaveshavedeadspots;leafmightappearnetted

Nitrogen Leavesaresmallandlightgreen;lowerleavesarelighterthanupperleaves;weakstalks

Phosphorous Dark-greenfoliage;lowerleavesareyellowbetweentheveins;purplishcoloronleaves

Potassium Lowerleavesmightbemottled;deadareasneartipsofleaves;yellowingatleafmarginsandtowardthecenter

Sulfur upperleaves;leafveinsarelighterthansurroundingarea

SulfurLight-green

upperleaves;leafveinsarelighterthansurroundingarea

Aggregatecultureisespeciallyusefulinurbanareaswherequalitysoilisnotreadilyavailable.Iftheonlyspotyouhaveforagardenisoutsideyourwindow,youshouldstillbeabletogrowavarietyofflowers,vegetables,orherbs.

PestandDiseaseManagement

Pestmanagementcanbeoneofthegreatestchallengestothehomegardener.Yardpestsincludeweeds,insects,diseases,andsomespeciesofwildlife.Weedsareplantsthataregrowingoutofplace.Insectpestsincludeanenormousnumberofspecies,fromtinythripsthatarenearlyinvisibletothenakedeye,tothelargelarvaeofthetomatohornworm.Plantdiseasesarecausedbyfungi,bacteria,viruses,andotherorganisms—someofwhichareonlynowbeingclassified.Poorplantnutritionandmisuseofpesticidesalsocancauseinjurytoplants.Slugs,mites,andmanyspeciesofwildlife,suchasrabbits,deer,andcrowscanbeextremelydestructiveaswell.

IdentifytheProblemCarefulidentificationoftheproblemisessentialbeforetakingmeasurestocontroltheissueinyourgarden.Someinsectdamagemayatfirstappeartobeadisease,especiallyifnovisibleinsectsarepresent.Nutrientproblemsmayalsomimicdiseases.Herbicidedamage,resultingfrommisapplicationofchemicals,canalsobemistakenforotherproblems.Learningaboutdifferenttypesofgardenpestsisthefirststepinkeepingyourplantshealthyandproductive.

InsectsandMitesAllinsectshavesixlegs,butotherthanthattheyareextremelydifferentdependingonthespecies.Someinsectsincludesuchorganismsasbeetles,flies,bees,ants,moths,andbutterflies.Mitesandspidershaveeightlegs—theyarenot,infact,insectsbutwillbetreatedassuchforthepurposesofthissection.

Insectsdamageplantsinseveralways.Themostvisibledamagecausedbyinsectsischewedplantleavesandflowers.Manypestsarevisibleandcanbereadilyidentified,includingtheJapanesebeetle,Coloradopotatobeetle,andnumerousspeciesofcaterpillarssuchastentcaterpillarsandtomatohornworms.Otherchewinginsects,however,suchascutworms(whicharecaterpillars),comeoutatnighttoeat,andburrowintothesoilduringtheday.Thesearemuchhardertoidentifybutshouldbeconsideredlikelyculpritsifyoungplantsseemtodisappearovernightorarefoundcutoffatgroundlevel.

LeafdamagefromJapanesebeetles

AJapanesebeetleseatsholesinaleaf

Suckinginsectsareextremelycommoningardensandcanbeverydamagingtoyourvegetableplantsandflowers.Themostknownoftheseinsectsareleafhoppers,aphids,mealybugs,thrips,andmites.Theseinsectsinserttheirmouthpartsintotheplanttissuesandsuckouttheplantjuices.Theyalsomaycarrydiseasesthattheyspreadfromplanttoplantastheymoveabouttheyard.Youmaysuspectthattheseinsectsarepresentifyounoticemisshapenplantleavesorflowerpetals.Oftentheyoungerleaveswillappearcurledorpuckered.Flowersdevelopingfromthebudsmayonlypartiallydevelopifthey’vebeensuckedbythesebugs.Lookontheundersidesoftheleaves—thatiswheremanyinsectstendtogather.

Otherinsectscausedamagetoplantsbyboringintostems,fruits,andleaves,possiblydisruptingtheplant’sabilitytotransportwater.Theyalsocreateopportunitiesfordiseaseorganismstoattacktheplants.Youmaysuspectthepresenceofboringinsectsifyouseesmallaccumulationsofsawdust-likematerialonplantstemsorfruits.Commonexamplesofboringinsectsincludesquashvineborersandcornborers.

IntegratedPestManagement(IPM)Itisdifficult,ifnotimpossible,topreventallpestproblemsinyourgardeneveryyear.Ifyourbestpreventioneffortshavenotbeenentirelysuccessful,youmayneedtousesomecontrolmethods.Integratedpestmanagement(IPM)reliesonseveraltechniquestokeeppestsatacceptablepopulationlevelswithoutexcessiveuseofchemicalcontrols.ThebasicprinciplesofIPMincludemonitoring(scouting),determiningtolerableinjurylevels(thresholds),andapplyingappropriatestrategiesandtacticstosolvethepestissue.Unlikeothermethodsofpestcontrolwherepesticidesareappliedonarigidschedule,IPMappliesonlythosecontrolsthatareneeded,whentheyareneeded,tocontrolpeststhatwillcausemorethanatolerablelevelofdamagetotheplant.

Monitoring

MonitoringisessentialforasuccessfulIPMprogram.Checkyourplantsregularly.Lookforsignsofdamagefrominsectsanddiseasesaswellasindicationsofadequatefertilityandmoisture.Earlyidentificationofpotentialproblemsisessential.

Certainkindsofwormsandbeetleswillleavedamagingholesinyourplants.

Aphids

Therearethousandsofinsectsinagarden,manyofwhichareharmlessorevenbeneficialtotheplants.Properidentificationisneededbeforecontrolstrategiescanbeadopted.Itisimportanttorecognizethedifferentstagesofinsectdevelopmentforseveralreasons.Thecaterpillareatingyourplantsmaybethelarvaeofthebutterflyyouweretryingtoattract.Anysmalllarvaewithsixspotsonitsbackisprobablyayoungladybug,averybeneficialinsect.

Thresholds

Itisnotnecessarytokilleveryinsect,weed,ordiseaseorganisminvadingyourgardeninordertomaintaintheplants’health.Whendealingwithgardenpests,

aneconomicthresholdcomesintoplayandisthepointwherethedamagecausedbythepestexceedsthecostofcontrol.Inahomegarden,thiscanbedifficulttodetermine.Whatyouaregrowingandhowyouintendtouseitwilldeterminehowmuchdamageyouarewillingtotolerate.Rememberthatlargerplants,especiallythoseclosetoharvest,cantoleratemoredamagethanatinyseedling.Afewfleabeetlesonaradishseedlingmaywarrantcontrol,whereasnumerousJapanesebeetleseatingtheleavesofbeansclosetoharvestmaynot.

Ifthethresholdlevelforcontrolhasbeenexceeded,youmayneedtoemploycontrolstrategies.EffectiveandsafestrategiescanbediscussedwithyourlocalCooperativeExtensionService,gardencenters,ornurseries.

Mechanical/PhysicalControlStrategies

Manyinsectscansimplyberemovedbyhand.Thismethodisdefinitelypreferableifonlyafew,largeinsectsarecausingtheproblem.Simplyremovetheinsectfromtheplantanddropitintoacontainerofsoapywaterorvegetableoil.Beawarethatsomeinsectshaveprickly

BeneficialInsectsthatHelpControlPestPopulations

Insect Pest Control led

Greenlacewings Aphids,mealybugs,thrips,andspidermites

Ladybugs AphidsandColoradopotatobeetles

Prayingmantises Almostanyinsect

Groundbeetles Caterpillarsthatattacktreesandshrubs

Seedheadweevilsand Weeds

otherbeetles

spinesorexcreteoilysubstancesthatcancauseinjurytohumans.Usecaution

whenhandlingunfamiliarinsects.Wearglovesorremoveinsectswithtweezers.

Manyinsectscanberemovedfromplantsbysprayingwaterfromahoseorsprayer.Smallvacuumscanalsobeusedtosuckupinsects.Trapscanbeusedeffectivelyforsomeinsectsaswell.Thesecomeinavarietyofstylesdependingontheinsecttobecaught.Manytrapsrelyontheuseofpheromones—naturallyoccurringchemicalsproducedbytheinsectsandusedtoattracttheoppositesexduringmating.Theyareextremelyspecificforeachspeciesand,therefore,willnotharmbeneficialspecies.Onecautionwithtrapsisthattheymayactuallydrawmoreinsectsintoyouryard,sodon’tplacethemdirectlyintoyourgarden.Othertraps(suchasyellowandbluestickycards)aremoregenericandwillattractnumerousspecies.Differentinsectsareattractedtodifferentcolorsofthesetraps.Stickycardsalsocanbeusedeffectivelytomonitorinsectpests.

OtherPestControls

Diatomaceousearth,apowder-likedustmadeoftinymarineorganismscalleddiatoms,canbeusedtoreducedamagefromsoft-bodiedinsectsandslugs.Spreadthismaterialonthesoil—itissharpandcutsorirritatesthesesoftorganisms.Itisharmlesstootherorganisms.Inordertotrapslugs,putoutshallowdishesofbeer.

BiologicalControls

Biologicalcontrolsarenature’swayofregulatingpestpopulations.Biologicalcontrolsrelyonpredatorsandparasitestokeeporganismsundercontrol.Manyofourpresentpestproblemsresultfromthelossofpredatorspeciesandotherbiologicalcontrolfactors.

Somebiologicalcontrolsincludebirdsandbatsthateatinsects.Asinglebatcaneatupto600mosquitoesanhour.Manybirdspecieseatinsectpestsontreesandinthegarden.

ChemicalControls

Whenusingbiologicalcontrols,beverycarefulwithpesticides.Mostcommonpesticidesarebroadspectrum,whichmeansthattheykillawidevarietyoforganisms.Sprayapplicationsofinsecticidesarelikelytokillnumerousbeneficialinsectsaswellasthepests.Herbicidesappliedtoweedspeciesmaydriftinthewindorvaporizeintheheatofthedayandinjurenon-targetedplants.

Runoffofpesticidescanpollutewater.Manypesticidesaretoxictohumansaswellaspetsandsmallanimalsthatmayenteryouryard.Trytoavoidusingthesetypesofpesticidesatallcosts—andifyoudousethem,readthelabelscarefullyandavoidsprayingthemonwindydays.

Cutworms

Somecommon,non-toxichouseholdsubstancesareaseffectiveasmanytoxicpesticides.Afewdropsofdishwashingdetergentmixedwithwaterandsprayedonplantsisextremelyeffectiveincontrollingmanysoft-bodiedinsects,suchasaphidsandwhiteflies.Crushedgarlicmixedwithwatermaycontrolcertaininsects.Abakingsodasolutionhasbeenshowntohelpcontrolsomefungaldiseasesonroses.

AlternativestoPesticidesandChemicals

Whenusedincorrectly,pesticidescanpollutewater.Theyalsokillbeneficialaswellasharmfulinsects.Naturalalternativespreventbothoftheseeventsfromoccurringandsaveyoumoney.Considerusingnaturalalternativesforchemicalpesticides:Non-detergentinsecticidalsoaps,garlic,hotpepperspray,1teaspoonofliquidsoapinagallonofwater,useddishwater,oraforcefulstreamofwaterfromahoseallworktodislodgeinsectsfromyourgardenplants.

Anothersolutionistoalsoconsiderusingplantsthatnaturallyrepelinsects.Theseplantshavetheirownchemicaldefensesystems,andwhenplantedamongflowersandvegetables,theyhelpkeepunwantedinsectsaway.

PlantDiseasesPlantdiseaseidentificationisextremelydifficult.Insomecases,onlylaboratoryanalysiscanconclusivelyidentifysomediseases.Diseaseorganismsinjureplantsinseveralways:Someattackleafsurfacesandlimittheplant’sabilitytocarryonphotosynthesis;othersproducesubstancesthatclogplanttissuesthattransportwaterandnutrients;stillotherdiseaseorganismsproducetoxinsthatkilltheplantorreplaceplanttissuewiththeirown.

NaturalPestRepellants

Pest Repel lant

Ant Mint,tansy,orpennyroyal

Aphids Mint,garlic,chives,coriander,oranise

Beanleafbeetle Potato,onion,orturnip

Codlingmoth Commonoleander

Coloradopotatobug Greenbeans,coriander,ornasturtium

Cucumberbeetle Radishortansy

Fleabeetle Garlic,onion,ormint

Importedcabbage Mint,sage,rosemary,orhyssop

Japanesebeetle Garlic,larkspur,tansy,rue,orgeranium

Leafhopper GeraniumorpetuniaMiceOnion

Rootknotnematodes Frenchmarigolds

SlugsProstrate rosemaryorwormwood

Spidermites Onion,garlic,cloves,orchives

SquashbugRadish, marigolds,tansy,ornasturtium

Stinkbug Radish

Thrips Marigolds

Tomatohornworm Marigolds,sage,orborage

Whitefly Marigoldsornasturtium

Symptomsthatareassociatedwithplantdiseasesmayincludethepresenceofmushroom-likegrowthsontrunksoftrees;leaveswithagrayish,mildewedappearance;spotsonleaves,flowers,andfruits;suddenwiltingordeathofaplantorbranch;sapexudingfrombranchesortrunksoftrees;andstuntedgrowth.

Misapplicationofpesticidesandnutrients,airpollutants,andotherenvironmentalconditions—suchasfloodingandfreezing—canalsomimicsomediseaseproblems.Yellowingorreddeningofleavesandstuntedgrowthmayindicateanutritionalproblem.Leafcurlingormisshapengrowthmaybearesultofherbicideapplication.

PestandDiseaseManagementPracticesPreventingpestsshouldbeyourfirstgoalwhengrowingagarden,althoughitisunlikelythatyouwillbeabletoavoidallpestproblemsbecausesomeplantseedsanddiseaseorganismsmaylaydormantinthesoilforyears.

Diseasesneedthreeelementstobecomeestablishedinplants:thediseaseorganism,asusceptiblespecies,andtheproperenvironmentalconditions.Somediseaseorganismscanliveinthesoilforyears;otherorganismsarecarriedininfectedplantmaterialthatfallstotheground.Somediseaseorganismsarecarriedbyinsects.Goodsanitationwillhelplimitsomeproblemswithdisease.Choosingresistantvarietiesofplantsalsopreventsmanydiseasesfrom

occurring.Rotatingannualplantsinagardencanalsopreventsomediseases.

Plantsthathaveadequate,butnotexcessive,nutrientsarebetterabletoresistattacksfrombothdiseasesandinsects.Excessiveratesofnitrogenoftenresultinextremelysucculentvegetativegrowthandcanmakeplantsmoresusceptibletoinsectanddiseaseproblems,aswellasdecreasingtheirwinterhardiness.Properwateringandspacingofplantslimitsthespreadofsomediseasesandprovidesgoodaerationaroundplants,sodiseasesthatfesterinstandingwatercannotmultiply.Trickleirrigation,wherewaterisappliedtothesoilandnottheplantleaves,maybehelpful.

Removalofdiseasedmaterialcertainlylimitsthespreadofsomediseases.Itisimportanttocleanuplitterdroppedfromdiseasedplants.Prunediseasedbranchesontreesandshrubstoallowformoreaircirculation.Whenpruningdiseasedtreesandshrubs,disinfectyourprunersbetweencutswithasolutionofchlorinebleachtoavoidspreadingthediseasefromplanttoplant.Alsotrytocontrolinsectsthatmaycarrydiseasestoyourplants.

Powderymildewleafdisease

Youcanmakeyourownnaturalfungicidebycombining5teaspoonseachofbakingsodaandhydrogenperoxidewithagallonofwater.Sprayonyourinfectedplants.Milkdilutedwithwaterisalsoaneffectivefungicide,duetothe

potassiumphosphateinit,whichboostsaplant’simmunesystem.Themoredilutedthesolution,themorefrequentlyyou’llneedtospraytheplant.

HarvestingYourGarden

Itisessential,inordertogetthebestfreshness,flavor,andnutritionalbenefitsfromyourgardenvegetablesandfruits,toharvestthemattheappropriatetime.Thevegetable’sstageofmaturityandthetimeofdayatwhichitisharvestedareessentialforgood-tastingandnutritiousproduce.Overripevegetablesandfruitswillbestringyandcoarse.Whenpossible,harvestyourvegetablesduringthecoolpartofthemorning.Ifyouaregoingtocanandpreserveyourvegetablesandfruits,dosoassoonaspossible.Or,ifthisprocessmustbedelayed,coolthevegetablesinicewaterorcrushediceandstorethemintherefrigerator.Herearesomebriefguidelinesforharvestingvarioustypesofcommongardenproduce:Asparagus—Harvestthespearswhentheyareatleast6to8inchestallbysnappingorcuttingthematgroundlevel.Afewspearsmaybeharvestedthesecondyearaftercrownsaresetout.Afullharvestseasonwilllastfourtosixweeksduringthethirdgrowingseason.

Beans,snap—Harvestbeforetheseedsdevelopinthepod.Beansarereadytopickiftheysnapeasilywhenbentinhalf.

Beans,lima—Harvestwhenthepodsfirststarttobulgewiththeenlargedseeds.Podsmuststillbegreen,notyellowish.

Broccoli—Harvestthedarkgreen,compactcluster,orhead,whilethebudsareshuttight,beforeanyyellowflowersappear.Smallersideshootswilldeveloplater,providingacontinuousharvest.

Brusselssprouts—Harvestthelowersprouts(smallheads)whentheyareabout1to1½inchesindiameterbytwistingthemoff.Removingthelowerleavesalongthestemwillhelptohastentheplant’smaturity.

Cabbage—Harvestwhentheheadsfeelhardandsolid.

Cantaloupe—Harvestwhenthestemslipseasilyfromthefruitwithagentletug.Anotherindicatorofripenessiswhenthenettingontheskinbecomesroundedandthefleshbetweenthenettingturnsfromagreentoatancolor.

Carrots—Harvestwhentherootsare¾to1inchindiameter.Thelargest

rootsgenerallyhavedarkertops.

Cauliflower—Whenpreparingtoharvest,excludesunlightwhenthecurds(heads)are1to2inchesindiameterbylooselytyingtheouterleavestogetherabovethecurdwithastringorrubberband.Thisprocessisknownasblanching.Harvestthecurdswhentheyare4to6inchesindiameterbutstillcompact,white,andsmooth.Theheadshouldbeready10to15daysaftertyingtheleaves.

Driedcorncanbemadeintocornmealbyremovingthekernelsfromthehuskandgrindingtheminafoodprocessor.

Ifyouhaveanover-abundancofsnappeas,blanchethemfor1to2minutes,drain,dunktheminicewater,drainagainandfreezeinairtightplasticbags.

Collards—Harvestolder,lowerleaveswhentheyreachalengthof8to12inches.Newleaveswillgrowaslongasthecentralgrowingpointremains,providingacontinuousharvest.Wholeplantsmaybeharvestedandcookedifdesired.

Corn,sweet—Thesilksbegintoturnbrownanddryoutastheearsmature.Checkafewearsformaturitybyopeningthetopoftheearandpressingafewkernelswithyourthumbnail.Iftheexudedliquidismilkyratherthanclear,theearisreadyforharvesting.Cookingafewearsisalsoagoodwaytotestformaturity.

Cucumbers—Harvestwhenthefruitsare6to8inchesinlength.Harvestwhenthecolorisdeepgreenandbeforeyellowcolorappears.Pickfourtofivetimesperweektoencouragecontinuousproduction.Leavingmaturecucumbersonthevinewillstoptheproductionoftheentireplant.

Eggplant—Harvestwhenthefruitsare4to5inchesindiameterandtheircolorisaglossy,purplishblack.Thefruitisgettingtooripewhenthecolorstartstodullorbecomebronzed.Becausethestemiswoody,cut—donotpull—thefruitfromtheplant.Ashortstemshouldremainoneachfruit.

Kale—Harvestbytwistingofftheouter,olderleaveswhentheyreachalengthof8to10inchesandaremediumgreenincolor.Heavy,darkgreenleavesareoverripeandarelikelytobetoughandbitter.Newleaveswillgrow,providingacontinuousharvest.

Lettuce—Harvesttheolder,outerleavesfromleaflettuceassoonastheyare4to6incheslong.Harvestheadingtypeswhentheheadsaremoderatelyfirmandbeforeseedstalksform.

Mustard—Harvesttheleavesandleafstemswhentheyare6to8incheslong;newleaveswillprovideacontinuousharvestuntiltheybecometoostronginflavorandtoughintexture,duetotemperatureextremes.

Okra—Harvestyoung,tenderpodswhentheyare2to3incheslong.Picktheokraatleasteveryotherdayduringthepeakgrowingseason.Overripepodsbecomewoodyandaretootoughtoeat.

Onions—Harvestwhenthetopsfalloverandbegintoturnyellow.Diguptheonionsandallowthemtodryoutintheopensunforafewdaystotoughentheskin.Thenremovethedriedsoilbybrushingtheonionslightly.Cutthestem,leaving2to3inchesattached,andstoreinanet-typebaginacool,dryplace.

Peas—Harvestregularpeaswhenthepodsarewellrounded;edible-podvarietiesshouldbeharvestedwhentheseedsarefullydevelopedbutstillfreshandbrightgreen.Podsaregettingtoooldwhentheylosetheirbrightnessandturnlightoryellowishgreen.

Peppers—Harvestsweetpepperswithasharpknifewhenthefruitsarefirm,crisp,andfullsize.Greenpepperswillturnredifleftontheplant.Allowhotpepperstoattaintheirbrightredcolorandfullflavorwhileattachedtothevine;thencutthemandhangthemtodry.

Potatoes(Irish)—Harvestthetuberswhentheplantsbegintodryanddiedown.Storethetubersinacool,highhumiditylocationwithgoodventilation,suchasthebasementorcrawlspaceofyourhouse.Avoidexposingthetuberstolight,asgreening,whichdenotesthepresenceofdangerousalkaloids,willoccurevenwithsmallamountsoflight.

Pumpkins—Harvestpumpkinsandwintersquashbeforethefirstfrost.Afterthevinesdryup,thefruitcolordarkensandtheskinsurfaceresistspuncturefromyourthumbnail.Avoidbruisingorscratchingthefruitwhilehandlingit.Leavea3-to4-inchportionofthestemattachedtothefruitandstoreitinacool,drylocationwithgoodventilation.

Don’tcutasparagusbelowthesoilasitcoulddamageotherbudsonthecrownthatwouldotherwisesendupnewspears.

Radishes—Harvestwhentherootsare½to1½inchesindiameter.Theshouldersofradishrootsoftenappearthroughthesoilsurfacewhentheyaremature.Ifleftinthegroundtoolong,theradisheswillbecometoughandwoody.

Rutabagas—Harvestwhentherootsareabout3inchesindiameter.Therootsmaybestoredinthegroundandusedasneeded,ifproperlymulched.

Spinach—Harvestbycuttingalltheleavesoffatthebaseoftheplantwhentheyare4to6incheslong.Newleaveswillgrow,providingadditionalharvests.

Squash,summer—Harvestwhenthefruitissoft,tender,and6to8incheslong.Theskincoloroftenchangestoadark,glossygreenoryellow,dependingonthevariety.Pickeverytwotothreedaystoencouragecontinuedproduction.

Sweetpotatoes—Harvesttherootswhentheyarelargeenoughforusebeforethefirstfrost.Avoidbruisingorscratchingthepotatoesduringhandling.Idealstorageconditionsareatatemperatureof55°Fandarelativehumidityof85percent.Thebasementorcrawlspaceofahousemaysuffice.

Swisschard—Harvestbybreakingoffthedevelopedouterleaves1inchabovethesoil.Newleaveswillgrow,providingacontinuousharvest.

Tomatoes—Harvestthefruitsatthemostappealingstageofripeness,whentheyarebrightred.Theflavorisbestatroomtemperature,butripefruitmaybeheldintherefrigeratorat45to50°Ffor7to10days.

Turnips—Harvesttherootswhentheyare2to3inchesindiameterbutbeforeheavyfallfrostsoccur.Thetopsmaybeusedassaladgreenswhentheleavesare3to5incheslong.

Watermelons—Harvestwhenthewatermelonproducesadullthudratherthanasharp,metallicsoundwhenthumped—thismeansthefruitisripe.Otherripenessindicatorsareadeepyellowratherthanawhitecolorwherethemelontouchestheground,browntendrilsonthestemnearthefruit,andarough,slightlyridgedfeeltotheskinsurface.

PARTTWOThePantry

“Thegreatestdelightthefieldsandwoodsministeristhesuggestionofanoccultrelationbetweenmanandthevegetable.Iamnotaloneandunacknowledged.TheynodtomeandItothem.”

—RalphWaldoEmerson

Oneofthegreatestpleasuresofself-sufficiencyispreparing,preserving,andeatingyourownfood.Afterthehardworkofplantingandtendingyourgardens,orraisinganimalsforeggs,milk,ormeat,yourkitchenwillbecomeajoyfullaboratorywhereyoucancreatewonderfulfoodsfromthefruitsofyourlabortoenjoyortoshare.Withalittlepreparation,yourpantrycanbecomeatreasuretroveofcannedanddriedfoods,readytodrawfromallwinterlong.Thereissomethingdistinctlyrewardingaboutrunningouttothegardentopicksaladmakingsinthesummer,orreachingintothecupboardforanewjarofstrawberryjaminthemiddleofthewinter.It’sagiftmoreandmorepeoplearefindingtimetoaccept,asthequalityofsupermarketofferingsseemstoplummetandanewawarenessofthebenefitsoflocallygrownfoodsweepsacrossruralandurbanareasalike.Ifyoudon’thavethespaceortimetogroworproduceyourownfood,therearefarmers’marketsspringingupalloverwhereyoucanfindfresh,deliciousproduce,meats,bakedgoods,anddairyproductstoenjoyonyourownortoinspireafestivedinnerparty.Whetheryougotothegarden,thepantry,orthemarketforyourfood,remembertheworkthatwentintoitsgrowthandpreparationandyouwillbegintoseefoodnotonlyasanecessityandapleasure,butasagreatgift.

Canning

IntroductiontoCanningOnthenextfewpages,youwillfinddescriptionsofpropercanningmethods,withdetailsonhowcanningworksandwhyitisbothsafeandeconomical.MuchoftheinformationhereisfromtheUSDA,whichhasdoneextensiveresearchonhomecanningandpreserving.Ifyouarenewtohomecanning,readthissectioncarefullyasitwillhelptoensuresuccesswiththerecipesthatfollow.

Whetheryouareaseasonedhomecannerorthisisyourfirstforayintofoodpreservation,itisimportanttofollowdirectionscarefully.Withsomerecipesitisokaytoexperimentwithvariedproportionsoraddedingredients,andwithothersitisimportanttosticktowhat’swritten.Inmanyinstancesitisnotedwhethercreativelibertyisagoodideaforaparticularrecipe,butifyouarenotsure,playitsafe—otherwiseyoumayendupwithajamthatistoorunny,avegetablethatismushy,oraproductthatisspoiled.Taketimetoreadthedirectionsandprepareyourfoodsandequipmentadequately,andyouwillfindthathomecanningissafe,economical,tremendouslysatisfying,andagreatdealoffun!

WhyCanFoods?

Canningisfunandagoodwaytopreserveyourpreciousproduce.Asmoreandmorefarmers’marketsmaketheirwayintourbancenters,citydwellersarealsodiscoveringhowrewardingitistomakeseasonaltreatslastallyearround.Besidesthevalueofyourlabor,canninghome-grownorlocallygrownfoodmaysaveyouhalfthecostofbuyingcommerciallycannedfood.Andwhatmakesanicer,morethoughtfulgiftthanajarofhomemadejam,tailoredtomatchtherecipient’sfavoritefruitsandflavors?

Thenutritionalvalueofhomecanningisanaddedbenefit.Manyvegetablesbegintolosetheirvitaminsassoonastheyareharvested.Nearlyhalfthevitaminsmaybelostwithinafewdaysunlessthefreshproduceiskeptcoolor

preserved.Withinonetotwoweeks,evenrefrigeratedproduceloseshalformoreofcertainvitamins.Theheatingprocessduringcanningdestroysfromone-thirdtoone-halfofvitaminsAandC,thiamin,andriboflavin.Oncecanned,foodsmaylosefrom5percentto20percentofthesesensitivevitaminseachyear.Theamountsofothervitamins,however,areonlyslightlylowerincannedcomparedwithfreshfood.Ifvegetablesarehandledproperlyandcannedpromptlyafterharvest,theycanbemorenutritiousthanfreshproducesoldinlocalstores.

Cannedjamsandnutbutters.

Theadvantagesofhomecanningarelostwhenyoustartwithpoorqualityfoods;whenjarsfailtosealproperly;whenfoodspoils;andwhenflavors,texture,color,andnutrientsdeteriorateduringprolongedstorage.Thetipsthatfollowexplainmanyoftheseproblemsandrecommendwaystominimizethem.

HowCanningPreservesFoods

Thehighpercentageofwaterinmostfreshfoodsmakesthemveryperishable.Theyspoilorlosetheirqualityforseveralreasons:

Growthofundesirablemicroorganisms—bacteria,molds,andyeasts

ActivityoffoodenzymesReactionswithoxygenMoistureloss

Microorganismsliveandmultiplyquicklyonthesurfacesoffreshfoodandontheinsideofbruised,insectdamaged,anddiseasedfood.Oxygenandenzymesarepresentthroughoutfreshfoodtissues.

Propercanningpracticesinclude:CarefullyselectingandwashingfreshfoodPeelingsomefreshfoodsHotpackingmanyfoodsAddingacids(lemonjuice,citricacid,orvinegar)tosomefoodsUsingacceptablejarsandself-sealinglidsProcessingjarsinaboiling-waterorpressurecannerforthecorrectamountoftime

Collectively,thesepracticesremoveoxygen;destroyenzymes;preventthegrowthofundesirablebacteria,yeasts,andmolds;andhelpformahighvacuuminjars.Highvacuumsformtightseals,whichkeepliquidinandairandmicroorganismsout.

CANNINGbeganinFrance,attheturnofthenineteenthcentury,whenNapoleonBonapartewasdesperateforawaytokeephistroopswell-fedwhileonthemarch.In1800,hedecidedtoholdacontest,offering12,000francstoanyonewhocoulddeviseasuitablemethodoffoodpreservation.NicolasFrançoisAppert,aFrenchconfectioner,rosetothechallenge,consideringthatifwinecouldbepreservedinbottles,perhapsfoodcouldbeaswell.Heexperimenteduntilhewasabletoprovethatheatingfoodtoboilingafterithadbeensealedinairtightglassbottlespreventedthefoodfromdeteriorating.Interestingly,thisalltookplaceabout100yearsbeforeLouisPasteurfoundthatheatcoulddestroybacteria.Nearlytenyearsafterthecontestbegan,NapoleonpersonallypresentedNicolaswiththecashreward.

Cannedapplesauceandpeacheslinethispantry’sshelves.

CanningGlossaryAcidfoods—FoodsthatcontainenoughacidtoresultinapHof4.6orlower.Includesmosttomatoes;fermentedandpickledvegetables;relishes;jams,jellies,andmarmalades;andallfruitsexceptfigs.Acidfoodsmaybeprocessedinboilingwater.

Ascorbicacid—ThechemicalnameforvitaminC.Commonlyusedtopreventbrowningofpeeled,light-coloredfruitsandvegetables.

Blancher—A6-to8-quartliddedpotdesignedwithafitted,perforatedbaskettoholdfoodinboilingwaterorwithafittedracktosteamfoods.Usefulforlooseningskinsonfruitstobepeeledorforheatingfoodstobehotpacked.

Boiling-watercanner—Alarge,standard-sized,liddedkettlewithjarrackdesignedforheat-processingsevenquartsoreighttoninepintsinboilingwater.

Botulism—AnillnesscausedbyeatingatoxinproducedbygrowthofClostridiumbotulinumbacteriainmoist,low-acidfoodcontaininglessthan2percentoxygenandstoredbetween40°Fand120°F.Properheatprocessingdestroysthisbacteriumincannedfood.Freezertemperaturesinhibititsgrowthinfrozenfood.Lowmoisturecontrolsitsgrowthindriedfood.Highoxygencontrolsitsgrowthinfreshfoods.

Canning—Amethodofpreservingfoodthatemploysheatprocessinginairtight,vacuum-sealedcontainerssothatfoodcanbesafelystoredatnormalhometemperatures.

Canningsalt—Alsocalledpicklingsalt.Itisregulartablesaltwithouttheanti-cakingoriodineadditives.

Citricacid—Aformofacidthatcanbeaddedtocannedfoods.Itincreasestheacidityoflow-acidfoodsandmayimprovetheirflavor.

Coldpack—Canningprocedureinwhichjarsarefilledwithrawfood.“Rawpack”isthepreferredtermfordescribingthispractice.“Coldpack”isoftenusedincorrectlytorefertofoodsthatareopen-kettlecannedorjarsthatareheat-processedinboilingwater.

Enzymes—Proteinsinfoodthatacceleratemanyflavor,color,texture,andnutritionalchanges,especiallywhenfoodiscut,sliced,crushed,bruised,orexposedtoair.Properblanchingorhot-packingpracticesdestroyenzymesandimprovefoodquality.

Greenbeansshouldbechoppedintosmallpiecesbeforecanning.

Exhausting—Removingairfromwithinandaroundfoodandfromjarsandcanners.Exhaustingorventingofpressurecannersisnecessarytopreventbotulisminlow-acidcannedfoods.

Headspace—Theunfilledspaceabovefoodorliquidinjarsthatallowsforfoodexpansionasjarsareheatedandforformingvacuumsasjarscool.

Heatprocessing—Treatmentofjarswithsufficientheattoenablestoringfoodatnormalhometemperatures.

Hermeticseal—Anabsolutelyairtightcontainersealthatpreventsreentryofairormicroorganismsintopackagedfoods.

Hotpack—Heatingofrawfoodinboilingwaterorsteamandfillingithotintojars.

Low-acidfoods—FoodsthatcontainverylittleacidandhaveapHabove4.6.Theacidityinthesefoodsisinsufficienttopreventthegrowthofbotulismbacteria.Vegetables,somevarietiesoftomatoes,figs,allmeats,fish,seafood,andsomedairyproductsarelow-acidfoods.Tocontrolallrisksofbotulism,jarsofthesefoodsmustbeeitherheatprocessedinapressurecanneroracidifiedtoapHof4.6orlowerbeforebeingprocessedinboilingwater.

Microorganisms—Independentorganismsofmicroscopicsize,includingbacteria,yeast,andmold.Inasuitableenvironment,theygrowrapidlyandmaydivideorreproduceevery10to30minutes.Therefore,theyreachhighpopulationsveryquickly.Microorganismsaresometimesintentionallyaddedtofermentfoods,makeantibiotics,andforotherreasons.Undesirablemicroorganismscausediseaseandfoodspoilage.

Mold—Afungus-typemicroorganismwhosegrowthonfoodisusuallyvisibleandcolorful.Moldsmaygrowonmanyfoods,includingacidfoodslikejamsandjelliesandcannedfruits.Recommendedheatprocessingandsealingpracticespreventtheirgrowthonthesefoods.

Alargestockpotwithalidcanbeusedinplaceofaboiling-watercannerforhigh-acidfoodsliketomatoes,pickles,apples,peaches,andjams.Simplyplacearackinsidethepotsothatthejarsdonotrestdirectlyonthebottomofthepot.

Mycotoxins—Toxinsproducedbythegrowthofsomemoldsonfoods.

Open-kettlecanning—Anon-recommendedcanningmethod.Foodisheat-processedinacoveredkettle,filledwhilehotintosterilejars,andthensealed.Foodscannedthiswayhavelowvacuumsortoomuchair,whichpermitsrapidlossofqualityinfoods.Also,thesefoodsoftenspoilbecausetheybecomerecontaminatedwhilethejarsarebeingfilled.

Pasteurization—Heatingfoodtotemperatureshighenoughtodestroydisease-causingmicroorganisms.pH—Ameasureofacidityoralkalinity.Valuesrangefrom0to14.AfoodisneutralwhenitspHis7.0.Lowervaluesareincreasinglymoreacidic;highervaluesareincreasinglymorealkaline.

PSIG—Poundspersquareinchofpressureasmeasuredbyagauge.

Pressurecanner—Aspecificallydesignedmetalkettlewithalockablelid

usedforheat-processinglow-acidfood.Thesecannershavejarracks,oneormoresafetydevices,systemsforexhaustingair,andawaytomeasureorcontrolpressure.Cannerswith20-to21-quartcapacityarecommon.Theminimumsizeofcannerthatshouldbeusedhasa16-quartcapacityandcanholdsevenone-quartjars.Useofpressuresaucepanswithacapacityoflessthan16quartsisnotrecommended.

Rawpack—Thepracticeoffillingjarswithraw,unheatedfood.Acceptableforcanninglow-acidfoods,butallowsmorerapidqualitylossesinacidfoodsthatareheat-processedinboilingwater.Alsocalled“coldpack.”

Styleofpack—Formofcannedfood,suchaswhole,sliced,piece,juice,orsauce.Thetermmayalsobeusedtospecifywhetherfoodisfilledraworhotintojars.

Vacuum—Astateofnegativepressurethatreflectshowthoroughlyairisremovedfromwithinajarofprocessedfood;thehigherthevacuum,thelessairleftinthejar.

Peelpotatoesbeforecanningthem.

ProperCanningPracticesGrowthofthebacteriumClostridiumbotulinumincannedfoodmaycausebotulism—adeadlyformoffoodpoisoning.Thesebacteriaexisteitherassporesorasvegetativecells.Thespores,whicharecomparabletoplantseeds,cansurviveharmlesslyinsoilandwaterformanyyears.Whenidealconditionsexistforgrowth,thesporesproducevegetativecells,whichmultiplyrapidlyandmay

produceadeadlytoxinwithinthreetofourdaysinanenvironmentconsistingof:Amoist,low-acidfoodAtemperaturebetween40°Fand120°F,andLessthan2percentoxygen.

Botulinumsporesareonmostfreshfoodsurfaces.Becausetheygrowonlyintheabsenceofair,theyareharmlessonfreshfoods.Mostbacteria,yeasts,andmoldsaredifficulttoremovefromfoodsurfaces.Washingfreshfoodreducestheirnumbersonlyslightly.Peelingrootcrops,undergroundstemcrops,andtomatoesreducestheirnumbersgreatly.Blanchingalsohelps,butthevitalcontrolsarethemethodofcanninganduseoftherecommendedresearch-basedprocessingtimes.Theseprocessingtimesensuredestructionofthelargestexpectednumberofheat-resistantmicroorganismsinhome-cannedfoods.

Properlysterilizedcannedfoodwillbefreeofspoilageiflidssealandjarsarestoredbelow95°F.Storingjarsat50to70°Fenhancesretentionofquality.

FoodAcidityandProcessingMethods

Whetherfoodshouldbeprocessedinapressurecannerorboiling-watercannertocontrolbotulismbacteriadependsontheacidityinthefood.Aciditymaybenatural,asinmostfruits,oradded,asinpickledfood.Low-acidcannedfoodscontaintoolittleaciditytopreventthegrowthofthesebacteria.Otherfoodsmaycontainenoughaciditytoblocktheirgrowthortodestroythemrapidlywhenheated.Theterm“pH”isameasureofacidity:theloweritsvalue,themoreacidicthefood.Theaciditylevelinfoodscanbeincreasedbyaddinglemonjuice,citricacid,orvinegar.

Labelyourjarsafterprocessingwiththecontentsandthedate.

Low-acidfoodshavepHvalueshigherthan4.6.Theyincluderedmeats,seafood,poultry,milk,andallfreshvegetablesexceptformosttomatoes.Mostproductsthataremixturesoflow-acidandacidfoodsalsohavepHvaluesabove4.6unlesstheiringredientsincludeenoughlemonjuice,citricacid,orvinegartomakethemacidfoods.AcidfoodshaveapHof4.6orlower.Theyincludefruits,pickles,sauerkraut,jams,jellies,marmalade,andfruitbutters.

Althoughtomatoesusuallyareconsideredanacidfood,somearenowknowntohavepHvaluesslightlyabove4.6.FigsalsohavepHvaluesslightlyabove4.6.Therefore,iftheyaretobecannedasacidfoods,theseproductsmustbeacidifiedtoapHof4.6orlowerwithlemonjuiceorcitricacid.Properlyacidifiedtomatoesandfigsareacidfoodsandcanbesafelyprocessedinaboiling-watercanner.

Botulinumsporesareveryhardtodestroyatboiling-watertemperatures;thehigherthecannertemperature,themoreeasilytheyaredestroyed.Therefore,alllow-acidfoodsshouldbesterilizedattemperaturesof240to250°F,attainablewithpressurecannersoperatedat10to15PSIG.(PSIGmeanspoundspersquareinchofpressureasmeasuredbyagauge.)Atthesetemperatures,thetimeneededtodestroybacteriainlow-acidcannedfoodsrangesfrom20to100minutes.Theexacttimedependsonthekindoffoodbeingcanned,thewayitispackedintojars,andthesizeofjars.Thetimeneededtosafelyprocesslow-acidfoodsinboilingwaterrangesfrom7to11hours;thetimeneededtoprocessacidfoodsinboilingwatervariesfrom5to85minutes.

KnowYourAltitude

Itisimportanttoknowyourapproximateelevationoraltitudeabovesealevelinordertodetermineasafeprocessingtimeforcannedfoods.Sincetheboiling

temperatureofliquidislowerathigherelevations,itiscriticalthatadditionaltimebegivenforthesafeprocessingoffoodsataltitudesabovesealevel.

WhatNottoDo

Open-kettlecanningandtheprocessingoffreshlyfilledjarsinconventionalovens,microwaveovens,anddishwashersarenotrecommendedbecausethesepracticesdonotpreventallrisksofspoilage.Steamcannersarenotrecommendedbecauseprocessingtimesforusewithcurrentmodelshavenotbeenadequatelyresearched.Becausesteamcannersmaynotheatfoodsinthesamemannerasboiling-watercanners,theirusewithboiling-waterprocessingtimesmayresultinspoilage.So-calledcanningpowdersareuselessaspreservativesanddonotreplacetheneedforproperheatprocessing.

Itisnotrecommendedthatpressuresinexcessof15PSIGbeappliedwhenusingnewpressure-canningequipment.

EnsuringHigh-QualityCannedFoods

Examinefoodcarefullyforfreshnessandwholesomeness.Discarddiseasedandmoldyfood.Trimsmalldiseasedlesionsorspotsfromfood.

Canfruitsandvegetablespickedfromyourgardenorpurchasedfromnearbyproducerswhentheproductsareattheirpeakofquality—within6to12hoursafterharvestformostvegetables.However,apricots,nectarines,peaches,pears,andplumsshouldberipenedoneormoredaysbetweenharvestandcanning.Ifyoumustdelaythecanningofotherfreshproduce,keepitinashady,coolplace.

Fresh,home-slaughteredredmeatsandpoultryshouldbechilledandcannedwithoutdelay.Donotcanmeatfromsicklyordiseasedanimals.Putfishandseafoodoniceafterharvest,eviscerateimmediately,andcanthemwithintwodays.

MaintainingColorandFlavorinCannedFood

Tomaintaingoodnaturalcolorandflavorinstoredcannedfood,youmust:Removeoxygenfromfoodtissuesandjars,Quicklydestroythefoodenzymes,andObtainhighjarvacuumsandairtightjarseals.Followtheseguidelinestoensurethatyourcannedfoodsretainoptimalcolorsandflavorsduringprocessingandstorage:

Useonlyhigh-qualityfoodsthatareatthepropermaturityandarefreeofdiseasesandbruises.Usethehot-packmethod,especiallywithacidfoodstobeprocessedinboilingwater.Don’tunnecessarilyexposepreparedfoodstoair;canthemassoonaspossible.Whilepreparingacannerloadofjars,keeppeeled,halved,quartered,slicedordicedapples,apricots,nectarines,peaches,andpearsinasolutionof3grams(3,000milligrams)ascorbicacidto1gallonofcoldwater.Thisprocedureisalsousefulinmaintainingthenaturalcolorofmushroomsandpotatoesandforpreventingstem-enddiscolorationincherriesandgrapes.Youcangetascorbicacidinseveralforms:

Purepowderedform—Seasonallyavailableamongcanningsuppliesinsupermarkets.Onelevelteaspoonofpurepowderweighsabout3grams.Use1teaspoonpergallonofwaterasatreatmentsolution.

VitaminCtablets—Economicalandavailableyear-roundinmanystores.Buy500-milligramtablets;crushanddissolvesixtabletspergallonofwaterasatreatmentsolution.

Commerciallypreparedmixesofascorbicandcitricacid—Seasonallyavailableamongcanningsuppliesinsupermarkets.Sometimescitricacidpowderissoldinsupermarkets,butitislesseffectiveincontrollingdiscoloration.Ifyouchoosetousetheseproducts,followthemanufacturer’sdirections.

Fillhotfoodsintojarsandadjustheadspaceasspecifiedinrecipes.Tightenscrewbandssecurely,butifyouareespeciallystrong,notastightlyaspossible.Processandcooljars.Storethejarsinarelativelycool,darkplace,preferablybetween50and70°F.Cannomorefoodthanyouwillusewithinayear.

AdvantagesofHotPacking

Manyfreshfoodscontainfrom10percenttomorethan30percentair.Thelengthoftimethatfoodwilllastatpremiumqualitydependsonhowmuchairisremovedfromthefoodbeforejarsaresealed.Themoreairthatisremoved,thehigherthequalityofthecannedproduct.

Rawpackingisthepracticeoffillingjarstightlywithfreshlypreparedbutunheatedfood.Suchfoods,especiallyfruit,willfloatinthejars.Theentrappedairinandaroundthefoodmaycausediscolorationwithintwotothreemonthsofstorage.Rawpackingismoresuitableforvegetablesprocessedinapressurecanner.

Hotpackingisthepracticeofheatingfreshlypreparedfoodtoboiling,simmeringitthreetofiveminutes,andpromptlyfillingjarslooselywiththeboiledfood.

Hotpackingisthebestwaytoremoveairandisthepreferredpackstyleforfoodsprocessedinaboiling-watercanner.Atfirst,thecolorofhot-packedfoodsmayappearnobetterthanthatofraw-packedfoods,butwithinashortstorageperiod,bothcolorandflavorofhot-packedfoodswillbesuperior.

Whetherfoodhasbeenhotpackedorrawpacked,thejuice,syrup,orwatertobeaddedtothefoodsshouldbeheatedtoboilingbeforeitisaddedtothejars.Thispracticehelpstoremoveairfromfoodtissues,shrinksfood,helpskeepthefoodfromfloatinginthejars,increasesvacuuminsealedjars,andimprovesshelflife.Preshrinkingfoodallowsyoutoaddmorefoodtoeachjar.

ControllingHeadspace

Theunfilledspaceabovethefoodinajarandbelowitslidistermedheadspace.Itisbesttoleavea¼-inchheadspaceforjamsandjellies,½-inchforfruitsandtomatoestobeprocessedinboilingwater,andfrom1to1¼inchesinlow-acidfoodstobeprocessedinapressurecanner.

Thisspaceisneededforexpansionoffoodasjarsareprocessedandforformingvacuumsincooledjars.Theextentofexpansionisdeterminedbytheaircontentinthefoodandbytheprocessingtemperature.Airexpandsgreatlywhenheatedtohightemperatures—thehigherthetemperature,thegreatertheexpansion.Foodsexpandlessthanairwhenheated.

JarsandLids

Foodmaybecannedinglassjarsormetalcontainers.Metalcontainerscanbeusedonlyonce.Theyrequirespecialsealingequipmentandaremuchmorecostlythanjars.

Mason-typejarsdesignedforhomecanningareidealforpreservingfoodbypressureorboiling-watercanning.Regularandwide-mouthedthreadedmasonjarswithself-sealinglidsarethebestchoices.Theyareavailableinhalf-pint,

pint,1½-pint,andquartsizes.Thestandardjarmouthopeningisabout2⅜inches.Wide-mouthedjarshaveopeningsofabout3inches,makingthemmoreeasilyfilledandemptied.Regular-moutheddecorativejellyjarsareavailablein8-ounceand12-ouncesizes.

Withcarefuluseandhandling,masonjarsmaybereusedmanytimes,requiringonlynewlidseachtime.Whenlidsareusedproperly,jarsealsandvacuumsareexcellent.

JarCleaning

Beforereuse,washemptyjarsinhotwaterwithdetergentandrinsewellbyhand,orwashinadishwasher.Rinsethoroughly,asdetergentresiduemaycauseunnaturalflavorsandcolors.Scaleorhard-waterfilmsonjarsareeasilyremovedbysoakingjarsforseveralhoursinasolutioncontaining1cupofvinegar(5percentacid)pergallonofwater.

SterilizationofEmptyJars

Usesterilejarsforalljams,jellies,andpickledproductsprocessedlessthan10minutes.Tosterilizeemptyjars,putthemrightsideupontherackinaboiling-watercanner.Fillthecannerandjarswithhot(notboiling)waterto1inchabovethetopsofthejars.Boilfor10minutes.Removeanddrainhot,sterilizedjarsoneatatime.Savethehotwaterforprocessingfilledjars.Filljarswithfood,addlids,andtightenscrewbands.

Emptyjarsusedforvegetables,meats,andfruitstobeprocessedinapressurecannerneednotbesterilizedbeforehand.Itisalsounnecessarytosterilizejarsforfruits,tomatoes,andpickledorfermentedfoodsthatwillbeprocessed10minutesorlongerinaboiling-watercanner.

LidSelection,Preparation,andUse

Thecommonself-sealinglidconsistsofaflatmetallidheldinplacebyametalscrewbandduringprocessing.Theflatlidiscrimpedarounditsbottomedgetoformatrough,whichisfilledwithacoloredgasketmaterial.Whenjarsareprocessed,thelidgasketsoftensandflowsslightlytocoverthejar-sealingsurface,yetallowsairtoescapefromthejar.Thegasketthenformsanairtightsealasthejarcools.Gasketsinunusedlidsworkwellforatleastfiveyearsfromdateofmanufacture.Thegasketmaterialinolder,unusedlidsmayfailtosealonjars.

Itisbesttobuyonlythequantityoflidsyouwilluseinayear.Toensureagoodseal,carefullyfollowthemanufacturer’sdirectionsinpreparinglidsforuse.Examineallmetallidscarefully.Donotuseold,dented,ordeformedlidsorlidswithgapsorotherdefectsinthesealinggasket.

Afterfillingjarswithfood,releaseairbubblesbyinsertingaflat,plastic(notmetal)spatulabetweenthefoodandthejar.Slowlyturnthejarandmovethespatulaupanddowntoallowairbubblestoescape.Adjusttheheadspaceandthencleanthejarrim(sealingsurface)withadampenedpapertowel.Placethelid,gasketdown,ontothecleanedjar-sealingsurface.Uncleanedjar-sealingsurfacesmaycausesealfailures.

Thenfitthemetalscrewbandovertheflatlid.Followthemanufacturer’sguidelinesenclosedwithorontheboxfortighteningthejarlidsproperly.

Ifscrewbandsaretootight,aircannotventduringprocessing,andfoodwilldiscolorduringstorage.Overtighteningalsomaycauselidstobuckleandjarstobreak,especiallywithraw-packed,pressure-processedfood.Ifscrewbandsaretooloose,liquidmayescapefromjarsduringprocessing,sealsmayfail,andthefoodwillneedtobereprocessed.

Donotretightenlidsafterprocessingjars.Asjarscool,thecontentsinthejarcontract,pullingtheself-sealinglidfirmlyagainstthejartoformahighvacuum.Screwbandsarenotneededonstoredjars.Theycanberemovedeasilyafterjarsarecooled.Whenremoved,washed,dried,andstoredinadryarea,screwbandsmaybeusedmanytimes.Ifleftonstoredjars,theybecomedifficulttoremove,oftenrust,andmaynotworkproperlyagain.

SelectingtheCorrectProcessingTime

Whenfoodiscannedinboilingwater,moreprocessingtimeisneededformostraw-packedfoodsandforquartjarsthanisneededforhot-packedfoodsandpintjars.

Todestroymicroorganismsinacidfoodsprocessedinaboiling-watercanner,youmust:

Processjarsforthecorrectnumberofminutesinboilingwater.Coolthejarsatroomtemperature.Todestroymicroorganismsinlow-acidfoodsprocessedwithapressurecanner,youmust:Processthejarsforthecorrectnumberofminutesat240°F(10PSIG)or250°F(15PSIG).Allowcannertocoolatroomtemperatureuntilitiscompletelydepressurized.

Thefoodmayspoilifyoufailtousetheproperprocessingtimes,failtoventsteamfromcannersproperly,processatlowerpressurethanspecified,processforfewerminutesthanspecified,orcoolthecannerwithwater.

Processingtimesforhaft-pintandpintjarsarethesame,asaretimesfor1½-pintandquartjars.Forsomeproducts,youhaveachoiceofprocessingat5,10,or15PSIG.Inthesecases,choosethecannerpressure(PSIG)youwishtouseandmatchitwithyourpackstyle(raworhot)andjarsizetofindthecorrectprocessingtime.

RecommendedCanners

Therearetwomaintypesofcannersforheat-processinghome-cannedfood:boiling-watercannersandpressurecanners.Mostaredesignedtoholdsevenone-quartjarsoreighttonineone-pintjars.Smallpressurecannersholdfourone-quartjars;somelargepressurecannersholdeighteenone-pintjarsintwolayersbutholdonlysevenquartjars.Pressuresaucepanswithsmallervolumecapacitiesarenotrecommendedforuseincanning.Treatsmallpressurecannersthesameasstandardlargercanners;theyshouldbeventedusingthetypicalventingprocedures.

Aboilingwatercanner

Low-acidfoodsmustbeprocessedinapressurecannertobefreeofbotulismrisks.Althoughpressurecannersalsomaybeusedforprocessingacidfoods,boiling-watercannersarerecommendedbecausetheyarefaster.Apressurecannerwouldrequirefrom55to100minutestocanaloadofjars;thetotaltimeforcanningmostacidfoodsinboilingwatervariesfrom25to60minutes.

Aboiling-watercannerloadedwithfilledjarsrequiresabout20to30minutesofheatingbeforeitswaterbeginstoboil.Aloadedpressurecannerrequiresabout12to15minutesofheatingbeforeitbeginstovent,another10minutestoventthecanner,another5minutestopressurizethecanner,another8to10minutestoprocesstheacidfood,and,finally,another20to60minutestocoolthecannerbeforeremovingjars.

Boiling-WaterCanners

Thesecannersaremadeofaluminumorporcelain-coveredsteel.Theyhaveremovableperforatedracksandfittedlids.Thecannermustbedeepenoughsothatatleast1inchofbrisklyboilingwaterwillcoverthetopsofjarsduringprocessing.Someboiling-watercannersdonothaveflatbottoms.Aflatbottommustbeusedonanelectricrange.Eitheraflatorridgedbottomcanbeusedonagasburner.Toensureuniformprocessingofalljarswithanelectricrange,thecannershouldbenomorethan4incheswiderindiameterthantheelementonwhichitisheated.

UsingaBoiling-WaterCanner

Followthesestepsforsuccessfulboiling-watercanning:1. Fillthecannerhalfwaywithwater.2. Preheatwaterto140°Fforraw-packedfoodsandto180°Fforhot-packed

foods.3. Loadfilledjars,fittedwithlids,intothecannerrackandusethehandlesto

lowertherackintothewater;orfillthecanner,onejaratatime,withajarlifter.

4. Addmoreboilingwater,ifneeded,sothewaterlevelisatleast1inchabovejartops.

5. Turnheattoitshighestpositionuntilwaterboilsvigorously.6. Setatimerfortheminutesrequiredforprocessingthefood.7. Coverwiththecannerlidandlowertheheatsettingtomaintainagentle

boilthroughouttheprocessingtime.8. Addmoreboilingwater,ifneeded,tokeepthewaterlevelabovethejars.9. Whenjarshavebeenboiledfortherecommendedtime,turnofftheheat

andremovethecannerlid.10. Usingajarlifter,removethejarsandplacethemonatowel,leavingatleast

1inchofspacebetweenthejarsduringcooling.

PressureCanners

Pressurecannersforuseinthehomehavebeenextensivelyredesignedinrecentyears.Modelsmadebeforethe1970swereheavy-walledkettleswithclamp-onlids.Theywerefittedwithadialgauge,aventportintheformofapetcockorcounterweight,andasafetyfuse.Modernpressurecannersarelightweight,thin-walledkettles;mosthaveturn-onlids.Theyhaveajarrack,gasket,dialorweightedgauge,anautomaticventorcoverlock,aventport(steamvent)thatisclosedwithacounterweightorweightedgauge,andasafetyfuse.

Pressuredoesnotdestroymicroorganisms,buthightemperaturesappliedforacertainperiodoftimedo.Thesuccessofdestroyingallmicroorganismscapableofgrowingincannedfoodisbasedonthetemperatureobtainedinpuresteam,freeofair,atsealevel.Atsealevel,acanneroperatedatagaugepressureof10poundsprovidesaninternaltemperatureof240°F.

Airtrappedinacannerlowerstheinsidetemperatureandresultsinunder-

processing.Thehighestvolumeofairtrappedinacanneroccursinprocessingraw-packedfoodsindial-gaugecanners.Thesecannersdonotventairduringprocessing.Tobesafe,alltypesofpressurecannersmustbevented10minutesbeforetheyarepressurized.

Apressurecanner

Toventacanner,leavetheventportuncoveredonnewermodelsormanuallyopenpetcocksonsomeoldermodels.Heatingthefilledcannerwithitslidlockedintoplaceboilswaterandgeneratessteamthatescapesthroughthepetcockorventport.Whensteamfirstescapes,setatimerfor10minutes.Afterventing10minutes,closethepetcockorplacethecounterweightorweightedgaugeovertheventporttopressurizethecanner.

Weighted-gaugemodelsexhausttinyamountsofairandsteameachtimetheirgaugerocksorjigglesduringprocessing.Thesoundoftheweightrockingorjigglingindicatesthatthecannerismaintainingtherecommendedpressureandneedsnofurtherattentionuntiltheloadhasbeenprocessedforthesettime.Weighted-gaugecannerscannotcorrectpreciselyforhigheraltitudes,andataltitudesabove1,000feetmustbeoperatedatapressureof15.

Checkdialgaugesforaccuracybeforeuseeachyearandreplaceiftheyreadhighbymorethan1poundat5,10,or15poundsofpressure.Lowreadingscauseover-processingandmayindicatethattheaccuracyofthegaugeisunpredictable.Ifagaugeisconsistentlylow,youmayadjusttheprocessingpressure.Forexample,ifthedirectionscallfor12poundsofpressureandyourdialgaugehastested1poundlow,youcansafelyprocessat11poundsof

pressure.Ifthegaugeismorethan2poundslow,itisunpredictable,anditisbesttoreplaceit.GaugesmaybecheckedatmostUSDAcountyextensionoffices,whicharelocatedineverystateacrossthecountry.Tofindonenearyou,visitwww.csrees.usda.gov.

Handlegasketsofcannerlidscarefullyandcleanthemaccordingtothemanufacturer’sdirections.Nickedordriedgasketswillallowsteamleaksduringpressurizationofcanners.Gasketsofoldercannersmayneedtobelightlycoatedwithvegetableoilonceperyear,butnewermodelsarepre-lubricated.Checkyourcanner’sinstructions.

Lidsafetyfusesarethin,metalinsertsorrubberplugsdesignedtorelieveexcessivepressurefromthecanner.Donotpickatorscratchfuseswhilecleaninglids.UseonlycannersthathaveUnderwriter’sLaboratory(UL)approvaltoensuretheirsafety.

Replacementgaugesandotherpartsforcannersareoftenavailableatstoresofferingcannerequipmentorfromcannermanufacturers.Toorderparts,listcannermodelnumberanddescribethepartsneeded.

UsingaPressureCanner

Followthesestepsforsuccessfulpressurecanning:1. Put2to3inchesofhotwaterinthecanner.Placefilledjarsontherack,

usingajarlifter.Fastencannerlidsecurely.2. Openpetcockorleaveweightoffventport.Heatatthehighestsettinguntil

steamflowsfromthepetcockorventport.

Usingapressurecanner

3. Maintainhighheatsetting,exhauststeam10minutes,andthenplaceweightonventportorclosepetcock.Thecannerwillpressurizeduringthenextthreetofiveminutes.

4. Starttimingtheprocesswhenthepressurereadingonthedialgaugeindicatesthattherecommendedpressurehasbeenreachedorwhentheweightedgaugebeginstojiggleorrock.

5. Regulateheatunderthecannertomaintainasteadypressureatorslightlyabovethecorrectgaugepressure.Quickandlargepressurevariationsduringprocessingmaycauseunnecessaryliquidlossesfromjars.WeightedgaugesonMirrocannersshouldjiggleabouttwoorthreetimesperminute.OnPrestocanners,theyshouldrockslowlythroughouttheprocess.

Whenprocessingtimeiscompleted,turnofftheheat,removethecannerfromheatifpossible,andletthecannerdepressurize.Donotforce-coolthecanner.Ifyoucoolitwithcoldrunningwaterinasinkoropentheventportbeforethecannerdepressurizesbyitself,liquidwillspurtfromthejars,causinglowliquidlevelsandjarsealfailures.Force-coolingalsomaywarpthecannerlidofoldermodelcanners,causingsteamleaks.

Depressurizationofoldermodelsshouldbetimed.Standardsizeheavy-walledcannersrequireabout30minuteswhenloadedwithpintsand45minuteswithquarts.Newerthin-walledcannerscoolmorerapidlyandareequippedwithventlocks.Thesecannersaredepressurizedwhentheirventlockpistondropstoanormalposition.1. Aftertheventportorpetcockhasbeenopenfortwominutes,unfastenthe

lidandcarefullyremoveit.Liftthelidawayfromyousothatthesteamdoesnotburnyourface.

2. Removejarswithalifter,andplaceontowelorcoolingrack,ifdesired.

CoolingJars

Coolthejarsatroomtemperaturefor12to24hours.Jarsmaybecooledonracksortowelstominimizeheatdamagetocounters.Thefoodlevelandliquidvolumeofraw-packedjarswillbenoticeablyloweraftercoolingbecauseairisexhaustedduringprocessing,andfoodshrinks.Ifajarlosesexcessiveliquidduringprocessing,donotopenittoaddmoreliquid.Aslongasthesealisgood,

theproductisstillusable.

TestingJarSeals

Aftercoolingjarsfor12to24hours,removethescrewbandsandtestsealswithoneofthefollowingmethods:Method1:Pressthemiddleofthelidwithafingerorthumb.Ifthelidspringsupwhenyoureleaseyourfinger,thelidisunsealedandreprocessingwillbenecessary.

Method2:Tapthelidwiththebottomofateaspoon.Ifitmakesadullsound,thelidisnotsealed.Iffoodisincontactwiththeundersideofthelid,itwillalsocauseadullsound.Ifthejarlidissealedcorrectly,itwillmakearinging,high-pitchedsound.

Method3:Holdthejarateyelevelandlookacrossthelid.Thelidshouldbeconcave(curveddownslightlyinthecenter).Ifcenterofthelidiseitherflatorbulging,itmaynotbesealed.

ReprocessingUnsealedJars

Ifajarfailstoseal,removethelidandcheckthejar-sealingsurfacefortinynicks.Ifnecessary,changethejar,addanew,properlypreparedlid,andreprocesswithin24hoursusingthesameprocessingtime.

Anotheroptionistoadjustheadspaceinunsealedjarsto1½inchesandfreezejarsandcontentsinsteadofreprocessing.However,makesurejarshavestraightsides.Freezingmaycrackjarswith“shoulders.”

Foodsinsingle,unsealedjarscouldbestoredintherefrigeratorandconsumedwithinseveraldays.

StoringCannedFoods

Iflidsaretightlyvacuum-sealedoncooledjars,removescrewbands,washthelidandjartoremovefoodresidue,thenrinseanddryjars.Labelanddatethejarsandstoretheminaclean,cool,dark,dryplace.Donotstorejarsattemperaturesabove95°Fornearhotpipes,arange,afurnace,inanuninsulatedattic,orindirectsunlight.Undertheseconditions,foodwilllosequalityinafewweeksormonthsandmayspoil.Dampnessmaycorrodemetallids,breakseals,andallowrecontaminationandspoilage.

Testingjarseals

Accidentalfreezingofcannedfoodswillnotcausespoilageunlessjarsbecomeunsealedandrecontaminated.However,freezingandthawingmaysoftenfood.Ifjarsmustbestoredwheretheymayfreeze,wraptheminnewspapers,placetheminheavycartons,andcoverthemwithmorenewspapersandblankets.

IdentifyingandHandlingSpoiledCannedFood

Growthofspoilagebacteriaandyeastproducesgas,whichpressurizesthefood,swellslids,andbreaksjarseals.Aseachstoredjarisselectedforuse,examineitslidfortightnessandvacuum.Lidswithconcavecentershavegoodseals.

Next,whileholdingthejaruprightateyelevel,rotatethejarandexamineitsoutsidesurfaceforstreaksofdriedfoodoriginatingatthetopofthejar.Lookatthecontentsforrisingairbubblesandunnaturalcolor.

Whileopeningthejar,smellforunnaturalodorsandlookforspurtingliquidandcotton-likemoldgrowth(white,blue,black,orgreen)onthetopfoodsurfaceandundersideoflid.Donottastefoodfromastoredjaryoudiscovertohaveanunsealedlidorthatotherwiseshowssignsofspoilage.

Allsuspectcontainersofspoiled,low-acidfoodsshouldbetreatedashavingproducedbotulinumtoxinandshouldbehandledcarefullyasfollows:

Ifthesuspectglassjarsareunsealed,open,orleaking,theyshouldbedetoxifiedbeforedisposal.Ifthesuspectglassjarsaresealed,removelidsanddetoxifytheentirejar,contents,andlids.

DetoxificationProcess

Carefullyplacethesuspectcontainersandlidsontheirsidesinaneight-quart-

volumeorlargerstockpot,pan,orboiling-watercanner.Washyourhandsthoroughly.Carefullyaddwatertothepot.Thewatershouldcompletelycoverthecontainerswithaminimumof1inchofwaterabovethecontainers.Avoidsplashingthewater.Placealidonthepotandheatthewatertoboiling.Boil30minutestoensuredetoxifyingthefoodandallcontainercomponents.Coolanddiscardlidsandfoodinthetrashorburyinsoil.

Thoroughlycleanallcounters,containers,andequipmentincludingcanopener,clothing,andhandsthatmayhavecomeincontactwiththefoodorthecontainers.Discardanyspongesorwashclothsthatwereusedinthecleanup.Placetheminaplasticbaganddiscardinthetrash.

CannedFoodsforSpecialDiets

Thecostofcommerciallycanned,specialdietfoodoftenpromptsinterestinpreparingtheseproductsathome.Somelow-sugarandlow-saltfoodsmaybeeasilyandsafelycannedathome.However,itmaytakesomeexperimentationtocreateaproductwiththedesiredcolor,flavor,andtexture.Startwithasmallbatchandthenmakeappropriateadjustmentsbeforeproducinglargequantities.

CanningwithoutSugar

Incanningregularfruitswithoutsugar,itisveryimportanttoselectfullyripebutfirmfruitsofthebestquality.Itisgenerallybesttocanfruitinitsownjuice,butblendsofunsweetenedapple,pineapple,andwhitegrapejuicearealsogoodforpouringoversolidfruitpieces.Adjustheadspacesandlidsandusetheprocessingrecommendationsforregularfruits.Addsugarsubstitutes,ifdesired,whenserving.

FruitThere’snothingquitelikeopeningajarofhome-preservedstrawberriesinthemiddleofawintersnowstorm.Ittakesyourightbacktothewarm,early-summersunshine,thesmellofthestrawberrypatch’sdampearth,andthefeelofthefirmberriesasyousnippedthemfromthevines.Bestofall,yougettoindulgeinthesweet,summeryflavorevenasthesnowswirlsoutsidethewindows.

Preservingfruitissimple,safe,anditallowsyoutoenjoythefruitsofyoursummer’slaborallyear-round.Onthenextpages,youwillfindreferencechartsforprocessingvariousfruitsandfruitproductsinadial-gaugepressurecanneror

aweighted-gaugepressurecanner.Thesameinformationisalsoincludedwitheachrecipe’sdirections.Insomecases,aboiling-watercannerwillservebetter;fortheseinstances,directionsforitsuseareofferedinstead.

Addingsyruptocannedfruithelpstoretainitsflavor,color,andshape,althoughitdoesnotpreventspoilage.Tomaintainthemostnaturalflavor,usetheVeryLightSyruplistedinthetablefoundonpage78.Manyfruitsthataretypicallypackedinheavysyruparejustasgood—andalotbetterforyou—whenpackedinlightersyrups.However,ifyou’represervingfruitthat’sonthesourside,likecherriesortartapples,youmightwanttosplurgeononeofthesweeterversions.

Syrups

Addingsyruptocannedfruithelpstoretainitsflavor,color,andshape,althoughjarsstillneedtobeprocessedtopreventspoilage.Followthechartintotherightforsyrupsofvaryingsweetness.Lightcornsyrupsormildflavoredhoneymaybeusedtoreplaceuptohalfthetablesugarcalledforinsyrups.

Directions1. Bringwaterandsugartoaboilinamediumsaucepan.2. Pouroverrawfruitsinjars.

ProcessTimesforFruitsandFruitProductsinaDial-GaugePressureCanner*

ProcessTimesforFruitsandFruitProductsinaWeighted-GaugePressureCanner*

SugarandWaterinSyrup

AppleJuice

Thebestapplejuiceismadefromablendofvarieties.Ifyoudon’thaveyourownapplepress,trytobuyfreshjuicefromalocalcidermakerwithin24hoursafterithasbeenpressed.

Directions1. Refrigeratejuicefor24to48hours.2. Withoutmixing,carefullypouroffclearliquidanddiscardsediment.Strain

theclearliquidthroughapapercoffeefilterordoublelayersofdampcheesecloth.

3. Heatquicklyinasaucepan,stirringoccasionally,untiljuicebeginstoboil.4. Fillimmediatelyintosterilepintorquartjarsorintoclean,half-gallonjars,

leaving¼-inchheadspace.5. Adjustlidsandprocess.Seebelowforrecommendedtimesforaboiling-

watercanner.

ProcessTimesforAppleJuiceinaBoiling-WaterCanner*

AppleButter

ThebestapplevarietiestouseforapplebutterincludeJonathan,Winesap,Stayman,GoldenDelicious,andMacintoshapples,butanyofyourfavoritevarietieswillwork.Don’tbothertopeeltheapples,asyouwillstrainthefruitbeforecookingitanyway.Thisrecipewillyieldeighttoninepints.

Ingredients

8lbsapples

2cupsvinegar

2¼cupspackedbrownsugar

2cupscider

2¼cupswhitesugar

2tbspgroundcinnamon

1tbspgroundcloves

Directions1. Wash,stem,quarter,andcoreapples.2. Cookslowlyinciderandvinegaruntilsoft.Pressfruitthroughacolander,

foodmill,orstrainer.3. Cookfruitpulpwithsugarandspices,stirringfrequently.Totestfor

doneness,removeaspoonfulandholditawayfromsteamfor2minutes.Ifthebutterremainsmoundedonthespoon,itisdone.Ifyou’restillnotsure,spoonasmallquantityontoaplate.Whenarimofliquiddoesnotseparatearoundtheedgeofthebutter,itisreadyforcanning.

4. Fillwhilehotintosterilehalf-pintorpintjars,leaving¼-inchheadspace.Quartjarsneednotbepresterilized.

ProcessTimesforAppleButterinaBoiling-WaterCanner*

Applesauce

Besidesbeingdeliciousonitsownorpairedwithdisheslikeporkchopsorlatkes,applesaucecanbeusedasabuttersubstituteinmanybakedgoods.Selectapplesthataresweet,juicy,andcrisp.Foratartflavor,addonetotwopoundsoftartapplestoeachthreepoundsofsweeterfruit.

Quantity1. Anaverageof21poundsofapplesisneededpercannerloadofseven

quarts.2. Anaverageof13½poundsofapplesisneededpercannerloadofnine

pints.

3. Abushelweighs48poundsandyields14to19quartsofsauce—anaverageofthreepoundsperquart.

Directions1. Wash,peel,andcoreapples.Sliceapplesintowatercontainingalittle

lemonjuicetopreventbrowning.2. Placedrainedslicesinan8-to10-quartpot.Add½cupwater.Stirring

occasionallytopreventburning,heatquicklyuntiltender(5to20minutes,dependingonmaturityandvariety).

3. Pressthroughasieveorfoodmill,orskipthepressingstepifyoupreferchunky-stylesauce.Saucemaybepackedwithoutsugar,butifdesired,sweetentotaste(startwith⅛cupsugarperquartofsauce).

4. Reheatsaucetoboiling.Filljarswithhotsauce,leaving½-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsandprocess.

ProcessTimesforApplesauceinaBoiling-WaterCanner*

ProcessTimesforApplesauceinaDial-GaugePressureCanner*

ProcessTimesforApplesauceinaWeighted-GaugePressureCanner*

Apricots,HalvedorSliced

Apricotsareexcellentinbakedgoods,stuffing,chutney,orontheirown.Choosefirm,well-colored,maturefruitforbestresults.

QuantityAnaverageof16poundsisneededpercannerloadofsevenquarts.Anaverageof10poundsisneededpercannerloadofninepints.

Abushelweighs50poundsandyields20to25quarts—anaverageof2¼poundsperquart.

Directions1. Dipfruitinboilingwaterfor30to60secondsuntilskinsloosen.Dip

quicklyincoldwaterandslipoffskins.2. Cutinhalf,removepits,andsliceifdesired.Topreventdarkening,keep

peeledfruitinwaterwithalittlelemonjuice.3. Prepareandboilaverylight,light,ormediumsyrup(seepage78)orpack

apricotsinwater,applejuice,orwhitegrapejuice.

ProcessTimesforHalvedorSlicedApricotsinaDial-GaugePressureCanner*

ProcessTimesforHalvedorSlicedApricotsinaWeighted-GaugePressureCanner*

Berries,Whole

Preservedberriesareperfectforuseinpies,muffins,pancakes,orinpoultryorporkdressings.Nearlyeveryberrypreserveswell,includingblackberries,blueberries,currants,dewberries,elderberries,gooseberries,huckleberries,loganberries,mulberries,andraspberries.Chooseripe,sweetberrieswithuniformcolor.

QuantityAnaverageof12poundsisneededpercannerloadofsevenquarts.Anaverageof8poundsisneededpercannerloadofninepints.A24-quartcrateweighs36poundsandyields18to24quarts—anaverageof1¾poundsperquart.

Directions1. Wash1or2quartsofberriesatatime.Drain,cap,andstemifnecessary.

Forgooseberries,snipoffheadsandtailswithscissors.2. Prepareandboilpreferredsyrup,ifdesired(seepage78).Add½cupsyrup,

juice,orwatertoeachcleanjar.

Hotpack—(Bestforblueberries,currants,elderberries,gooseberries,andhuckleberries)Heatberriesinboilingwaterfor30secondsanddrain.Filljarsandcoverwithhotjuice,leaving½-inchheadspace.

Rawpack—Filljarswithanyoftherawberries,shakingdowngentlywhilefilling.Coverwithhotsyrup,juice,orwater,leaving½-inchheadspace.

RecommendedProcessTimesforWholeBerriesinaBoiling-WaterCanner*

ProcessTimesforWholeBerriesinaDial-GaugePressureCanner*

ProcessTimesforWholeBerriesinaWeighted-GaugePressureCanner*

BerrySyrup

Juicesfromfreshorfrozenblueberries,cherries,grapes,raspberries(blackorred),andstrawberriesareeasilymadeintotoppingsforuseonicecreamandpastries.Foranelegantfinishtocheesecakesorpoundcakes,drizzleathinstreaminazigzagacrossthetopjustbeforeserving.Berrysyrupsarealsogreatadditionstosmoothiesormilkshakes.Thisrecipemakesaboutninehalf-pints.

Directions1. Select6½cupsoffreshorfrozenberriesofyourchoice.Wash,cap,and

stemberriesandcrushinasaucepan.2. Heattoboilingandsimmeruntilsoft(5to10minutes).Strainhotthrougha

colanderplacedinalargepananddrainuntilcoolenoughtohandle.

3. Strainthecollectedjuicethroughadoublelayerofcheeseclothorjellybag.Discardthedrypulp.Theyieldofthepressedjuiceshouldbeabout4½to5cups.

4. Combinethejuicewith6¾cupsofsugarinalargesaucepan,bringtoaboil,andsimmer1minute.

5. Fillintocleanhalf-pintorpintjars,leaving½-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsandprocess.

Tomakesyrupwithwholeberries,ratherthancrushed,save1or2cupsofthefreshorfrozenfruit,combinethesewiththesugar,andsimmeruntilsoft.Removefromheat,skimofffoam,andfillinto

cleanjars,followingprocessingdirectionsforregularberrysyrup.

ProcessTimesforBerrySyrupinaBoiling-WaterCanner*

FruitPurées

Almostanyfruitcanbepuréedforuseasbabyfood,insauces,orjustasanutritioussnack.Puréedprunesandapplescanbeusedasabutterreplacementinmanybakedgoods.Usethisrecipeforanyfruitexceptfigsandtomatoes.

Directions1. Stem,wash,drain,peel,andremovepitsifnecessary.Measurefruitinto

largesaucepan,crushingslightlyifdesired.2. Add1cuphotwaterforeachquartoffruit.Cookslowlyuntilfruitissoft,

stirringfrequently.Pressthroughsieveorfoodmill.Ifdesired,addsugartotaste.

3. Reheatpulptoboil,oruntilsugardissolves(ifadded).Fillhotintocleanjars,leaving¼-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsandprocess.

ProcessTimesforFruitPuréesinaBoiling-WaterCanner*

ProcessTimesforFruitPuréesinaDial-GaugePressureCanner*

ProcessTimesforFruitPuréesinaWeighted-GaugePressureCanner*

GrapeJuice

Purplegrapesarefullofantioxidantsandhelptoreducetheriskofheartdisease,cancer,andAlzheimer’sdisease.Forjuice,selectsweet,well-colored,firm,maturefruit.

QuantityAnaverageof24½poundsisneededpercannerloadofsevenquarts.Anaverageof16poundspercannerloadofninepints.Alugweighs26poundsandyieldsseventoninequartsofjuice—anaverageof3½poundsperquart.

Directions1. Washandstemgrapes.Placegrapesinasaucepanandaddboilingwaterto

cover.Heatandsimmerslowlyuntilskinissoft.2. Strainthroughadampjellybagordoublelayersofcheesecloth,anddiscard

solids.Refrigeratejuicefor24to48hours.3. Withoutmixing,carefullypouroffclearliquidandsave;discardsediment.

Ifdesired,strainthroughapapercoffeefilterforaclearerjuice.

4. Addjuicetoasaucepanandsweetentotaste.Heatandstiruntilsugarisdissolved.Continueheatingwithoccasionalstirringuntiljuicebeginstoboil.Fillintojarsimmediately,leaving¼-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsandprocess.

ProcessTimesforGrapeJuiceinaBoiling-WaterCanner*

Peaches,HalvedorSliced

Peachesaredeliciousincobblers,crisps,andmuffins,orgrilledforauniquecaketopping.Chooseripe,maturefruitwithminimalbruising.

QuantityAnaverageof17½poundsisneededpercannerloadofsevenquarts.Anaverageof11poundsisneededpercannerloadofninepints.Abushelweighs48poundsandyields16to24quarts—anaverageof2½poundsperquart.

Directions1. Dipfruitinboilingwaterfor30to60secondsuntilskinsloosen.Dip

quicklyincoldwaterandslipoffskins.Cutinhalf,removepits,andsliceifdesired.Topreventdarkening,keeppeeledfruitinascorbicacidsolution.

2. Prepareandboilaverylight,light,ormediumsyruporpackpeachesinwater,applejuice,orwhitegrapejuice.Rawpacksmakepoor-qualitypeaches.Hotpack—Inalargesaucepan,placedrainedfruitinsyrup,water,or

juiceandbringtoboil.Filljarswithhotfruitandcookingliquid,leaving½-inchheadspace.Placehalvesinlayers,cutsidedown.

Rawpack—Filljarswithrawfruit,cutsidedown,andaddhotwater,juice,orsyrup,leaving½-inchheadspace.

3. Adjustlidsandprocess.

ProcessTimesforHalvedorSlicedPeachesinaBoiling-WaterCanner*

ProcessTimesforHalvedorSlicedPeachesinaDial-GaugePressureCanner*

ProcessTimesforHalvedorSlicedPeachesinaWeighted-GaugePressureCanner*

Pears,Halved

Chooseripe,maturefruitforbestresults.Foraspecialtreat,filledhalvedpearswithamixtureofchoppeddriedapricots,pecans,brownsugar,andbutter;bakeormicrowaveuntilwarmandservewithvanillaicecream.

Directions1. Washandpeelpears.Cutlengthwiseinhalvesandremovecore.Amelon

ballerormetalmeasuringspoonworkswellforcoringpears.Topreventdiscoloration,keeppearsinwaterwithalittlelemonjuice.

2. Prepareaverylight,light,ormediumsyrup(seepage78)oruseapplejuice,whitegrapejuice,orwater.Rawpacksmakepoorqualitypears.Boildrainedpearsfor5minutesinsyrup,juice,orwater.Filljarswithhotfruitandcookingliquid,leaving½-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsandprocess.

ProcessTimesforHalvedPearsinaBoiling-WaterCanner*

ProcessTimesforHalvedPearsinaDial-GaugePressureCanner*

ProcessTimesforHalvedPearsinaWeighted-GaugePressureCanner*

Rhubarb,Stewed

Rhubarbinthegardenisasuresignthatspringhassprungandsummeriswellonitsway.Butwhynotenjoyrhubarballyear-round?Thebrilliantredstalksmakeitasappropriateforaholidaytableasforanearlysummerfeast.Rhubarbisalsodeliciousincrisps,cobblers,orservedhotovericecream.Selectyoung,tender,well-coloredstalksfromthespringor,ifavailable,latefallcrop.

QuantityAnaverageof10½poundsisneededpercannerloadofsevenquarts.Anaverageof7poundsisneededpercannerloadofninepints.Alugweighs28poundsandyields14to28quarts—anaverageof1½poundsperquart.

Directions1. Trimoffleaves.Washstalksandcutinto½-inchto1-inchpieces.2. Placerhubarbinalargesaucepan,andadd½cupsugarforeachquartof

fruit.Letstanduntiljuiceappears.Heatgentlytoboiling.Filljarswithoutdelay,leaving½-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsandprocess.

ProcessTimesforStewedRhubarbinaBoiling-WaterCanner*

ProcessTimesforStewedRhubarbinaDial-GaugePressureCanner*

ProcessTimesforStewedRhubarbinaWeighted-GaugePressureCanner*

CannedPieFillingsUsingapre-madepiefillingwillcutyourpiepreparationtimebymorethanhalf,butmostcommerciallyproducedfillingsareoozingwithhighfructosecornsyrupandallmannerofartificialcoloringandflavoring.(Foodcoloringisnotatallnecessary,butifyou’rereallyconcernedabouthowtheinsideofyourpiewilllook,appropriateamountsareaddedtoeachrecipeasanoptionalingredient.)Makingandpreservingyourownpiefillingsmeansthatyoucanuseyourownfreshingredientsandadjustthesweetnesstoyourtaste.Becausesomefolksliketheirpiesrichandsweetandotherspreferanaturaltartflavor,youmightwanttofirstmakeasinglequart,makeapiewithit,andseehowyoulikeit.Thenyoucanadjustthesugarandspicesintherecipetosuityourpersonalpreferencesbeforemakingalargebatch.Experimentwithcombiningfruitsoraddingdifferentspices,buttheamountoflemonjuiceshouldnotbealtered,asitaidsincontrollingthesafetyandstoragestabilityofthefillings.

TheserecipesuseClearJel(sometimessoldasClearJelA),achemicallymodifiedcornstarchthatproducesexcellentsauceconsistencyevenafterfillingsarecannedandbaked.ByusingClearJel,youcanlowerthesugarcontentofyourfillingswithoutsacrificingsafety,flavor,ortexture.(Note:InstantClearJelisnotmeanttobecookedandshouldnotbeusedfortheserecipes.Sure-GelisanaturalfruitpectinandisnotasuitablesubstituteforClearJel.Cornstarch,tapiocastarch,orarrowrootstarchcanbeusedinplaceofClearJel,butthefinishedproductislikelytoberunny.)OnepoundofClearJelcostslessthanfivedollarsandisenoughtomakefillingsforabout14pies.Itwillkeepforatleastayearifstoredinacool,dryplace.ClearJelisincreasinglyavailableamongcanningandfreezingsuppliesinsomestores.Alternately,youcanorder

itbythepoundatanyofthefollowingonlinestores:www.barryfarm.comwww.kitchenkrafts.comwww.theingredientstore.com

Whenusingfrozencherriesandblueberries,selectunsweetenedfruit.Ifsugarhasbeenadded,rinseitoffwhilefruitisfrozen.Thawfruit,thencollect,measure,andusejuicefromfruittopartiallyreplacethewaterspecifiedintherecipe.

ApplePieFilling

Usefirm,crispapples,suchasStayman,GoldenDelicious,orRomevarietiesforthebestresults.Ifappleslacktartness,useanadditional¼cupoflemonjuiceforeachsixquartsofslices.Ingredientsareincludedforaone-quart(enoughforone8-inchpie)oraseven-quartrecipe.

Ingredients

Blanched,slicedfreshapples 3½cups 6quarts

Granulatedsugar ¾cup+2tbsp 5½cups

ClearJel® ¼cup 1½cup

Cinnamon ¼tsp 1tbsp

Coldwater ½cup 2½cups

Applejuice ¾cup 5cups

Bottledlemonjuice 2tbsp ¾cup

Nutmeg(optional) ⅛tsp 1tsp

Directions1. Wash,peel,andcoreapples.Prepareslices½inchwideandplaceinwater

containingalittlelemonjuicetopreventbrowning.2. Forfreshfruit,place6cupsatatimein1gallonofboilingwater.Boileach

batch1minuteafterthewaterreturnstoaboil.Drain,butkeepheatedfruitinacoveredbowlorpot.

3. Combinesugar,ClearJel,andcinnamoninalargekettlewithwaterandapplejuice.Addnutmeg,ifdesired.Stirandcookonmedium-highheatuntilmixturethickensandbeginstobubble.

4. Addlemonjuiceandboil1minute,stirringconstantly.Foldindrainedappleslicesimmediatelyandfilljarswithmixturewithoutdelay,leaving1-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsandprocessimmediately.

ProcessTimesforApplePieFillinginaBoiling-WaterCanner*

BlueberryPieFilling

Selectfresh,ripe,andfirmblueberries.Unsweetenedfrozenblueberriesmaybeused.Ifsugarhasbeenadded,rinseitoffwhilefruitisstillfrozen.Thawfruit,thencollect,measure,andusejuicefromfruittopartiallyreplacethewaterspecifiedintherecipe.Ingredientsareincludedforaone-quart(enoughforone8-inchpie)orseven-quartrecipe.

Ingredients

1Quart 7Quarts

Freshorthawedblueberries 3½cups 6quarts

Granulatedsugar ¾cup+2tbsp 6cups

ClearJel® ¼cup+1tbsp 2¼cup

Coldwater 1cup 7cups

Bottledlemonjuice 3½cups ½cup

Bluefoodcoloring(optional)

Redfoodcoloring(optional) 1drop 7drops

Directions1. Washanddrainblueberries.Place6cupsatatimein1gallonboilingwater.

Allowwatertoreturntoaboilandcookeachbatchfor1minute.Drainbutkeepheatedfruitinacoveredbowlorpot.

2. CombinesugarandClearJelinalargekettle.Stir.Addwaterandfoodcoloringifdesired.Cookonmedium-highheatuntilmixturethickensandbeginstobubble.

3. Addlemonjuiceandboil1minute,stirringconstantly.Foldindrainedberriesimmediatelyandfilljarswithmixturewithoutdelay,leaving1-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsandprocessimmediately.

ProcessTimesforBlueberryPieFillinginaBoiling-WaterCanner*

CherryPieFilling

Selectfresh,veryripe,andfirmcherries.Unsweetenedfrozencherriesmaybeused.Ifsugarhasbeenadded,rinseitoffwhilethefruitisstillfrozen.Thawfruit,thencollect,measure,andusejuicefromfruittopartiallyreplacethewaterspecifiedintherecipe.Ingredientsareincludedforaone-quart(enoughforone8-inchpie)orseven-quartrecipe.

Ingredients

1Quart 7Quarts

Freshorthawedsourcherries 3⅓cups 6quarts

Granulatedsugar 1cup 7cups

ClearJel® ¼cup+1tbsp 1-¾cups

Coldwater 1⅓cups 9⅓cups

Bottledlemonjuice 1tbsp+1tsp ½cup

Cinnamon(optional) ⅛tsp 1tsp

Almondextract(optional) ¼tsp 2tsp

Redfoodcoloring(optional)

Directions1. Rinseandpitfreshcherries,andholdincoldwater.Topreventstemend

frombrowning,usewaterwithalittlelemonjuice.Place6cupsatatimein1gallonboilingwater.Boileachbatch1minuteafterthewaterreturnstoaboil.Drainbutkeepheatedfruitinacoveredbowlorpot.

2. CombinesugarandClearJelinalargesaucepanandaddwater.Ifdesired,addcinnamon,almondextract,andfoodcoloring.Stirmixtureandcookovermedium-highheatuntilmixturethickensandbeginstobubble.

3. Addlemonjuiceandboil1minute,stirringconstantly.Foldindrainedcherriesimmediatelyandfilljarswithmixturewithoutdelay,leaving1-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsandprocessimmediately.

ProcessTimesforCherryPieFillinginaBoiling-WaterCanner*

FestiveMincemeatPieFilling

Mincemeatpieoriginatedas“ChristmasPie”intheeleventhcentury,whentheEnglishcrusadersreturnedfromtheHolyLandbearingorientalspices.Theyaddedthreeofthesespices—cinnamon,cloves,andnutmeg—totheirmeatpiestorepresentthethreegiftsthatthemagibroughttotheChristchild.Mincemeatpiesaretraditionallysmallandareperfectpairedwithamugofhotbutteredrum.Walnutsorpecanscanbeusedinplaceofmeatifpreferred.Thisrecipeyieldsaboutsevenquarts.

Ingredients

2cupsfinelychoppedsuet

4lbsgroundbeefor4lbsgroundvenisonand1lbsausage

5qtschoppedapples

2lbsdark,seedlessraisins

1lbwhiteraisins

2qtsapplecider

2tbspgroundcinnamon

2tspgroundnutmeg

½tspcloves

5cupssugar

2tbspsalt

Directions1. Cooksuetandmeatinwatertoavoidbrowning.Peel,core,andquarter

apples.Putsuet,meat,andapplesthroughfoodgrinderusingamediumblade.

2. Combineallingredientsinalargesaucepanandsimmer1houroruntilslightlythickened.Stiroften.

3. Filljarswithmixturewithoutdelay,leaving1-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsandprocess.

ProcessTimesforFestiveMincemeatPieFillinginaDial-GaugePressureCanner*

MakingJamsandJellieswithoutAddedPectin

Ifyouarenotsureifafruithasenoughofitsownpectin,combine1tablespoonofrubbingalcoholwith1tablespoonofextractedfruitjuiceinasmallglass.Letstand2minutes.Ifthemixtureformsintoonesolidmass,there’splentyofpectin.Ifyouseeseveralweakblobs,youneedtoaddpectinorcombinewithanotherhigh-pectinfruit.

ProcessTimesforFestiveMincemeatPieFillinginaWeighted-GaugePressureCanner*

Jams,Jellies,andOtherFruitSpreadsHomemadejamsandjellieshavelotsmoreflavorthanstore-bought,over-processedvarieties.Thecombinationsoffruitsandspicesarelimitless,sohavefunexperimentingwiththeserecipes.Ifyoucanbeartopartwithyourcreationswhenyou’realldone,theymakewonderfulgiftsforanyoccasion.

Pectiniswhatmakesjamsandjelliesthickenandgel.Manyfruits,suchascrabapples,citrusfruits,sourplums,currants,quinces,greenapples,orConcordgrapes,haveplentyoftheirownnaturalpectin,sothere’snoneedtoaddmorepectintoyourrecipes.Youcanuselesssugarwhenyoudon’taddpectin,butyouwillhavetoboilthefruitforlonger.Still,theprocessisrelativelysimple

andyoudon’thavetoworryabouthavingstore-boughtpectinonhand.

Tousefreshfruitswithalow-pectincontentorcannedorfrozenfruitjuice,powderedorliquidpectinmustbeaddedforyourjamsandjelliestothickenandsetproperly.Jellyorjammadewithaddedpectinrequireslesscookingandgenerallygivesalargeryield.Theseproductshavemorenaturalfruitflavors,too.Inaddition,usingaddedpectineliminatestheneedtotesthotjelliesandjamsforpropergelling.

Beginningthissectionaredescriptionsofthedifferencesbetweenmethods,andtipsforsuccesswithwhicheveryouuse.

JellyWithoutAddedPectin

Makingjellywithoutaddedpectinisnotanexactscience.Youcanaddalittlemoreorlesssugaraccordingtoyourtaste,substitutehoneyforupto½ofthesugar,orexperimentwithcombiningsmallamountsoflow-pectinfruitswithotherhigh-pectinfruits.TheIngredientstablebelowshowsyouthebasicsforcommonhigh-pectinfruits.Useitasaguidelineasyouexperimentwithotherfruits.

Asfruitripens,itspectincontentdecreases,sousefruitthathasrecentlybeenpicked,andmix¾ripefruitwith¼under-ripe.Cookingcoresandpeelsalongwiththefruitwillalsoincreasethepectinlevel.Avoidusingcannedorfrozenfruitastheycontainverylittlepectin.

Besuretowashallfruitthoroughlybeforecooking.Onepoundoffruitshouldyieldatleast1cupofclearjuice.

Ingredients

Directions1. Crushsoftfruitsorberries;cutfirmerfruitsintosmallpieces(thereisno

needtopeelorcorethefruits,ascookingallthepartsaddspectin).2. Addwatertofruitsthatrequireit,aslistedintheIngredientstableabove.

Putfruitandwaterinlargesaucepanandbringtoaboil.Thensimmeraccordingtothetimesinthechartuntilfruitissoft,whilestirringtopreventscorching.

3. Whenfruitistender,strainthroughacolander,thenstrainthroughadoublelayerofcheeseclothorajellybag.Allowjuicetodripthrough,usingastandorcolandertoholdthebag.Avoidpressingorsqueezingthebagorclothasitwillcausecloudyjelly.

4. Usingnomorethan6to8cupsofextractedfruitjuiceatatime,measurefruitjuice,sugar,andlemonjuiceaccordingtotheIngredientstable,andheattoboiling.

5. Stiruntilthesugarisdissolved.Boiloverhighheattothejellyingpoint.Totestjellyfordoneness,useoneofthefollowingmethods:

Temperaturetest—Useajellyorcandythermometerandboiluntilmixturereachesthefollowingtemperatures:

Sheetorspoontest—Dipacool,metalspoonintotheboilingjellymixture.Raisethespoonabout12inchesabovethepan(outofsteam).Turnthespoonsotheliquidrunsofftheside.Thejellyisdonewhenthesyrupformstwodropsthatflowtogetherandsheetorhangofftheedgeofthespoon.Removefromheatandquicklyskimofffoam.Fillsterilejarswithjelly.Usea

measuringcuporladlethejellythroughawide-mouthedfunnel,leaving¼-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsandprocess.

ProcessTimesforJellywithoutAddedPectininaBoilingWaterCanner1

LemonCurd

Lemoncurdisarich,creamyspreadthatcanbeusedon(orin)avarietyofteatimetreats—crumpets,scones,cakefillings,tartlets,ormeringuesareallenhancedbyitstangy-sweetflavor.Followtherecipecarefully,asvariancesiningredients,order,andtemperaturesmayleadtoapoortextureorflavor.ForLimeCurd,usethesamerecipebutsubstitute1cupbottledlimejuiceand¼cupfreshlimezestforthelemonjuiceandzest.Thisrecipeyieldsaboutthreetofourhalf-pints.

Ingredients

2½cupssuperfinesugar1

½cuplemonzest(freshlyzested),optional

1cupbottledlemonjuice2

¾cupunsaltedbutter,chilled,cutintoapproximately¾-inchpieces7largeeggyolks

4largewholeeggs

Directions1. Wash4half-pintcanningjarswithwarm,soapywater.Rinsewell;keephot

untilreadytofill.Preparecanninglidsaccordingtomanufacturer’sdirections.

2. Fillboilingwatercannerwithenoughwatertocoverthefilledjarsby1to2inches.Useathermometertopreheatthewaterto180°Fbythetimefilledjarsarereadytobeadded.Caution:Donotheatthewaterinthecannertomorethan180°Fbeforejarsareadded.Ifthewaterinthecanneristoohotwhenjarsareadded,theprocesstimewillnotbelongenough.Thetimeit

takesforthecannertoreachboilingafterthejarsareaddedisexpectedtobe25to30minutesforthisproduct.Processtimestartsafterthewaterinthecannercomestoafullboiloverthetopsofthejars.

3. Combinethesugarandlemonzestinasmallbowl,stirtomix,andsetasideabout30minutes.Pre-measurethelemonjuiceandpreparethechilledbutterpieces.

4. Heatwaterinthebottompanofadoubleboiler3untilitboilsgently.Thewatershouldnotboilvigorouslyortouchthebottomofthetopdoubleboilerpanorbowlinwhichthecurdistobecooked.Steamproducedwillbesufficientforthecookingprocesstooccur.

5. Inthetopofthedoubleboiler,onthecountertoportable,whisktheeggyolksandwholeeggstogetheruntilthoroughlymixed.Slowlywhiskinthesugarandzest,blendinguntilwell-mixedandsmooth.Blendinthelemonjuiceandthenaddthebutterpiecestothemixture.

6. Placethetopofthedoubleboileroverboilingwaterinthebottompan.Stirgentlybutcontinuouslywithasiliconespatulaorcookingspoon,topreventthemixturefromstickingtothebottomofthepan.Continuecookinguntilthemixturereachesatemperatureof170°F.Useafoodthermometertomonitorthetemperature.

7. Removethedoubleboilerpanfromthestoveandplaceonaprotectedsurface,suchasadishclothortowelonthecountertop.Continuetostirgentlyuntilthecurdthickens(about5minutes).Strain

8. Fillhot,strainedcurdintotheclean,hothalf-pintjars,leaving½-inchheadspace.Removeairbubblesandadjustheadspaceifneeded.Wiperimsofjarswithadampened,cleanpapertowel;applytwo-piecemetalcanninglids.Process.Letcool,undisturbed,for12to24hoursandcheckforseals.

ProcessTimesforLemonCurdinaBoiling-WaterCanner*

JamWithoutAddedPectin

Makingjamiseveneasierthanmakingjelly,asyoudon’thavetostrainthefruit.However,you’llwanttobesuretoremoveallstems,skins,andpits.Besuretowashandrinseallfruitsthoroughlybeforecooking,butdon’tletthemsoak.Forbestflavor,usefullyripefruit.UsetheIngredientstablebelowasaguidelineasyouexperimentwithlesscommonfruits.

Ingredients

1. Removestems,skins,seeds,andpits;cutintopiecesandcrush.Forberries,removestemsandblossomsandcrush.Seedyberriesmaybeputthroughasieveorfoodmill.Measurecrushedfruitintolargesaucepanusingtheingredientquantitiesspecifiedabove.

2. Addsugarandbringtoaboilwhilestirringrapidlyandconstantly.Continuetoboiluntilmixturethickens.Useoneofthefollowingteststodeterminewhenjamsandjelliesarereadytofill.Rememberthatthejamwillthickenasitcools.

Temperaturetest—Useajellyorcandythermometerandboiluntilmixturereachesthetemperatureforyouraltitude.

Refrigeratortest—Removethejammixturefromtheheat.Pourasmallamountofboilingjamonacoldplateandputitinthefreezercompartmentofarefrigeratorforafewminutes.Ifthemixturegels,itisreadytofill.

3. Removefromheatandskimofffoamquickly.Fillsterilejarswithjam.Use

ameasuringcuporladlethejamthroughawide-mouthedfunnel,leaving¼-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsandprocess.

ProcessTimesforJamswithoutAddedPectininaBoiling-WaterCanner*

JamsandJelliesWithAddedPectin

Tousefreshfruitswithalow-pectincontentorcannedorfrozenfruitjuice,powderedorliquidpectinmustbeaddedforyourjamsandjelliestothickenandsetproperly.Jellyorjammadewithaddedpectinrequireslesscookingandgenerallygivesalargeryield.Theseproductshavemorenaturalfruitflavors,too.Inaddition,usingaddedpectineliminatestheneedtotesthotjelliesandjamsforpropergelling.

Commerciallyproducedpectinisanaturalingredient,usuallymadefromapplesandavailableatmostgrocerystores.Thereareseveraltypesofpectinnowcommonlyavailable;liquid,powder,low-sugar,andno-sugarpectinseachhavetheirownadvantagesanddownsides.Pomona’sUniversalPectin®isacitruspectinthatallowsyoutomakejamsandjellieswithlittleornosugar.Becausetheorderofcombiningingredientsdependsonthetypeofpectinused,

itisbesttofollowthecommonjamandjellyrecipesthatareincludedrightonmostpectinpackages.However,ifyouwanttotrysomethingalittledifferent,followoneofthefollowingrecipesformixedfruitandspicedfruitjamsandjellies.

Adding½teaspoonofbutterormargarinewiththejuiceandpectinwillreducefoaming.However,thesemaycauseoff-flavorinalong-termstorageofjelliesandjams.Purchasefreshfruitpectineachyear.Oldpectinmayresultinpoorgels.Besuretousemasoncanningjars,self-sealingtwo-piecelids,andafive-minuteprocess(correctedforaltitude,asnecessary)inboilingwater.

ProcessTimesforJamsandJellieswithAddedPectininaBoiling-WaterCanner*

Pear-AppleJam

Thisisadeliciousjamperfectformakingattheendofautumn,justbeforethefrostgetsthelastapples.Forawarming,spicytwist,addateaspoonoffresh,gratedgingeralongwiththecinnamon.Thisrecipeyieldsseventoeighthalf-pints.

Ingredients

2cupspeeled,cored,andfinelychoppedpears(about2lbs)

1cuppeeled,cored,andfinelychoppedapples

¼tspgroundcinnamon

6½cupssugar

⅓cupbottledlemonjuice

6ozliquidpectin

Directions1. Peel,core,andsliceapplesandpearsintoalargesaucepanandstirin

cinnamon.Thoroughlymixsugarandlemonjuicewithfruitsandbringtoaboiloverhighheat,stirringconstantlyandcrushingfruitwithapotatomasherasitsoftens.

2. Onceboiling,immediatelystirinpectin.Bringtoafullrollingboilandboilhard1minute,stirringconstantly.

3. Removefromheat,quicklyskimofffoam,andfillsterilejars,leaving¼-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsandprocess.

ProcessTimesforPear-AppleJaminaBoilingWaterCanner*

Strawberry-RhubarbJelly

Strawberry-rhubarbjellywillturnanyordinarypieceofbreadintoadelightfultreat.Youcanalsospreaditonshortcakeorpoundcakeforasimpleanduniquedessert.Thisrecipeyieldsaboutsevenhalf-pints.

Ingredients

1½lbsredstalksofrhubarb

1½qtsripestrawberries

½tspbutterormargarinetoreducefoaming(optional)

6cupssugar

6ozliquidpectin

Directions1. Washandcutrhubarbinto1-inchpiecesandblendorgrind.Wash,stem,

andcrushstrawberries,onelayeratatime,inasaucepan.Placebothfruitsinajellybagordoublelayerofcheeseclothandgentlysqueezejuiceintoalargemeasuringcuporbowl.

2. Measure3½cupsofjuiceintoalargesaucepan.Addbutterandsugar,thoroughlymixingintojuice.Bringtoaboiloverhighheat,stirringconstantly.

3. Assoonasmixturebeginstoboil,stirinpectin.Bringtoafull,rollingboilandboilhard1minute,stirringconstantly.Removefromheat,quicklyskimofffoam,andfillsterilejars,leaving¼-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsandprocess.

ProcessTimesforStrawberry-RhubarbJellyinaBoiling-WaterCanner*

Blueberry-SpiceJam

Thisisasummerytreatthatisdeliciousspreadoverwaffleswithalittlebutter.Usingwildblueberriesresultsinastrongerflavor,butcultivatedblueberriesalsoworkwell.Thisrecipeyieldsaboutfivehalf-pints.

Ingredients

2½pintsripeblueberries

1tbsplemonjuice

½tspgroundnutmegorcinnamon

¾cupwater

5½cupssugar

1box(1¾oz)powderedpectin

Directions1. Washandthoroughlycrushblueberries,addingonelayeratatime,ina

saucepan.Addlemonjuice,spice,andwater.Stirpectinandbringtoafull,rollingboiloverhighheat,stirringfrequently.

2. Addthesugarandreturntoafull,rollingboil.Boilhardfor1minute,stirringconstantly.Removefromheat,quicklyskimofffoam,andfillsterilejars,leaving¼-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsandprocess.

ProcessTimesforBlueberry-SpiceJaminaBoiling-WaterCanner*

Grape-PlumJelly

Ifyouthinkpeanutbutterandjellysandwichesareonlyforkids,trygrape-plumjellyspreadwithanaturalnutbutteroverathicksliceofwholewheatbread.You’llchangeyourmind.Thisrecipeyieldsabout10half-pints.

Ingredients

3½lbsripeplums

3lbsripeConcordgrapes

8½cupssugar

1cupwater

½tspbutterormargarinetoreducefoaming(optional)

1box(1¾oz)powderedpectin

Directions1. Washandpitplums;donotpeel.Thoroughlycrushtheplumsandgrapes,

addingonelayeratatime,inasaucepanwithwater.Bringtoaboil,cover,andsimmer10minutes.

2. Strainjuicethroughajellybagordoublelayerofcheesecloth.Measuresugarandsetaside.Combine6½cupsofjuicewithbutterandpectininlargesaucepan.Bringtoahardboiloverhighheat,stirringconstantly.

3. Addthesugarandreturntoafull,rollingboil.Boilhardfor1minute,stirringconstantly.Removefromheat,quicklyskimofffoam,andfillsterilejars,leaving¼-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsandprocess.

ProcessTimesforGrape-PlumJellyinaBoiling-WaterCanner*

MakingReduced-SugarFruitSpreads

Avarietyoffruitspreadsmaybemadethataretasteful,yetlowerinsugarsandcaloriesthanregularjamsandjellies.Themoststraightforwardmethodisprobablytobuylow-sugarpectinandfollowthedirectionsonthepackage,butthefollowingrecipesshowalternatemethodsofusinggelatinorfruitpulpasthickeningagents.Gelatinrecipesshouldnotbeprocessedandshouldberefrigeratedandusedwithinfourweeks.

Peach-PineappleSpread

Thisrecipemaybemadewithanycombinationofpeaches,nectarines,apricots,andplums.Youcanusenosugar,uptotwocupsofsugar,oracombinationofsugarandanothersweetener(suchashoney,Splenda,oragavenectar).Notethatifyouuseaspartame,thespreadmayloseitssweetnesswithinthreetofourweeks.Addcinnamonorstaraniseifdesired.Thisrecipeyieldsfivetosixhalf-pints.

Ingredients

4cupsdrainedpeachpulp(followdirectionsbelow)

2cupsdrainedunsweetenedcrushedpineapple

¼cupbottledlemonjuice

2cupssugar(optional)

Directions1. Thoroughlywash4to6poundsoffirm,ripepeaches.Drainwell.Peeland

removepits.Grindfruitfleshwithamediumorcoarseblade,orcrushwithafork(donotuseablender).

2. Placegroundorcrushedpeachpulpina2-quartsaucepan.Heatslowlytoreleasejuice,stirringconstantly,untilfruitistender.Placecookedfruitinajellybagorstrainerlinedwithfourlayersofcheesecloth.Allowjuicetodripabout15minutes.Savethejuiceforjellyorotheruses.

3. Measure4cupsofdrainedpeachpulpformakingspread.Combinethe4cupsofpulp,pineapple,andlemonjuiceina4-quartsaucepan.Addupto2cupsofsugarorothersweetener,ifdesired,andmixwell.

4. Heatandboilgentlyfor10to15minutes,stirringenoughtopreventsticking.Filljarsquickly,leaving¼-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsand

process.

ProcessTimesforPeach-PineappleSpreadinaBoiling-WaterCanner*

RefrigeratedAppleSpread

Thisrecipeusesgelatinasathickener,soitdoesnotrequireprocessingbutitshouldberefrigeratedandusedwithinfourweeks.Forspicedapplejelly,addtwosticksofcinnamonandfourwholeclovestomixturebeforeboiling.Removebothspicesbeforeaddingthesweetenerandfoodcoloring(ifdesired).Thisrecipeyieldsfourhalf-pints.

Ingredients

2tbspunflavoredgelatinpowder

1qtbottleunsweetenedapplejuice

2tbspbottledlemonjuice

2tbspliquidlow-caloriesweetener(e.g.,sucralose,honey,or1–2tspliquidstevia)

Directions1. Inasaucepan,softenthegelatinintheappleandlemonjuices.Todissolve

gelatin,bringtoafull,rollingboilandboil2minutes.Removefromheat.2. Stirinsweetenerandfoodcoloring(ifdesired).Filljars,leaving¼-inch

headspace.Adjustlids.Refrigerate(donotprocessorfreeze).

RefrigeratedGrapeSpread

Thisisasimple,tastyrecipethatdoesn’trequireprocessing.Besuretorefrigerateandusewithinfourweeks.Thisrecipemakesthreehalf-pints.

Ingredients

2tbspunflavoredgelatinpowder

1bottle(24oz)unsweetenedgrapejuice

2tbspbottledlemonjuice

2tbspliquidlow-caloriesweetener(e.g.,sucralose,honey,or1–2tspliquidstevia)

Directions1. Inasaucepan,heatthegelatininthegrapeandlemonjuicesuntilmixtureis

soft.Bringtoafull,rollingboiltodissolvegelatin.Boil1minuteandremovefromheat.Stirinsweetener.

2. Filljarsquickly,leaving¼-inchheadspace.Adjustlids.Refrigerate(donotprocessorfreeze).

RemakingSoftJellies

Sometimesjellyjustdoesn’tturnoutrightthefirsttime.Jellythatistoosoftcanbeusedasasweetsaucetodrizzleovericecream,cheesecake,orangelfoodcake,butitcanalsobere-cookedintotheproperconsistency.

ToRemakewithPowderedPectin1. Measurejellytobere-cooked.Workwithnomorethan4to6cupsata

time.Foreachquart(4cups)ofjelly,mix¼cupsugar,½cupwater,2tablespoonsbottledlemonjuice,and4teaspoonspowderedpectin.Bringtoaboilwhilestirring.

2. Addjellyandbringtoarollingboiloverhighheat,stirringconstantly.Boilhardfor½minute.Removefromheat,quicklyskimfoamoffjelly,andfillsterilejars,leaving¼-inchheadspace.Adjustnewlidsandprocessasrecommended.

ToRemakeWithLiquidPectin1. Measurejellytobere-cooked.Workwithnomorethan4to6cupsata

time.Foreachquart(4cups)ofjelly,measureintoabowl¾cupsugar,2tablespoonsbottledlemonjuice,and2tablespoonsliquidpectin.

2. Bringjellyonlytoboiloverhighheat,whilestirring.Removefromheatandquicklyaddthesugar,lemonjuice,andpectin.Bringtoafull,rollingboil,stirringconstantly.Boilhardfor1minute.Quicklyskimofffoamandfillsterilejars,leaving¼-inchheadspace.Adjustnewlidsandprocessasrecommended.

ToRemakewithoutAddedPectin1. Foreachquartofjelly,add2tablespoonsbottledlemonjuice.Heatto

boilingandcontinuetoboilfor3to4minutes.2. Totestjellyfordoneness,useoneofthefollowingmethods:

Temperaturetest—Useajellyorcandythermometerandboiluntilmixturereachesthefollowingtemperaturesatthealtitudesbelow:

Sheetorspoontest—Dipacoolmetalspoonintotheboilingjellymixture.Raisethespoonabout12inchesabovethepan(outofsteam).Turnthespoonsotheliquidrunsofftheside.Thejellyisdonewhenthesyrupforms

twodropsthatflowtogetherandsheetorhangofftheedgeofthespoon.

Removefromheat,quicklyskimofffoam,andfillsterilejars,leaving¼-inchheadspace.Adjustnewlidsandprocess.

ProcessTimesforRemadeSoftJelliesinaBoiling-WaterCanner

Vegetables,Pickles,andTomatoes

BeansorPeas,ShelledorDried(AllVarieties)

Shelledordriedbeansandpeasareinexpensiveandeasytobuyorstoreinbulk,buttheyarenotveryconvenientwhenitcomestopreparingthemtoeat.Hydratingandcanningbeansorpeasenableyoutosimplyopenacanandusethemratherthanwaitingforthemtosoak.Sortanddiscarddiscoloredseedsbeforerehydrating.

QuantityAnaverageoffivepoundsisneededpercannerloadofsevenquarts.Anaverageof3¼poundsisneededpercannerloadofninepints—anaverageof¾poundsperquart.

Directions1. Placedriedbeansorpeasinalargepotandcoverwithwater.Soak12to18

hoursinacoolplace.Drainwater.Toquicklyhydratebeans,youmaycoversortedandwashedbeanswithboilingwaterinasaucepan.Boil2minutes,removefromheat,soak1hour,anddrain.

2. Coverbeanssoakedbyeithermethodwithfreshwaterandboil30minutes.Add½teaspoonofsaltperpintor1teaspoonperquarttoeachjar,ifdesired.Filljarswithbeansorpeasandcookingwater,leaving1-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsandprocess.

ProcessTimesforBeansorPeasinaDial-GaugePressureCanner*

ProcessTimesforBeansorPeasinaWeighted-GaugePressureCanner*

BakedBeans

BakedbeansareanoldNewEnglandfavorite,buteverycookhashisorherfavoritevariation.Tworecipesareincludedhere,butfeelfreetoalterthemtoyourowntaste.

QuantityAnaverageoffivepoundsofbeansisneededpercannerloadofsevenquarts.Anaverageof3¼poundsisneededpercannerloadofninepints—anaverageof¾poundsperquart.

Directions1. Sortandwashdrybeans.Add3cupsofwaterforeachcupofdriedbeans.

Boil2minutes,removefromheat,soak1hour,anddrain.2. Heattoboilinginfreshwater,andsaveliquidformakingsauce.Makeyour

choiceofthefollowingsauces:

TomatoSauce—Mix1quarttomatojuice,3tablespoonssugar,2teaspoonssalt,1tablespoonchoppedonion,and¼teaspooneachofgroundcloves,allspice,mace,andcayennepepper.Heattoboiling.Add3quartscookingliquidfrombeansandbringbacktoboiling.

MolassesSauce—Mix4cupswaterorcookingliquidfrombeans,3tablespoonsdarkmolasses,1tablespoonvinegar,2teaspoonssalt,and¾teaspoonpowdereddrymustard.Heattoboiling.

3.Placeseven¾-inchpiecesofpork,ham,orbaconinanearthenwarecrock,alargecasserole,orapan.Addbeansandenoughmolassessaucetocoverbeans.

4.Coverandbake4to5hoursat350ºF.Addwaterasneeded—abouteveryhour.Filljars,leaving1-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsandprocess.

ProcessTimesforBakedBeansinaDial-GaugePressureCanner*

ProcessTimesforBakedBeansinaWeighted-GaugePressureCanner*

GreenBeans

Thisprocesswillworkequallywellforsnap,Italian,orwaxbeans.Selectfilledbuttender,crisppods,removinganydiseasedorrustypods.

QuantityAnaverageof14poundsisneededpercannerloadofsevenquarts.Anaverageofninepoundsisneededpercannerloadofninepints.Abushelweighs30poundsandyields12to20quarts—anaverageof2poundsperquart.

Directions

1.Washbeansandtrimends.Leavewhole,orcutorbreakinto1-inchpieces.

Hotpack—Coverwithboilingwater;boil5minutes.Filljarsloosely,leaving1-inchheadspace.

Rawpack—Filljarstightlywithrawbeans,leaving1-inchheadspace.Add1teaspoonofsaltperquarttoeachjar,ifdesired.Addboilingwater,leaving1-inchheadspace.

2.Adjustlidsandprocess.

ProcessTimesforGreenBeansinaDial-GaugePressureCanner*

ProcessTimesforGreenBeansinaWeighted-GaugePressureCanner*

Youcanpreservebeetswhole,cubed,orsliced,accordingtoyourpreference.Beetsthatare1to2inchesindiameterarethebest,aslargeronestendtobetoofibrous.

QuantityAnaverageof21pounds(withouttops)isneededpercannerloadofsevenquarts.Anaverageof13½poundsisneededpercannerloadofninepints.Abushel(withouttops)weighs52poundsandyields15to20quarts—anaverageofthreepoundsperquart.

Directions1. Trimoffbeettops,leavinganinchofstemandrootstoreducebleedingof

color.Scrubwell.Coverwithboilingwater.Boiluntilskinsslipoffeasily,about15to25minutesdependingonsize.

2. Cool,removeskins,andtrimoffstemsandroots.Leavebabybeetswhole.Cutmediumorlargebeetsinto½-inchcubesorslices.Halveorquarterverylargeslices.Add1teaspoonofsaltperquarttoeachjar,ifdesired.

3. Filljarswithhotbeetsandfreshhotwater,leaving1-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsandprocess.

ProcessTimesforBeetsinaDial-GaugePressureCanner*

ProcessTimesforBeetsinaWeighted-GaugePressureCanner*

Carrots

Carrotscanbepreservedslicedordicedaccordingtoyourpreference.Choosesmallcarrots,preferably1to1¼inchesindiameter,aslargeronesareoftentoofibrous.

QuantityAnaverageof17½pounds(withouttops)isneededpercannerloadofsevenquarts.Anaverageof11poundsisneededpercannerloadofninepints.Abushel(withouttops)weighs50poundsandyields17to25quarts—anaverageof2½poundsperquart.

Directions

1.Wash,peel,andrewashcarrots.Sliceordice.

Hotpack—Coverwithboilingwater;bringtoboilandsimmerfor5minutes.Filljarswithcarrots,leaving1-inchheadspace.

Rawpack—Filljarstightlywithrawcarrots,leaving1-inchheadspace.

2.Add1teaspoonofsaltperquarttothejar,ifdesired.Addhotcookingliquidorwater,leaving1-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsandprocess.

ProcessTimesforCarrotsinaDial-GaugepressureCanner*

ProcessTimesforCarrotsinaWeighted-GaugePressureCanner*

Corn,CreamStyle

Thecreamytexturecomesfromscrapingthecorncobsthoroughlyandincludingthejuicesandcornpieceswiththekernels.Ifyouwanttoaddmilkorcream,butter,orotheringredients,dosojustbeforeserving(donotadddairyproductsbeforecanning).Selectearscontainingslightlyimmaturekernelsforthisrecipe.

QuantityAnaverageof20pounds(inhusks)ofsweetcornisneededpercannerloadofninepints.Abushelweighs35poundsandyields12to20pints—anaverageof2¼poundsperpint.

Directions

1.Huskcorn,removesilk,andwashears.Cutcornfromcobataboutthecenterofkernel.Scraperemainingcornfromcobswithatableknife.

Hotpack—Toeachquartofcornandscrapingsinasaucepan,add2cupsofboilingwater.Heattoboiling.Add½teaspoonsalttoeachjar,ifdesired.Fillpintjarswithhotcornmixture,leaving1-inchheadspace.

Rawpack—Fillpintjarswithrawcorn,leaving1-inchheadspace.Donotshakeorpressdown.Add½teaspoonsalttoeachjar,ifdesired.Addfreshboilingwater,leaving1-inchheadspace.

ProcessTimesforCream-StyleCorninaDial-GaugePressureCanner

ProcessTimesforCream-StyleCorninaWeighted-GaugePressureCanner*

Corn,WholeKernel

Selectearscontainingslightlyimmaturekernels.Canningofsomesweetervarietiesorkernelsthataretooimmaturemaycausebrowning.Trycanningasmallamounttotestcolorandflavorbeforecanninglargequantities.

QuantityAnaverageof31½pounds(inhusks)ofsweetcornisneededpercannerloadofsevenquarts.Anaverageof20poundsisneededpercannerloadofninepints.Abushelweighs35poundsandyields6to11quarts—anaverageof4½poundsperquart.

Directions

1.Huskcorn,removesilk,andwash.Blanch3minutesinboilingwater.Cutcornfromcobataboutthree-fourthsthedepthofkernel.Donotscrapecob,asitwillcreateacreamytexture.

Hotpack—Toeachquartofkernelsinasaucepan,add1cupof

hotwater,heattoboiling,andsimmer5minutes.Add1teaspoonofsaltperquarttoeachjar,ifdesired.Filljarswithcornandcookingliquid,leaving1-inchheadspace.

Rawpack—Filljarswithrawkernels,leaving1-inchheadspace.Donotshakeorpressdown.Add1teaspoonofsaltperquarttothejar,ifdesired.

2.Addfreshboilingwater,leaving1-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsandprocess.

ProcessTimesforWholeKernelCorninaDial-GaugePressureCanner*

ProcessTimesforWholeKernelCorninaWeighted-GaugePressureCanner*

MixedVegetables

Usemixedvegetablesinsoups,casseroles,potpies,orasaquicksidedish.Youcanchangethesuggestedproportionsorsubstituteotherfavoritevegetables,butavoidleafygreens,driedbeans,cream-stylecorn,wintersquash,andsweetpotatoesastheywillruintheconsistencyoftheothervegetables.Thisrecipeyieldsaboutsevenquarts.

Ingredients

6cupsslicedcarrots

6cupscut,whole-kernelsweetcorn

6cupscutgreenbeans

6cupsshelledlimabeans

4cupsdicedorcrushedtomatoes

4cupsdicedzucchini

Directions1. Carefullywash,peel,de-shell,andcutvegetablesasnecessary.Combineall

vegetablesinalargepotorkettle,andaddenoughwatertocoverpieces.2. Add1teaspoonsaltperquarttoeachjar,ifdesired.Boil5minutesandfill

jarswithhotpiecesandliquid,leaving1-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsandprocess.

ProcessTimesforMixedVegetablesinaDial-GaugePressureCanner*

ProcessTimesforMixedVegetablesinaWeighted-GaugePressureCanner*

Peas,GreenorEnglish,Shelled

GreenandEnglishpeaspreservewellwhencanned,butsugarsnapandChineseediblepodsarebetterfrozen.Selectfilledpodscontainingyoung,tender,sweetseeds,anddiscardanydiseasedpods.

QuantityAnaverageof31½pounds(inpods)isneededpercannerloadofsevenquarts.Anaverageof20poundsisneededpercannerloadofninepints.Abushelweighs30poundsandyields5to10quarts—anaverageof4½poundsperquart.

Directions

1.Shellandwashpeas.Add1teaspoonofsaltperquarttoeachjar,ifdesired.

Hotpack—Coverwithboilingwater.Bringtoaboilinasaucepan,andboil2minutes.Filljarslooselywithhotpeas,andaddcookingliquid,leaving1-inchheadspace.

Rawpack—Filljarswithrawpeas,andaddboilingwater,leaving1-inchheadspace.Donotshakeorpressdownonpeas.

ProcessTimesforPeasinaDial-GaugePressureCanner*

ProcessTimesforPeasinaWeighted-GaugePressureCanner*

Potatoes,Sweet

Sweetpotatoescanbepreservedwhole,inchunks,orinslices,accordingtoyourpreference.Choosesmalltomedium-sizedpotatoesthatarematureandnottoofibrous.Canwithinonetotwomonthsafterharvest.

Directions1. Washpotatoesandboilorsteamuntilpartiallysoft(15to20minutes).

Removeskins.Cutmediumpotatoes,ifneeded,sothatpiecesareuniforminsize.Donotmashorpuréepieces.

2. Filljars,leaving1-inchheadspace.Add1teaspoonsaltperquarttoeachjar,ifdesired.Coverwithyourchoiceoffreshboilingwaterorsyrup,leaving1-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsandprocess.

ProcessTimesforSweetPotatoesinaDial-GaugePressureCanner*

ProcessTimesforSweetPotatoesinaWeighted-GaugePressureCanner*

PumpkinandWinterSquash

Pumpkinandsquasharegreattohaveonhandforuseinpies,soups,quickbreads,orassidedishes.Theyshouldhaveahardrindandstringless,maturepulp.Smallpumpkins(sugarorpievarieties)arebest.Beforeusingforpies,drainjarsandstrainorsievepumpkinorsquashcubes.

QuantityAnaverageof16poundsisneededpercannerloadofsevenquarts.Anaverageof10poundsisneededpercannerloadofninepints—anaverageof2¼poundsperquart.

Directions1. Wash,removeseeds,cutinto1-inch-wideslices,andpeel.Cutfleshinto1-

inchcubes.Boil2minutesinwater.Donotmashorpurée.2. Filljarswithcubesandcookingliquid,leaving1-inchheadspace.Adjust

lidsandprocess.

ProcessTimesforPumpkinandWinterSquashinaDial-GaugePressureCanner*

ProcessTimesforPumpkinandWinterSquashinaWeighted-GaugePressureCanner*

Succotash

Tospiceupthissimple,satisfyingdish,addalittlepaprikaandcelerysaltbeforeserving.Itisalsodeliciousmadeintoapotpie,withorwithoutaddedchicken,turkey,orbeef.Thisrecipeyieldssevenquarts.

Ingredients

1lbunhuskedsweetcornor3qtscutwholekernels

14lbsmaturegreenpoddedlimabeansor4qtsshelledlimabeans2qtscrushedorwholetomatoes(optional)

Directions

1.Huskcorn,removesilk,andwash.Blanch3minutesinboilingwater.Cutcornfromcobataboutthree-fourthsthedepthofkernel.Donotscrapecob,asitwillcreateacreamytexture.Shelllimabeansandwashthoroughly.

Hotpack—Combineallpreparedvegetablesinalargekettlewithenoughwatertocoverthepieces.Add1teaspoonsalttoeachquartjar,ifdesired.Boilgently5minutesandfilljarswithpiecesandcookingliquid,leaving1-inchheadspace.

Rawpack—Filljarswithequalpartsofallpreparedvegetables,leaving1-inchheadspace.Donotshakeorpressdownpieces.Add1teaspoonsalttoeachquartjar,ifdesired.Addfreshboilingwater,leaving1-inchheadspace.

ProcessTimesforSuccotashinaDial-GaugePressureCanner*

ProcessTimesforSuccotashinaWeighted-GaugePressureCanner*

Vegetable,driedbeanorpea,meat,poultry,orseafoodsoupscanallbecanned.Addpasta,rice,orothergrainstosoupjustpriortoserving,asgrainstendtogetsoggywhencanned.Ifdriedbeansorpeasareused,theymustbefullyrehydratedfirst.Dairyproductsshouldalsobeavoidedinthecanningprocess.

Directions1. Select,wash,andpreparevegetables.2. Cookvegetables.Foreachcupofdriedbeansorpeas,add3cupsofwater,

boil2minutes,removefromheat,soak1hour,andheattoboil.Drainandcombinewithmeatbroth,tomatoes,orwatertocover.Boil5minutes.

3. Salttotaste,ifdesired.Filljarshalfwaywithsolidmixture.Addremainingliquid,leaving1-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsandprocess.

ProcessTimesforSoupsinaDial-GaugePressureCanner*

ProcessTimesforSoupsinaWeighted-GaugePressureCanner*

MeatStock(Broth)

“Goodbrothwillresurrectthedead,”saysaSouthAmericanproverb.Bonescontaincalcium,magnesium,phosphorus,andothertraceminerals,whilecartilageandtendonsholdglucosamine,whichisimportantforjointsandmusclehealth.Whensimmeredforextendedperiods,thesenutrientsarereleasedintothewaterandbrokendownintoaformthatourbodiescanabsorb.Nottomentionthatgoodbrothisthesecrettodeliciousrisotto,reductionsauces,

gravies,anddozensofothergourmetdishes.

Beef1. Saworcrackfresh,trimmedbeefbonestoenhanceextractionofflavor.

Rinsebonesandplaceinalargestockpotorkettle,coverboneswithwater,addpotcover,andsimmer3to4hours.

2. Removebones,coolbroth,andpickoffmeat.Skimofffat,addmeatremovedfrombonestobroth,andreheattoboiling.Filljars,leaving1-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsandprocess.

ChickenorTurkey1. Placelargecarcassbonesinalargestockpot,addenoughwatertocover

bones,coverpot,andsimmer30to45minutesoruntilmeatcanbeeasilystrippedfrombones.

2. Removebonesandpieces,coolbroth,stripmeat,discardexcessfat,andreturnmeattobroth.Reheattoboilingandfilljars,leaving1-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsandprocess.

ProcessTimesforMeatStockinaDial-GaugePressureCanner*

ProcessTimesforMeatStockinaWeighted-GaugePressureCanner*

FermentedFoodsandPickledVegetables

PickledvegetablesplayavitalroleinItalianantipastodishes,Chinesestir-fries,Britishpiccalilli,andmuchofRussianandFinnishcuisine.And,ofcourse,

theGermanslovetheirsauerkraut,kimcheeisfoundonnearlyeveryKoreandinnertable,andmanyanAmericanwon’teatasandwichwithoutagood,strongdillpickleontheside.

Fermentingvegetablesisnotcomplicated,butyou’llwanttohavethepropercontainers,covers,andweightsreadybeforeyoubegin.Forcontainers,keepthefollowinginmind:

Aonce-galloncontainerisneededforeachfivepoundsoffreshvegetables.Therefore,afive-gallonstonecrockisofidealsizeforfermentingabout25poundsoffreshcabbageorcucumbers.Food-gradeplasticandglasscontainersareexcellentsubstitutesforstonecrocks.Otherone-tothree-gallonnon-food-gradeplasticcontainersmaybeusediflinedinsidewithacleanfood-gradeplasticbag.Caution:Becertainthatfoodscontactonlyfood-gradeplastics.Donotusegarbagebagsortrashliners.Fermentingsauerkrautinquartandhalf-gallonmasonjarsisanacceptablepractice,butmayresultinmorespoilagelosses.

Somevegetables,likecabbageandcucumbers,needtobekept1to2inchesunderbrinewhilefermenting.Ifyoufindthemfloatingtotopofthecontainer,herearesomesuggestions:

Afteraddingpreparedvegetablesandbrine,insertasuitablysizeddinnerplateorglasspieplateinsidethefermentationcontainer.Theplatemustbeslightlysmallerthanthecontaineropening,yetlargeenoughtocovermostoftheshreddedcabbageorcucumbers.Tokeeptheplateunderthebrine,weightitdownwithtwotothreesealedquartjarsfilledwithwater.Coveringthecontaineropeningwithaclean,heavybathtowelhelpstopreventcontaminationfrominsectsandmoldswhilethevegetablesarefermenting.Finequalityfermentedvegetablesarealsoobtainedwhentheplateisweighteddownwithaverylarge,clean,plasticbagfilledwiththreequartsofwatercontaining4½tablespoonsofsalt.Besuretosealtheplasticbag.Freezerbagssoldforpackagingturkeysaresuitableforusewithfive-galloncontainers.

Besuretowashthefermentationcontainer,plate,andjarsinhot,sudsywater,andrinsewellwithveryhotwaterbeforeuse.

DillPickles

Feelfreetoalterthespicesinthisrecipe,butsticktothesameproportionofcucumbers,vinegar,andwater.Checkthelabelofyourvinegartobesureitcontains5percentaceticacid.Fullyfermentedpicklesmaybestoredintheoriginalcontainerforaboutfourtosixmonths,providedtheyarerefrigeratedandsurfacescumandmoldsareremovedregularly,butcanningisabetterwaytostorefullyfermentedpickles.

Ingredients

Usethefollowingquantitiesforeachgalloncapacityofyourcontainer:4lbsof4-inchpicklingcucumbers

2tbspdillseedor4to5headsfreshordrydillweed

½cupsalt

¼cupvinegar(5percentaceticacid)

8cupswaterandoneormoreofthefollowingingredients:

2clovesgarlic(optional)

2driedredpeppers(optional)

2tspwholemixedpicklingspices(optional)

Directions1. Washcucumbers.Cut1⁄16-inchsliceoffblossomendanddiscard.Leave¼

inchofstemattached.Placehalfofdillandspicesonbottomofaclean,suitablecontainer.

2. Addcucumbers,remainingdill,andspices.Dissolvesaltinvinegarandwaterandpourovercucumbers.Addsuitablecoverandweight.Storewheretemperatureisbetween70°Fand75°Fforabout3to4weekswhilefermenting.Temperaturesof55°Fto65°Fareacceptable,butthefermentationwilltake5to6weeks.Avoidtemperaturesabove80°F,orpickleswillbecometoosoftduringfermentation.Fermentingpicklescureslowly.Checkthecontainerseveraltimesaweekandpromptlyremovesurfacescumormold.Caution:Ifthepicklesbecomesoft,slimy,ordevelopadisagreeableodor,discardthem.

3. Oncefullyfermented,pourthebrineintoapan,heatslowlytoaboil,andsimmer5minutes.Filterbrinethroughpapercoffeefilterstoreduce

cloudiness,ifdesired.Filljarswithpicklesandhotbrine,leaving½-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsandprocessinaboilingwatercanner,orusethelow-temperaturepasteurizationtreatmentdescribedhere:

Low-TemperaturePasteurizationTreatment

Thefollowingtreatmentresultsinabetterproducttexturebutmustbecarefullymanagedtoavoidpossiblespoilage.1. Placejarsinacannerfilledhalfwaywithwarm(120°Fto140°F)water.

Then,addhotwatertoalevel1inchabovejars.2. Heatthewaterenoughtomaintain180°Fto185°Fwatertemperaturefor30

minutes.Checkwithacandyorjellythermometertobecertainthatthewatertemperatureisatleast180°Fduringtheentire30minutes.Temperatureshigherthan185°Fmaycauseunnecessarysofteningofpickles.

ProcessTimesforDillPicklesinaBoiling-WaterCanner*

Sauerkraut

Forthebestsauerkraut,usefirmheadsoffreshcabbage.Shredcabbageandstartkrautbetween24and48hoursafterharvest.Thisrecipeyieldsaboutninequarts.

Ingredients

25lbscabbage

¾cupcanningorpicklingsalt

Directions

1. Workwithabout5poundsofcabbageatatime.Discardouterleaves.Rinseheadsundercoldrunningwateranddrain.Cutheadsinquartersandremovecores.Shredorslicetothethicknessofaquarter.

2. Putcabbageinasuitablefermentationcontainer(seepage103forsuggestionsoncontainers,lids,andweights),andadd3tablespoonsofsalt.Mixthoroughly,usingcleanhands.Packfirmlyuntilsaltdrawsjuicesfromcabbage.

3. Repeatshredding,salting,andpackinguntilallcabbageisinthecontainer.Besureitisdeepenoughsothatitsrimisatleast4or5inchesabovethecabbage.Ifjuicedoesnotcovercabbage,addboiledandcooledbrine(1½tablespoonsofsaltperquartofwater).

4. Addplateandweights;covercontainerwithacleanbathtowel.Storeat70°Fto75°Fwhilefermenting.Attemperaturesbetween70°Fand75°F,krautwillbefullyfermentedinabout3to4weeks;at60°Fto65°F,fermentationmaytake5to6weeks.Attemperatureslowerthan60°F,krautmaynotferment.Above75°F,krautmaybecomesoft.

Note:Ifyouweighthecabbagedownwithabrinefilledbag,donotdisturbthecrockuntilnormalfermentationiscompleted(whenbubblingceases).Ifyouusejarsasweight,youwillhavetocheckthekraut2to3timeseachweekandremovescumifitforms.Fullyfermentedkrautmaybekepttightlycoveredintherefrigeratorforseveralmonthsoritmaybecannedasfollows:Hotpack—Bringkrautandliquidslowlytoaboilinalargekettle,stirringfrequently.Removefromheatandfilljarsratherfirmlywithkrautandjuices,leaving½-inchheadspace.

Rawpack—Filljarsfirmlywithkrautandcoverwithjuices,leaving½-inchheadspace.

ProcessTimesforSauerkrautinaBoiling-WaterCanner*

PickledThree-BeanSalad

Thisisagreatsidedishtobringtoasummerpicnicorpotluck.Feelfreetoaddoradjustspicestoyourtaste.Thisrecipeyieldsaboutfivetosixhalf-pints.

Ingredients

1½cupscutandblanchedgreenoryellowbeans(preparedasbelow)1½cupscanned,drainedredkidneybeans

1cupcanned,drainedgarbanzobeans

½cuppeeledandthinlyslicedonion(about1mediumonion)

½cuptrimmedandthinlyslicedcelery(1½mediumstalks)

½cupslicedgreenpeppers(½mediumpepper)

½cupwhitevinegar(5percentaceticacid)

¼cupbottledlemonjuice

¾cupsugar

1¼cupswater

¼cupoil

½tspcanningorpicklingsalt

Directions

1. Washandsnapoffendsoffreshbeans.Cutorsnapinto1-to2-inchpieces.Blanch3minutesandcoolimmediately.Rinsekidneybeanswithtapwateranddrainagain.Prepareandmeasureallothervegetables.

2. Combinevinegar,lemonjuice,sugar,andwaterandbringtoaboil.Removefromheat.Addoilandsaltandmixwell.Addbeans,onions,celery,andgreenpeppertosolutionandbringtoasimmer.

3. Marinate12to14hoursinrefrigerator,thenheatentiremixturetoaboil.Fillcleanjarswithsolids.Addhotliquid,leaving½-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsandprocess.

ProcessTimesforPickledThree-BeanSaladinaBoilingWaterCanner*

PickledHorseradishSauce

Selecthorseradishrootsthatarefirmandhavenomold,softspots,orgreenspots.Avoidrootsthathavebeguntosprout.Thepungencyoffreshhorseradishfadeswithinonetotwomonths,evenwhenrefrigerated,somakeonlysmallquantitiesatatime.Thisrecipeyieldsabouttwohalf-pints.

Ingredients

2cups(¾lb)freshlygratedhorseradish

1cupwhitevinegar(5percentaceticacid)

½tspcanningorpicklingsalt

¼tsppowderedascorbicacid

Directions1. Washhorseradishrootsthoroughlyandpeeloffbrownouterskin.Gratethe

peeledrootsinafoodprocessororcutthemintosmallcubesandputthroughafoodgrinder.

2. Combineingredientsandfillintosterilejars,leaving¼-inchheadspace.Sealjarstightlyandstoreinarefrigerator.

MarinatedPeppers

Anycombinationofbell,Hungarian,banana,orjalapeñopepperscanbeusedinthisrecipe.Usemorejalapeñopeppersifyouwantyourmixtobehot,butremembertowearrubberorplasticgloveswhilehandlingthemorwashhandsthoroughlywithsoapandwaterbeforetouchingyourface.Thisrecipeyieldsaboutninehalf-pints.

Ingredients

4lbsfirmpeppers

1cupbottledlemonjuice

2cupswhitevinegar(5percentaceticacid)

1tbsporeganoleaves

1cupoliveorsaladoil

½cupchoppedonions

2tbsppreparedhorseradish(optional)

2clovesgarlic,quartered(optional)

2¼tspsalt(optional)

Directions1. Selectyourfavoritepepper.Peppersmaybeleftwholeorquartered.Wash,

slashtwotofourslitsineachpepper,andblanchinboilingwaterorblistertopeeltough-skinnedhotpeppers.Blisterpeppersusingoneofthefollowingmethods:Ovenorbroilermethod—Placepeppersinahotoven(400°F)orbroilerfor6to8minutesoruntilskinsblister.

Range-topmethod—Coverhotburner,eithergasorelectric,withheavywiremesh.Placepeppersonburnerforseveralminutesuntilskinsblister.

2. Allowpepperstocool.Placeinpanandcoverwithadampcloth.Thiswillmakepeelingthepepperseasier.Afterseveralminutesofcooling,peeleachpepper.Flattenwholepeppers.

3. Mixallremainingingredientsexceptgarlicandsaltinasaucepanandheattoboiling.Place¼garlicclove(optional)and¼teaspoonsaltineachhalf-pintor½teaspoonperpint.Filljarswithpeppers,andaddhot,well-mixedoil/picklingsolutionoverpeppers,leaving½-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsandprocess.

ProcessTimesforMarinatedPeppersinaBoiling-WaterCanner*

Piccalilli

PiccalilliisaniceaccompanimenttoroastedorbraisedmeatsandiscommoninBritishandIndianmeals.ItcanalsobemixedwithmayonnaiseorcrèmefraîcheasthebasisofaFrenchremoulade.Thisrecipeyieldsninehalf-pints.

Ingredients

6cupschoppedgreentomatoes

1½cupschoppedsweetredpeppers

1½cupschoppedgreenpeppers

2¼cupschoppedonions

7½cupschoppedcabbage

½cupcanningorpicklingsalt

3tbspwholemixedpicklingspice

4½cupsvinegar(5percentaceticacid)

3cupsbrownsugar

Directions1. Wash,chop,andcombinevegetableswithsalt.Coverwithhotwaterandlet

stand12hours.Drainandpressinaclean,whiteclothtoremoveallpossibleliquid.

2. Tiespiceslooselyinaspicebagandaddtocombinedvinegarandbrownsugarandheattoaboilinasaucepan.Addvegetablesandboilgently30minutesoruntilthevolumeofthemixtureisreducedbyone-half.Removespicebag.

3. Fillhotsterilejarswithhotmixture,leaving½-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsandprocess.

ProcessTimesforPiccalilliinaBoiling-WaterCanner

Bread-and-ButterPickles

Theseslightlysweet,spicedpickleswilladdflavorandcrunchtoanysandwich.Ifdesired,slender(1to1½inchesindiameter)zucchinioryellowsummersquashcanbesubstitutedforcucumbers.Afterprocessingandcooling,jarsshouldbestoredfourtofiveweekstodevelopidealflavor.Thisrecipeyieldsabouteightpints.

Ingredients

6lbsof4-to5-inchpicklingcucumbers

8cupsthinlyslicedonions(about3pounds)

½cupcanningorpicklingsalt

4cupsvinegar(5percentaceticacid)

4½cupssugar

2tbspmustardseed

1½tbspceleryseed

1tbspgroundturmeric

1cuppicklinglime(optional—foruseinvariationbelowformakingfirmerpickles)

Directions1. Washcucumbers.Cut inchoffblossomendanddiscard.Cutinto -inch

slices.Combinecucumbersandonionsinalargebowl.Addsalt.Coverwith2inchescrushedorcubedice.Refrigerate3to4hours,addingmoreiceasneeded.

2. Combineremainingingredientsinalargepot.Boil10minutes.Draincucumbersandonions,addtopot,andslowlyreheattoboiling.Filljarswithslicesandcookingsyrup,leaving½-inchheadspace.

3. Adjustlidsandprocessinboiling-watercanner,orusethelow-temperaturepasteurizationtreatmentdescribedbelow.

Low-TemperaturePasteurizationTreatment

Thefollowingtreatmentresultsinabetterproducttexturebutmustbecarefullymanagedtoavoidpossiblespoilage.1. Placejarsinacannerfilledhalfwaywithwarm(120°Fto140°F)water.

Then,addhotwatertoalevel1inchabovejars.2. Heatthewaterenoughtomaintain180°Fto185°Fwatertemperaturefor30

minutes.Checkwithacandyorjellythermometertobecertainthatthewatertemperatureisatleast180°Fduringtheentire30minutes.Temperatureshigherthan185°Fmaycauseunnecessarysofteningof

pickles.

Variationforfirmerpickles:Washcucumbers.Cut inchoffblossomendanddiscard.Cutinto -inchslices.Mix1cuppicklinglimeand½cupsaltto1gallonwaterina2-to3-galloncrockorenamelwarecontainer.Avoidinhalinglimedustwhilemixingthelime-watersolution.Soakcucumberslicesinlimewaterfor12to24hours,stirringoccasionally.Removefromlimesolution,rinse,andresoak1hourinfreshcoldwater.Repeattherinsingandsoakingstepstwomoretimes.Handlecarefully,assliceswillbebrittle.Drainwell.

ProcessTimesforBread-and-ButterPicklesinaBoiling-WaterCanner*

QuickFresh-PackDillPickles

Forbestresults,picklecucumberswithintwenty-fourhoursofharvesting,orimmediatelyafterpurchasing.Thisrecipeyieldsseventoninepints.

Ingredients

2gallonswater

1¼to1½cupscanningorpicklingsalt

1½qtsvinegar(5percentaceticacid)

¼cupsugar

2to2¼quartswater

2tbspwholemixedpicklingspice

3to5tbspwholemustardseed(2tspto1tspperpintjar)

14to21headsoffreshdill(1½to3headsperpintjar)or

4½to7tbspdillseed(1-½tspto1tbspperpintjar)

Directions1. Washcucumbers.Cut -inchsliceoffblossomendanddiscard,butleave

¼-inchofstemattached.Dissolve¾cupsaltin2gallonswater.Pourovercucumbersandletstand12hours.Drain.

2. Combinevinegar,½cupsalt,sugarand2quartswater.Addmixedpicklingspicestiedinacleanwhitecloth.Heattoboiling.Filljarswithcucumbers.Add1tspmustardseedand1½headsfreshdillperpint.

3. Coverwithboilingpicklingsolution,leaving½-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsandprocess.

ProcessTimesforQuickFresh-PackDillPicklesinaBoiling-WaterCanner*

PickleRelish

Afoodprocessorwillmakequickworkofchoppingthevegetablesinthisrecipe.Yieldsaboutninepints.

Ingredients

3qtschoppedcucumbers

3cupseachofchoppedsweetgreenandredpeppers

1cupchoppedonions

¾cupcanningorpicklingsalt

4cupsice

8cupswater

4tspeachofmustardseed,turmeric,wholeallspice,andwholecloves2cupssugar

6cupswhitevinegar(5percentaceticacid)

Directions1. Addcucumbers,peppers,onions,salt,andicetowaterandletstand4

hours.Drainandre-covervegetableswithfreshicewaterforanotherhour.Drainagain.

2. Combinespicesinaspiceorcheeseclothbag.Addspicestosugarandvinegar.Heattoboilingandpourmixtureovervegetables.Coverandrefrigerate24hours.

3. Heatmixturetoboilingandfillhotintocleanjars,leaving½-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsandprocess.

ProcessTimesforPickleRelishinaBoiling-WaterCanner*

QuickSweetPickles

Quickandsimpletoprepare,thesearethesweetpicklestomakewhenyou’reshortontime.Afterprocessingandcooling,jarsshouldbestoredfourtofiveweekstodevelopidealflavor.Ifdesired,addtwoslicesofrawwholeoniontoeachjarbeforefillingwithcucumbers.Thisrecipeyieldsaboutseventoninepints.

Ingredients

⅓cupcanningorpicklingsalt

4½cupssugar

3½cupsvinegar(5percentaceticacid)

2tspceleryseed

1tbspwholeallspice

2tbspmustardseed

1cuppicklinglime(optional)

Directions1. Washcucumbers.Cut inchoffblossomendanddiscard,butleave¼inch

ofstemattached.Sliceorcutinstrips,ifdesired.2. Placeinbowlandsprinklewithsalt.Coverwith2inchesofcrushedor

cubedice.Refrigerate3to4hours.Addmoreiceasneeded.Drainwell.3. Combinesugar,vinegar,celeryseed,allspice,andmustardseedin6-quart

kettle.Heattoboiling.Hotpack—Addcucumbersandheatslowlyuntilvinegarsolution

returnstoboil.Stiroccasionallytomakesuremixtureheatsevenly.Fill

sterilejars,leaving½-inchheadspace.

Rawpack—Filljars,leaving½-inchheadspace.4. Addhotpicklingsyrup,leaving½-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsandprocess.

Variationforfirmerpickles:Washcucumbers.Cut inchoffblossomendanddiscard,butleave¼inchofstemattached.Sliceorstripcucumbers.Mix1cuppicklinglimeand⅓cupsaltwith1gallonwaterina2-to3-galloncrockorenamelwarecontainer.Caution:Avoidinhalinglimedustwhilemixingthelime-watersolution.Soakcucumberslicesorstripsinlime-watersolutionfor12to24hours,stirringoccasionally.Removefromlimesolution,rinse,andsoak1hourinfreshcoldwater.Repeattherinsingandsoakingtwomoretimes.Handlecarefully,becauseslicesorstripswillbebrittle.Drainwell.

ProcessTimesforQuickSweetPicklesinaBoiling-WaterCanner*

Reduced-SodiumSlicedSweetPickles

Wholeallspicecanbetrickytofind.Ifit’snotavailableatyourlocalgrocerystore,itcanbeorderedatwww.spicebarn.comoratwww.gourmetsleuth.com.Thisrecipeyieldsaboutfourtofivepints.

Ingredients

4lbs(3-to4-inch)picklingcucumbers

Canningsyrup:1⅔cupsdistilledwhitevinegar(5percentacetic

acid)3cupssugar

1tbspwholeallspice

2¼tspceleryseed

Briningsolution:1qtdistilledwhitevinegar(5percentaceticacid)1tbspcanningorpicklingsalt

1tbspmustardseed

½cupsugar

Directions1. Washcucumbersandcut -inchoffblossomend,anddiscard.Cut

cucumbersinto¼-inchslices.Combineallingredientsforcanningsyrupinasaucepanandbringtoboiling.Keepsyruphotuntilused.

2. Inalargekettle,mixtheingredientsforthebriningsolution.Addthecutcucumbers,cover,andsimmeruntilthecucumberschangecolorfrombrighttodullgreen(about5to7minutes).Drainthecucumberslices.

3. Filljars,andcoverwithhotcanningsyrupleaving½-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsandprocess.

ProcessTimesforReduced-SodiumSlicedSweetPicklesinaBoiling-WaterCanner*

Tomatoes

Cannedtomatoesshouldbeastapleineverycook’spantry.Theyareeasytoprepareand,whenmadewithgarden-freshproduce,makeordinarysoups,pizza,orpastasintofive-starmeals.Besuretoselectonlydisease-free,preferablyvine-ripened,firmfruit.Donotcantomatoesfromdeadorfrost-killedvines.

Greentomatoesaremoreacidicthanripenedfruitandcanbecannedsafelywiththefollowingrecommendations.

Toensuresafeacidityinwhole,crushed,orjuicedtomatoes,addtwotablespoonsofbottledlemonjuiceor½teaspoonofcitricacidperquartoftomatoes.Forpints,useonetablespoonbottledlemonjuiceor¼teaspooncitricacid.Acidcanbeaddeddirectlytothejarsbeforefillingwithproduct.Addsugartooffsetacidtaste,ifdesired.Fourtablespoonsof5percentacidityvinegarperquartmaybeusedinsteadoflemonjuiceorcitricacid.However,vinegarmaycauseundesirableflavorchanges.Usingapressurecannerwillresultinhigherqualityandmorenutritiouscannedtomatoproducts.Ifyourpressurecannercannotbeoperatedabove15PSI,selectaprocesstimeatalowerpressure.

TomatoJuice

TomatojuiceisagoodsourceofvitaminAandCandistastyonitsownorinacocktail.It’salsothesecretingredientinsomeverydeliciouscakes.Ifdesired,addcarrots,celery,andonions,ortossinafewjalapeñosforalittlekick.

QuantityAnaverageof23poundsisneededpercannerloadofsevenquarts,oranaverageof14poundspercannerloadofninepints.Abushelweighs53poundsandyields15to18quartsofjuice—anaverageof3¼poundsperquart.

Directions1. Washtomatoes,removestems,andtrimoffbruisedordiscoloredportions.

Topreventjuicefromseparating,quicklycutabout1poundoffruitinto

quartersandputdirectlyintosaucepan.Heatimmediatelytoboilingwhilecrushing.

2. Continuetoslowlyaddandcrushfreshlycuttomatoquarterstotheboilingmixture.Makesurethemixtureboilsconstantlyandvigorouslywhileyouaddtheremainingtomatoes.Simmer5minutesafteryouaddallpieces.

3. Pressheatedjuicethroughasieveorfoodmilltoremoveskinsandseeds.Addbottledlemonjuiceorcitricacidtojars.Heatjuiceagaintoboiling.

4. Add1teaspoonofsaltperquarttothejars,ifdesired.Filljarswithhottomatojuice,leaving½-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsandprocess.

ProcessTimesforTomatoJuiceinaBoiling-WaterCanner*

ProcessTimesforTomatoJuiceinaDial-GaugePressureCanner*

ProcessTimesforTomatoJuiceinaWeighted-GaugePressureCanner*

CrushedTomatoeswithNoAddedLiquid

Crushedtomatoesaregreatforuseinsoups,stews,thicksauces,andcasseroles.

Simmercrushedtomatoeswithkidneybeans,chilipowder,sautéedonions,andgarlictomakeaneasypotofchili.

QuantityAnaverageof22poundsisneededpercannerloadofsevenquarts.Anaverageof14freshpoundsisneededpercannerloadofninepints.Abushelweighs53poundsandyields17to20quartsofcrushedtomatoes—anaverageof2¾poundsperquart.

Directions1. Washtomatoesanddipinboilingwaterfor30to60secondsoruntilskins

split.Thendipincoldwater,slipoffskins,andremovecores.Trimoffanybruisedordiscoloredportionsandquarter.

2. Heat⅙ofthequartersquicklyinalargepot,crushingthemwithawoodenmalletorspoonastheyareaddedtothepot.Thiswillexudejuice.Continueheatingthetomatoes,stirringtopreventburning.

3. Oncethetomatoesareboiling,graduallyaddremainingquarteredtomatoes,stirringconstantly.Theseremainingtomatoesdonotneedtobecrushed;theywillsoftenwithheatingandstirring.Continueuntilalltomatoesareadded.Thenboilgently5minutes.

4. Addbottledlemonjuiceorcitricacidtojars.Add1teaspoonofsaltperquarttothejars,ifdesired.Filljarsimmediatelywithhottomatoes,leaving½-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsandprocess.

ProcessTimesforCrushedTomatoesinaDial-GaugePressureCanner*

ProcessTimesforCrushedTomatoesinaWeighted-GaugePressureCanner*

ProcessTimesforCrushedTomatoesinaBoiling-WaterCanner*

TomatoSauce

Thisplaintomatosaucecanbespicedupbeforeusinginsoupsorinpinkorredsauces.Thethickeryouwantyoursauce,themoretomatoesyou’llneed.

Quantity

Forthinsauce:Anaverageof35poundsisneededpercannerloadofsevenquarts.Anaverageof21poundsisneededpercannerloadofninepints.Abushelweighs53poundsandyields10to12quartsofsauce—anaverageoffivepoundsperquart.

Forthicksauce:Anaverageof46poundsisneededpercannerloadofsevenquarts.Anaverageof28poundsisneededpercannerloadofninepints.Abushelweighs53poundsandyieldsseventoninequartsofsauce—anaverageof6½poundsperquart.

Directions1. Prepareandpressasformakingtomatojuice(seepage109).Simmerina

largesaucepanuntilsaucereachesdesiredconsistency.Boiluntilvolumeisreducedbyaboutone-thirdforthinsauce,orbyone-halfforthicksauce.

2. Addbottledlemonjuiceorcitricacidtojars.Add1teaspoonofsaltperquarttothejars,ifdesired.Filljars,leaving¼-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsandprocess.

ProcessTimesforTomatoSauceinaBoiling-WaterCanner*

ProcessTimesforTomatoSauceinaDial-GaugePressureCanner*

ProcessTimesforTomatoSauceinaWeighted-GaugePressureCanner*

Tomatoes,WholeorHalved,PackedinWater

Wholeorhalvedtomatoesareusedforscallopedtomatoes,savorypies(bakedinapastrycrustwithparmesancheese,mayonnaise,andseasonings),orstewedtomatoes.

QuantityAnaverageof21poundsisneededpercannerloadofsevenquarts.Anaverageof13poundsisneededpercannerloadofninepints.Abushelweighs53poundsandyields15to21quarts—anaverageofthreepoundsperquart.

Directions1. Washtomatoes.Dipinboilingwaterfor30to60secondsoruntilskins

split;thendipincoldwater.Slipoffskinsandremovecores.Leavewholeorhalve.

2. Addbottledlemonjuiceorcitricacidtojars.Add1teaspoonofsaltperquarttothejars,ifdesired.Forhotpackproducts,addenoughwatertocoverthetomatoesandboilthemgentlyfor5minutes.

3. Filljarswithhottomatoesorwithrawpeeledtomatoes.Addthehotcookingliquidtothehotpack,orhotwaterforrawpacktocover,leaving½-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsandprocess.

ProcessTimesforWater-PackedWholeTomatoesinaBoiling-WaterCanner*

ProcessTimesforWater-PackedWholeTomatoesinaDial-GaugePressureCanner*

ProcessTimesforWater-PackedWholeTomatoesinaWeighted-GaugePressureCanner*

SpaghettiSaucewithoutMeat

Homemadespaghettisauceislikeacompletelydifferentfoodthanstore-boughtvarieties—ittastesfresher,ismoreflavorful,andisfarmorenutritious.Adjustspicestotaste,butdonotincreaseproportionsofonions,peppers,ormushrooms.Thisrecipeyieldsaboutninepints.

Ingredients

30lbstomatoes

1cupchoppedonions

5clovesgarlic,minced

1cupchoppedceleryorgreenpepper

1lbfreshmushrooms,sliced(optional)

4½tspsalt

2tbsporegano

4tbspmincedparsley

2tspblackpepper

¼cupbrownsugar

¼cupvegetableoil

Directions1. Washtomatoesanddipinboilingwaterfor30to60secondsoruntilskins

split.Dipincoldwaterandslipoffskins.Removecoresandquartertomatoes.Boil20minutes,uncovered,inlargesaucepan.Putthroughfoodmillorsieve.

2. Sautéonions,garlic,celery,orpeppers,andmushrooms(ifdesired)invegetableoiluntiltender.Combinesautéedvegetablesandtomatoesandaddspices,salt,andsugar.Bringtoaboil.

3. Simmeruncovered,untilthickenoughforserving.Stirfrequentlytoavoidburning.Filljars,leaving1-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsandprocess.

ProcessTimesforSpaghettiSaucewithoutMeatinaDial-GaugePressureCanner*

ProcessTimesforSpaghettiSaucewithoutMeatinaWeighted-GaugePressureCanner*

TomatoKetchup

Ketchupformsthebaseofseveralcondiments,includingThousandIslanddressing,frysauce,andbarbecuesauce.And,ofcourse,it’sanAmericanfavoriteinitsownright.Thisrecipeyieldssixtosevenpints.

Ingredients

24lbsripetomatoes

3cupschoppedonions

¾tspgroundredpepper(cayenne)

4tspwholecloves

3stickscinnamon,crushed

1-½tspwholeallspice

3tbspceleryseeds

3cupscidervinegar(5percentaceticacid)

1-½cupssugar

¼cupsalt

Directions1. Washtomatoes.Dipinboilingwaterfor30to60secondsoruntilskins

split.Dipincoldwater.Slipoffskinsandremovecores.Quartertomatoesinto4-gallonstockpotoralargekettle.Addonionsandredpepper.Bringtoboilandsimmer20minutes,uncovered.

2. Combineremainingspicesinaspicebagandaddtovinegarina2-quartsaucepan.Bringtoboil.Turnoffheatandletstanduntiltomatomixturehasbeencooked20minutes.Then,removespicebagandcombinevinegarandtomatomixture.Boilabout30minutes.

3. Putboiledmixturethroughafoodmillorsieve.Returntopot.Addsugarandsalt,boilgently,andstirfrequentlyuntilvolumeisreducedbyone-halforuntilmixtureroundsuponspoonwithoutseparation.Fillpintjars,leaving1/8-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsandprocess.

ProcessTimesforTomatoKetchupinaBoiling-WaterCanner*

ChileSalsa(HotTomato-PepperSauce)

Forfantasticnachos,covercornchipswithchilesalsa,addshreddedMontereyjackorcheddarcheese,bakeunderbroilerforaboutfiveminutes,andservewithguacamoleandsourcream.Besuretowearrubbergloveswhilehandlingchilesorwashhandsthoroughlywithsoapandwaterbeforetouchingyourface.Thisrecipeyieldssixtoeightpints.

Ingredients

5lbstomatoes

2lbschilepeppers

1lbonions

1cupvinegar(5percent)

3tspsalt

½tsppepper

Directions1. Washanddrychiles.Sliteachpepperonitssidetoallowsteamtoescape.

Peelpeppersusingoneofthefollowingmethods:Ovenorbroilermethod:

Placechilesinoven(400°F)orbroilerfor6to8minutesuntilskinsblister.Coolandslipoffskins.

Range-topmethod:

Coverhotburner,eithergasorelectric,withheavywiremesh.Placechilesonburnerforseveralminutesuntilskinsblister.Allowpepperstocool.Placeinapanandcoverwithadampcloth.Thiswillmakepeelingthepepperseasier.Afterseveralminutes,peeleachpepper.

2. Discardseedsandchoppeppers.Washtomatoesanddipinboilingwaterfor30to60secondsoruntilskinssplit.Dipincoldwater,slipoffskins,andremovecores.

3. Coarselychoptomatoesandcombinechoppedpeppers,onions,andremainingingredientsinalargesaucepan.Heattoboil,andsimmer10minutes.Filljars,leaving½-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsandprocess.

ProcessTimesforChileSalsainaBoiling-WaterCanner*

DryingandFreezing

DryingDryingfruits,vegetables,herbs,andevenmeatisagreatwaytopreservefoodsforlonger-termstorage,especiallyifyourpantryorfreezerspaceislimited.Driedfoodstakeupmuchlessspacethantheirfresh,frozen,orcannedcounterparts.Dryingrequiresrelativelylittlepreparationtimeandissimpleenoughthatkidswillenjoyhelping.Dryingwithafooddehydratorwillensurethefastest,safest,andbest-qualityresults.However,youcanalsodryproduceinthesunshine,inyouroven,orstrungupoverawoodstove.

Formoreinformationonfooddrying,checkoutSoEasytoPreserve,5thed.fromtheCooperativeExtensionService,theUniversityofGeorgia.Muchoftheinformationthatfollowsisadaptedfromthisexcellentsource.

DryingwithaFoodDehydrator

Fooddehydratorsuseelectricitytoproduceheatandhaveafanandventsforaircirculation.Dehydratorsareefficientlydesignedtodryfoodsfastataround140ºF.Lookforfooddehydratorsindiscountdepartmentstores,mailordercatalogs,thesmallappliancesectionofadepartmentstore,naturalfoodstores,andseedorgardensupplycatalogs.Costsvarydependingonfeatures.Somemodelsareexpandableandadditionaltrayscanbepurchasedlater.Twelvesquarefeetofdryingspacedriesaboutahalf-bushelofproduce.

DehydratorFeaturestoLookForDouble-wallconstructionofmetalorhigh-gradeplastic.Woodisnotrecommended,becauseitisafirehazardandisdifficulttoclean.EnclosedheatingelementsCountertopdesignAnenclosedthermostatfrom85to160ºFFanorblower

Fourto10openmeshtraysmadeofsturdy,lightweightplasticforeasywashingUnderwritersLaboratory(UL)sealofapprovalAone-yearguaranteeConvenientserviceAdialforregulatingtemperatureAtimer.Oftenthecompleteddryingtimemayoccurduringthenight,andatimerturnsthedehydratorofftopreventscorching.

TypesofDehydrators

Therearetwobasicdesignsfordehydrators.Onehashorizontalairflowandtheotherhasverticalairflow.Inunitswithhorizontalflow,theheatingelementandfanarelocatedonthesideoftheunit.Themajoradvantagesofhorizontalfloware:itreducesflavormixturesoseveraldifferentfoodscanbedriedatonetime;alltraysreceiveequalheatpenetration;andjuicesorliquidsdonotdripdownintotheheatingelement.Verticalairflowdehydratorshavetheheatingelementandfanlocatedatthebase.Ifdifferentfoodsaredried,flavorscanmixandliquidscandripintotheheatingelement.

FruitDryingProcedures

Apples—Selectmature,firmapples.Washwell.Pare,ifdesired,andcore.Cutinringsorslices⅛to¼inchthickorcutinquartersoreighths.Soakinascorbicacid,vinegar,orlemonjuicefor10minutes.Removefromsolutionand

drainwell.Arrangeinsinglelayerontrays,pitsideup.Dryuntilsoft,pliable,andleathery;thereshouldbenomoistareaincenterwhencut.

Apricots—Selectfirm,fullyripefruit.Washwell.Cutinhalfandremovepit.Donotpeel.Soakinascorbicacid,vinegar,orlemonjuicefor10minutes.Removefromsolutionanddrainwell.Arrangeinsinglelayerontrays,pitsideupwithcavitypoppeduptoexposemorefleshtotheair.Dryuntilsoft,pliable,andleathery;thereshouldbenomoistareaincenterwhencut.

Bananas—Selectfirm,ripefruit.Peel.Cutin⅛-inchslices.Soakinascorbicacid,vinegar,orlemonjuicefor10minutes.Removeanddrainwell.Arrangeinsinglelayerontrays.Dryuntiltoughandleathery.

Berries—Selectfirm,ripefruit.Washwell.Leavewholeorcutinhalf.Dipinboilingwater30secondstocrackskins.Arrangeondryingtraysnotmorethantwoberriesdeep.Dryuntilhardandberriesrattlewhenshakenontrays.

Cherries—Selectfullyripefruit.Washwell.Removestemsandpits.Dipwholecherriesinboilingwater30secondstocrackskins.Arrangeinsinglelayerontrays.Dryuntiltough,leathery,andslightlysticky.

Citruspeel—Selectthick-skinnedorangeswithnosignsofmoldordecayandnocoloraddedtoskin.Scruborangeswellwithbrushundercoolrunningwater.Thinlypeelouter to⅛inchofthepeel;avoidwhitebitterpart.Soakinascorbicacid,vinegar,orlemonjuicefor10minutes.Removefromsolutionanddrainwell.Arrangeinsinglelayersontrays.Dryat130°Ffor1to2hours,then

at120°Funtilcrisp.

Figs—Selectfullyripefruit.Washorcleanwellwithdamptowel.Peeldark-skinnedvarietiesifdesired.Leavewholeifsmallorpartlydriedontree;cutlargefigsinhalvesorslices.Ifdryingwholefigs,crackskinsbydippinginboilingwaterfor30seconds.Forcutfigs,soakinascorbicacid,vinegar,orlemonjuicefor10minutes.Removeanddrainwell.Arrangeinsinglelayersontrays.Dryuntilleatheryandpliable.

Grapesandblackcurrants—Selectseedlessvarieties.Wash,sort,andremovestems.Cutinhalforleavewhole.Ifdryingwhole,crackskinsbydippinginboilingwaterfor30seconds.Ifhalved,dipinascorbicacidorotherantimicrobialsolutionfor10minutes.Removeanddrainwell.Dryuntilpliableandleatherywithnomoistcenter.

Melons—Selectmature,firmfruitsthatareheavyfortheirsize;cantaloupedriesbetterthanwatermelon.Scruboutersurfacewellwithbrushundercoolrunningwater.Removeouterskin,anyfibroustissue,andseeds.Cutinto¼-to½-inch-thickslices.Soakinascorbicacid,vinegar,orlemonjuicefor10minutes.Removeanddrainwell.Arrangeinsinglelayerontrays.Dryuntilleatheryandpliablewithnopocketsofmoisture.

Nectarinesandpeaches—Selectripe,firmfruit.Washandpeel.Cutinhalfandremovepit.Cutinquartersorslicesifdesired.Soakinascorbicacid,vinegar,orlemonjuicefor10minutes.Removeanddrainwell.Arrangeinsinglelayerontrays,pitsideup.Turnhalvesoverwhenvisiblejuicedisappears.Dryuntilleatheryandsomewhatpliable.

Pears—Selectripe,firmfruit.Bartlettvarietyisrecommended.Washfruitwell.Pare,ifdesired.Cutinhalflengthwiseandcore.Cutinquarters,eighths,orslices⅛to¼inchthick.Soakinascorbicacid,vinegar,orlemonjuicefor10minutes.Removeanddrain.Arrangeinsinglelayerontrays,pitsideup.Dryuntilspringyandsuede-likewithnopocketsofmoisture.

Plumsandprunes—Washwell.Leavewholeifsmall;cutlargefruitintohalves(pitremoved)orslices.Ifleftwhole,crackskinsinboilingwater1to2minutes.Ifcutinhalf,dipinascorbicacidorotherantimicrobialsolutionfor10minutes.Removeanddrain.Arrangeinsinglelayerontrays,pitsideup,cavitypoppedout.Dryuntilpliableandleathery;inwholeprunes,pitshouldnotslipwhensqueezed.

FruitLeathers

Fruitleathersareatastyandnutritiousalternativetostore-boughtcandiesthatarefullofartificialsweetenersandpreservatives.Blendtheleftoverfruitpulpfrommakingjellyorusefresh,frozen,ordrainedcannedfruit.Ripeorslightlyoverripefruitworksbest.

Chancesarethefruitleatherwillgeteatenbeforeitmakesitintothecupboard,butitcankeepuptoonemonthatroomtemperature.Forstorageuptooneyear,placetightlywrappedrollsinthefreezer.

Ingredients

2cupsfruit2tsplemonjuiceor⅛tspascorbicacid(optional)¼to½cupsugar,cornsyrup,orhoney(optional)

Directions1. Washfreshfruitorberriesincoolwater.Removepeel,seeds,andstem.

2. Cutfruitintochunks.Use2cupsoffruitforeach13x15-inchinchfruitleather.Puréefruituntilsmooth.

3. Add2teaspoonsoflemonjuiceor⅛teaspoonascorbicacid(375mg)foreach2cupslight-coloredfruittopreventdarkening.

4. Optional:Tosweeten,addcornsyrup,honey,orsugar.Cornsyruporhoneyisbestforlongerstoragebecausethesesweetenerspreventcrystals.Sugarisfineforimmediateuseorshortstorage.Use¼to½cupsugar,cornsyrup,orhoneyforeach2cupsoffruit.Avoidaspartamesweetenersastheymaylosesweetnessduringdrying.

5. Pourtheleather.Fruitleatherscanbepouredintoasinglelargesheet(13x15inches)orintoseveralsmallersizes.Spreadpuréeevenly,about⅛inchthick,ontodryingtray.Avoidpouringpuréetooclosetotheedgeofthecookiesheet.

6. Drytheleather.Dryfruitleathersat140ºF.Leatherdriesfromtheoutsideedgetowardthecenter.

Hints:Applesaucecanbedriedaloneoraddedtoanyfreshfruitpuréeasanextender;itdecreasestartnessandmakestheleathersmootherandmorepliable.Todryfruitintheoven,a13x15-inchcookiepanwithedgesworkswell.Linepanwithplasticwrap,beingcarefultosmoothoutwrinkles.Donotusewaxedpaperoraluminumfoil.

Largerfruitleatherstakelongertodry.Approximatedryingtimesare6to8hoursinadehydrator,upto18hoursinanoven,and1to2daysinthesun.Testfordrynessbytouchingcenterofleather;noindentationshouldbeevident.Whilewarm,peelfromplasticandroll,allowtocool,andrewraptherollinplastic.Cookiecutterscanbeusedtocutoutshapesthatchildrenwillenjoy.Roll,andwrapinplastic.

Spices,Flavors,andGarnishes

Toaddinteresttoyourfruitleathers,includespices,flavorings,orgarnishes.

Spicestotry—Allspice,cinnamon,cloves,coriander,ginger,mace,mint,nutmeg,orpumpkinpiespice.Usesparingly;startwith⅛teaspoonforeach2cupsofpurée.Flavoringstotry—Almondextract,lemonjuice,lemonpeel,limejuice,limepeel,orangeextract,orangejuice,orangepeel,orvanillaextract.Usesparingly;try⅛to¼teaspoonforeach2cupsofpurée.Deliciousadditionstotry—Shreddedcoconut,choppeddates,otherdriedchoppedfruits,granola,miniaturemarshmallows,choppednuts,choppedraisins,poppyseeds,sesameseeds,orsunflowerseeds.Fillingstotry—Meltedchocolate,softenedcreamcheese,cheesespreads,jam,preserves,marmalade,marshmallowcream,orpeanutbutter.Spreadoneormoreoftheseontheleatherafteritisdriedandthenroll.Storeinrefrigerator.

VegetableLeathers

Pumpkin,mixedvegetables,andtomatoesmakegreatleathers.Justpuréecookedvegetables,strain,spreadonatraylinedwithplasticwrap,anddry.Spicescanbeaddedforflavoring.

Mixed-VegetableLeather

2cupscored,cut-uptomatoes1smallonion,chopped¼cupchoppedcelerySalttotaste

Combineallingredientsinacoveredsaucepanandcookoverlowheat15to20minutes.Puréeorforcethroughasieveorcolander.Returntosaucepanandcookuntilthickened.Spreadonacookiesheetortraylinedwithplasticwrap.Dryat140ºF.

PumpkinLeather

2cupscannedpumpkinor2cupsfreshpumpkin,cookedandpuréed½cuphoney¼tspcinnamon⅛tspnutmeg⅛tsppowderedcloves

Blendingredientswell.Spreadontrayorcookiesheetlinedwithplasticwrap.Dryat140ºF.

TomatoLeather

Coreripetomatoesandcutintoquarters.Cookoverlowheatinacoveredsaucepan,15to20minutes.Puréeorforcethroughasieveorcolanderandpourintoelectricfrypanorshallowpan.Addsalttotasteandcookoverlowheatuntilthickened.Spreadonacookiesheetortraylinedwithplasticwrap.Dryat140ºF.

VineDrying

Onemethodofdryingoutdoorsisvinedrying.Todrybeans(navy,kidney,butter,greatnorthern,lima,lentils,andsoybeans)leavebeanpodsonthevineinthegardenuntilthebeansinsiderattle.Whenthevinesandpodsaredryandshriveled,pickthebeansandshellthem.Nopretreatmentisnecessary.Ifbeansarestillmoist,thedryingprocessisnotcompleteandthebeanswillmoldifnotmorethoroughlydried.Ifneeded,dryingcanbecompletedinthesun,anoven,oradehydrator.

HowtoMakeaWoodstoveFoodDehydrator1. Collectpliablewiremeshorscreens(availableathardwarestores)anduse

wirecutterstotrimtosquares12to16inchesoneachside.Thetraysshouldbeofthesamesizeandshape.Benduptheedgesofeachsquaretocreateahalf-inchlip.

2. AttachoneShookfromthehardwarestoreoralargepapercliptoeachsideofeachsquare(fourclipspertray)toattachthetraystogether.

3. Cutfourequallengthsofchainortwinethatwillreachfromtheceilingtothelevelofthetoptray.Useawireormetallooptoattachthefourpiecestogetheratthetopandsecuretoahookintheceilingabovethewoodstove.Attachthechainortwinetothehooksonthetoptray.

4. Touse,filltrayswithfoodtodry,startingwiththetoptray.LinktraystogetherusingtheShooksorstrongpaperclips.Whenthefoodsaredried,removetheentirestackanddisassemble.Removethedriedfoodandstore.

Dryingistheeasiestmethodofpreservingherbs.Simplyexposetheleaves,

flowers,orseedstowarm,dryair.Leavetheherbsinawell-ventilatedareauntilthemoistureevaporates.Sundryingisnotrecommendedbecausetheherbscanloseflavorandcolor.

Thebesttimetoharvestmostherbsfordryingisjustbeforetheflowersfirstopenwhentheyareinthebursting,budstage.Gathertheherbsintheearlymorningafterthedewhasevaporatedtominimizewilting.Avoidbruisingtheleaves.Theyshouldnotlieinthesunorunattendedafterharvesting.Rinseherbsincoolwaterandgentlyshaketoremoveexcessmoisture.Discardallbruised,soiled,orimperfectleavesandstems.

Dehydratordryingisanotherfastandeasywaytodryhigh-qualityherbsbecausetemperatureandaircirculationcanbecontrolled.Preheatdehydratorwiththethermostatsetto95°Fto115°F.Inareaswithhigherhumidity,temperaturesashighas125°Fmaybeneeded.Afterrinsingundercool,runningwaterandshakingtoremoveexcessmoisture,placetheherbsinasinglelayerondehydratortrays.Dryingtimesmayvaryfromonetofourhours.Checkperiodically.Herbsaredrywhentheycrumble,andstemsbreakwhenbent.Checkyourdehydratorinstructionbookletforspecificdetails.

Less-tenderherbs—Themoresturdyherbs,suchasrosemary,sage,thyme,summersavory,andparsley,aretheeasiesttodrywithoutadehydrator.Tiethemintosmallbundlesandhangthemtoairdry.Airdryingoutdoorsisoftenpossible;however,bettercolorandflavorretentionusuallyresultsfromdryingindoors.

Tender-leafherbs—Basil,oregano,tarragon,lemonbalm,andthemintshaveahighmoisturecontentandwillmoldifnotdriedquickly.Tryhangingthetender-leafherbsorthosewithseedsinsidepaperbagstodry.Tearorpunchholesinthesidesofthebag.Suspendasmallbunch(largeamountswillmold)ofherbsinabagandclosethetopwitharubberband.Placewhereaircurrentswillcirculatethroughthebag.Anyleavesandseedsthatfalloffwillbecaughtinthebottomofthebag.

Anothermethod,especiallyniceformint,sage,orbayleaf,istodrytheleavesseparately.Inareasofhighhumidity,itwillworkbetterthanairdryingwholestems.Removethebestleavesfromthestems.Laytheleavesonapapertowel,withoutallowingleavestotouch.Coverwithanothertowelandlayerofleaves.Fivelayersmaybedriedatonetimeusingthismethod.Dryinaverycooloven.Theovenlightofanelectricrangeorthepilotlightofagasrangefurnishesenoughheatforovernightdrying.Leavesdryflatandretainagoodcolor.

Microwaveovensareafastwaytodryherbswhenonlysmallquantitiesaretobeprepared.Followthedirectionsthatcomewithyourmicrowaveoven.

Whentheleavesarecrispy,dry,andcrumbleeasilybetweenthefingers,theyarereadytobepackagedandstored.Driedleavesmaybeleftwholeand

crumbledasused,orcoarselycrumbledbeforestorage.Huskscanberemovedfromseedsbyrubbingtheseedsbetweenthehandsandblowingawaythechaff.Placeherbsinairtightcontainersandstoreinacool,dry,darkareatoprotectcolorandfragrance.

Driedherbsareusuallythreetofourtimesstrongerthanthefreshherbs.Tosubstitutedriedherbsinarecipethatcallsforfreshherbs,use¼to1⁄3oftheamountlistedintherecipe.

Jerkyisgreatforhikingorcampingbecauseitsuppliesproteininaverylightweightform—nottomentionthefactthatitcanbeverytasty.Apoundofmeatorpoultryweighsaboutfourouncesafterbeingmadeintojerky.Inaddition,becausemostofthemoistureisremoved,itcanbestoredforonetotwomonthswithoutrefrigeration.

JerkyhasbeenaroundsincetheancientEgyptiansbegandryinganimalmeatthatwastoobigtoeatallatonce.NativeAmericansmixedgrounddriedmeatwithdriedfruitorsuettomakepemmican.BiltongisdriedmeatorgameusedinmanyAfricancountries.TheEnglishwordjerkycamefromtheSpanishwordcharque,whichmeans“dried,saltedmeat.”

Dryingistheworld’soldestandmostcommonmethodoffoodpreservation.Enzymesrequiremoistureinordertoreactwithfood.Byremovingthemoisture,youpreventthisbiologicalaction.

Jerkycanbemadefromgroundmeat,whichisoftenlessexpensivethanstripsofmeatandallowsyoutocombinedifferentkindsofmeatifdesired.Youcanalsomakeitintoanyshapeyouwant!Aswithstripsofmeat,aninternaltemperatureof160ºFisnecessarytoeliminatedisease-causingbacteriasuchasE.coli,ifpresent.

FoodSafety

TheUSDAMeatandPoultryHotline’scurrentrecommendationformakingjerkysafelyistoheatmeatto160°Fandpoultryto165°Fbeforethedehydratingprocess.Thisensuresthatanybacteriapresentaredestroyedbyheat.Ifyourfooddehydratordoesn’theatupto160°F,it’simportanttocookmeatslightlyintheovenorbysteamingbeforedrying.Afterheating,maintainaconstantdehydratortemperatureof130°Fto140°Fduringthedryingprocess.

AccordingtotheUSDA,youshouldalways:Washhandsthoroughlywithsoapandwaterbeforeandafterworkingwithmeatproducts.Usecleanequipmentandutensils.Keepmeatandpoultryrefrigeratedat40°Forslightlybelow;useorfreezegroundbeefandpoultrywithintwodays,andwholeredmeatswithinthreetofivedays.Defrostfrozenmeatintherefrigerator,notonthekitchencounter.Marinatemeatintherefrigerator.Don’tsavemarinadetore-use.Marinadesareusedtotenderizeandflavorthejerkybeforedehydratingit.Ifyourfooddehydratordoesn’theatupto160°F(or165°Fforpoultry),steamorroastmeatbeforedehydratingit.Drymeatsinafooddehydratorthathasanadjustabletemperaturedialandwillmaintainatemperatureofatleast130°Fto140°Fthroughoutthedryingprocess.

PreparingtheMeat1. Partiallyfreezemeattomakeslicingeasier.Slicemeatacrossthegrain⅛to

¼inchthick.Trimanddiscardallfat,gristle,andmembranesorconnectivetissue.

2. Marinatethemeatinacombinationofoil,salt,spices,vinegar,lemonjuice,teriyaki,soysauce,beer,orwine.

MarinatedJerky

¼cupsoysauce1tbspWorcestershiresauce1tspbrownsugar¼tspblackpepper½tspfreshginger,finelygrated1tspsalt

1½to2lbsofleanmeatstrips(beef,pork,orvenison)1. Combineallingredientsexceptthestrips,andblend.Addmeat,stir,cover,

andrefrigerateatleastonehour.2. Ifyourfooddehydratordoesn’theatupto160°F,bringstripsandmarinade

toaboilandcookfor5minutes.3. Drainmeatinacolanderandabsorbextramoisturewithclean,absorbent

papertowels.Arrangestripsinasinglelayerondehydratortrays,oroncakeracksplacedonbakingsheetsforovendrying.

4. Placetheracksinadehydratororovenpreheatedto140ºF,or160°Fifthemeatwasn’tprecooked.Dryuntilatestpiececracksbutdoesnotbreakwhenitisbent(10to24hoursforsamplesnotheatedinmarinade,3to6hoursforpreheatedmeat).Useapapertoweltopatoffanyexcessoilfromstrips,andpackinsealedjars,plasticbags,orplasticcontainers.

FreezingFoodsManyfoodspreservewellinthefreezerandcanmakepreparingmealseasywhenyouareshortontime.Ifyoumakeabigpotofsoup,serveitfordinner,putasmallcontainerintherefrigeratorforlunchthenextday,andthensticktherestinthefreezer.Afewweekslater,you’llbereadytoeatitagainanditwillonlytakeafewminutestothawoutandserve.Manyfruitsalsofreezewellandareperfectforuseinsmoothiesanddesserts,orservedwithyogurtforbreakfastordessert.Vegetablesfrozenshortlyafterharvestingkeepmanyofthenutrientsfoundinfreshvegetablesandwilltastedeliciouswhencooked.

ContainersforFreezing

Thebestpackagingmaterialsforfreezingincluderigidcontainerssuchasjars,bottles,orTupperware,andfreezerbagsoraluminumfoil.Sturdycontainerswithrigidsidesareespeciallygoodforliquidssuchassouporjuicebecausetheymakethefrozencontentsmucheasiertogetout.Theyarealsogenerallyreusableandmakeiteasiertostackfoodsintherefrigerator.Whenusingrigidcontainers,besuretoleaveheadspacesothatthecontainerwon’texplodewhenthecontentsexpandwithfreezing.Coversforrigidcontainersshouldfittightly.Iftheydonot,reinforcethesealwithfreezertape.Freezertapeisspeciallydesignedtostickatfreezingtemperatures.Freezerbagsoraluminumfoilaregoodformeats,breadsandbakedgoods,orfruitsandvegetablesthatdon’tcontainmuchliquid.Besuretoremoveasmuchairaspossiblefrombagsbeforeclosing.

HeadspacetoAllowBetweenPackedFoodandClosure

Headspaceistheamountofemptyairleftbetweenthefoodandthelid.Headspaceisnecessarybecausefoodsexpandwhenfrozen.

FoodsThatDoNotFreezeWell

Food Usual Use Condit ionAfterThawing

Cabbage*,celery,cress,cucumbers*,

Asrawsalad Limp,waterlogged;quicklydevelops

endive,lettuce,parsley,radishes

oxidizedcolor,aroma,andflavor

Irishpotatoes,bakedorboiled

Insoups,salads,saucesorwithbutter

Soft,crumbly,waterlogged,mealy

Cookedmacaroni,spaghetti,orrice

Whenfrozenaloneforlateruse Mushy,tasteswarmedover

Eggwhites,cooked

Insalads,creamedfoods,sandwiches,sauces,gravy,ordesserts

Soft,tough,rubbery,spongy

Meringue Indesserts Soft,tough,rubbery,spongy

Icingsmadefromeggwhites

Cakes,cookies Frothy,weeps

Creamorcustard Pies,bakedgoods Separates,watery,

Creamorcustardfillings

Pies,bakedgoods Separates,watery,lumpy

Milksauces Forcasserolesorgravies Maycurdleorseparate

Sourcream Astopping,insalads Separates,watery

Cheeseorcrumbtoppings

Oncasseroles Soggy

Mayonnaiseorsaladdressing

Onsandwiches(notinsalads) Separates

Gelatin Insaladsordesserts Weeps

Fruitjelly Sandwiches Maysoakbread

Friedfoods AllexceptFrenchfriedpotatoesandonionrings

Losecrispness,becomesoggy

*Cucumbersandcabbagecanbefrozenasmarinatedproductssuchas“freezerslaw”or“freezerpickles.”Thesedonothavethesametextureasregularslaworpickles.

EffectofFreezingonSpicesandSeasoningsPepper,cloves,garlic,greenpepper,imitationvanilla,andsomeherbstendtogetstrongandbitter.Onionandpaprikachangeflavorduringfreezing.Celeryseasoningsbecomestronger.Currydevelopsamustyoff-flavor.Saltlosesflavorandhasthetendencytoincreaserancidityofanyitemcontainingfat.Whenusingseasoningsandspices,seasonlightlybeforefreezing,andaddadditionalseasoningswhenreheatingorserving.

HowtoFreezeVegetables

Becausemanyvegetablescontainenzymesthatwillcausethemtolosecolorwhenfrozen,youmaywanttoblancheyourvegetablesbeforeputtingtheminthefreezer.Todothis,firstwashthevegetablesthoroughly,peelifdesired,andchopthemintobite-sizepieces.Thenpourthemintoboilingwaterforacoupleofminutes(orcooklongerforverydensevegetables,suchasbeets),drain,andimmediatelydunkthevegetablesinicewatertostopthemfromcookingfurther.Useapapertowelorclothtoabsorbexcesswaterfromthevegetables,andthenpackinresealableairtightbagsorplasticcontainers.

BlanchingTimesforVegetables

Artichokes 3–6minutes

Asparagus 2–3minutes

Beans 2–3minutes

Beets 30-40minutes

Broccoli 3minutes

Brusselssprouts 4–5minutes

Cabbage 3–4minutes

Carrots 2–5minutes

Cauliflower 6minutes

Celery 3minutes

Corn(offthecob) 2–3minutes

Eggplant 4minutes

Okra 3–4minutes

Peas 1–2minutes

Peppers 2–3minutes

Squash 2–3minutes

TurnipsorParsnips 2minutes

HowtoFreezeFruits

Manyfruitsfreezeeasilyandareperfectforuseinbaking,smoothies,orsauces.Wash,peel,andcorefruitbeforefreezing.Toeasilypeelpeaches,nectarines,orapricots,diptheminboilingwaterfor15to20secondstoloosentheskins.Thenchillandremovetheskinsandstones.

Berriesshouldbefrozenimmediatelyafterharvestingandcanbefrozeninasinglelayeronapapertowel-–linedtrayorcookiesheettokeepthemfromclumpingtogether.Allowthemtofreezeuntilhard(about3hours)andthenpourthemintoaresealableplasticbagforlong-termstorage.

Somefruitshaveatendencytoturnbrownwhenfrozen.Topreventthis,youcanaddascorbicacid(crushavitaminCinalittlewater),citrusjuice,plainsugar,orasweetsyrup(1partsugarand2partswater)tothefruitbeforefreezing.Apples,pears,andbananasarebestfrozenwithascorbicacidorcitrusjuice,whileberries,peaches,nectarines,apricots,pineapple,melons,andberriesarebetterfrozenwithasugarysyrup.

HowtoFreezeMeat

Besureyourmeatisfreshbeforefreezing.Trimoffexcessfatsandremovebones,ifdesired.Separatethemeatintoportionsthatwillbeeasytousewhen

preparingmealsandwrapinfoilorplaceinresealableplasticbagsorplasticcontainers.Refertothecharttodeterminehowlongyourmeatwilllastatbestqualityinyourfreezer.

Meat Months

Baconandsausage 1to2

Ham,hotdogs,andlunchmeats 1to2

Meat,uncookedroasts 4to12

Meat,uncookedsteaksorchops 4to12

Meat,uncookedground 3to4

Meat,cooked 2to3

Poultry,uncookedwhole 12

Poultry,uncookedparts 9

Poultry,uncookedgiblets 3to4

Poultry,cooked 4

Wildgame,uncooked 8to12

EdibleWildPlantsandMushrooms

WildVegetables,Fruits,andNuts

Description:Agaveplantshavelargeclustersofthickleavesthatgrowaroundonestalk.Theygrowclosetothegroundandonlyfloweroncebeforedying.

Location:Agavelikedry,openareasandarefoundinthedesertsoftheAmericanwest.

EdiblePartsandPreparing:Onlyagaveflowersandbudsareedible.Boilthesebeforeconsuming.Thejuicecanbecollectedfromtheflowerstalkfordrinking.

OtherUses:Mostagaveplantshavethickneedlesonthetipsoftheirleavesthatcanbeusedforsewing.

Asparagus

Description:Whenfirstgrowing,asparaguslookslikeacollectionofgreenfingers.Oncemature,theplanthasfernlikefoliageandredberries(whicharetoxicifeaten).Theflowersaresmallandgreenandseveralspecieshavesharp,

thornlikeprojections.

Location:Itcanbefoundgrowingwildinfieldsandalongfences.AsparagusisfoundintemperateareasintheUnitedStates.

EdiblePartsandPreparing:Itisbesttoeattheyoungstems,beforeanyleavesgrow.Steamorboilthemfor10to15minutesbeforeconsuming.Therootsareagoodsourceofstarch,butdon’teatanypartoftheplantraw,asitcouldcausenauseaordiarrhea.

Description:Beechtreesarelargeforesttrees.Theyhavesmooth,lightgraybark,verydarkleaves,andclustersofpricklyseedpods.

Location:Beechtreesprefertogrowinmoist,forestedareas.ThesetreesarefoundintheTemperateZoneintheeasternUnitedStates.

EdiblePartsandPreparing:Eatmaturebeechnutsbybreakingthethinshellswithyourfingersandremovingthesweet,whitekernelfoundinside.Thesenutscanalsobeusedasasubstituteforcoffeebyroastingthemuntilthekernelturnshardandgoldenbrown.Mashupthekernelandboilorsteepinhotwater.

BlackberryandRaspberry

Description:Theseplantshavepricklystemsthatgrowuprightandthenarchbacktowardtheground.Theyhavealternatingleavesandgrowredorblackfruit.

Location:Blackberryandraspberryplantsprefertogrowinwide,sunnyareasnearwoods,lakes,androads.Theygrowintemperateareas.

EdiblePartsandPreparing:Boththefruitsandpeeledyoungshootscanbeeaten.Theleavescanbeusedtomaketea.

Burdock

Description:Burdockhaswavy-edged,arrow-shapedleaves.Itsflowersgrowinburrlikeclustersandarepurpleorpink.Therootsarelargeandfleshy.

Location:Thisplantpreferstogrowinopenwasteareasduringthespringandsummer.ItcanbefoundintheTemperateZoneinthenorth.

EdiblePartsandPreparing:Thetenderleavesgrowingonthestalkscanbeeatenraworcooked.Therootscanbeboiledorbaked.

Cattail

Description:Theseplantsaregrasslikeandhaveleavesshapedlikestraps.Themaleflowersgrowabovethefemaleflowers;haveabundant,brightyellowpollen;anddieoffquickly.Thefemaleflowersbecomethebrowncattails.

Location:Cattailsliketogrowinfull-sunareasnearlakes,streams,rivers,andbrackishwater.Theycanbefoundalloverthecountry.

EdiblePartsandPreparing:Thetender,youngshootscanbeeateneitherraworcooked.Therhizome(rootstalk)canbepoundedandmadeintoflour.Whenthecattailisimmature,thefemaleflowercanbeharvested,boiled,andeatenlikecornonthecob.

OtherUses:Thecottonyseedsofthecattailplantaregreatforstuffingpillows.Burningdriedcattailshelpsrepelinsects.

Chicory

Description:Thisisquiteatallplant,withclustersofleavesatthebaseofthestemandveryfewleavesonthestemitself.Theflowersareskyblueincolorandopenonlyonsunnydays.Itproducesamilkyjuice.

Location:Chicorygrowsinfields,wasteareas,andalongsideroads.Itgrowsprimarilyasaweedallthroughoutthecountry.

EdiblePartsandPreparing:Theentireplantisedible.Theyoungleavescanbeeateninasalad.Theleavesandrootsmayalsobeboiledasyouwouldregularvegetables.Roasttherootsuntiltheyaredarkbrown,mashthemup,andusethemasasubstituteforcoffee.

Cranberry

Description:Thecranberryplanthastiny,alternatingleaves.Itsstemscrawlalongthegroundanditproducesredberryfruits.

Location:Cranberriesonlygrowinopen,sunny,wetareas.Theythriveinthecolderareasinthenorthernstates.

EdiblePartsandPreparing:Theberriescanbeeatenraw,thoughtheyarebestwhencookedinasmallamountofwater,addingalittlebitofsugarifdesired.

Dandelion

Description:Theseplantshavejaggedleavesandgrowclosetotheground.Theyhavebrightyellowflowers.

Location:Dandelionsgrowinalmostanyopen,sunnyspaceintheUnitedStates.

EdiblePartsandPreparing:Allpartsofthisplantareedible.Theleavescanbeeatenraworcookedandtherootsboiled.Roastedandgroundrootscanmakeagoodsubstituteforcoffee.

OtherUses:Thewhitejuiceintheflowerstemcanbeusedasglue.

Elderberry

Description:Thisshrubhasmanystemscontainingopposite,compoundleaves.Itsfloweriswhite,fragrant,andgrowsinlargeclusters.Itsfruitsareberry-shapedandaretypicallydarkblueorblack.

Location:Foundinopen,wetareasnearrivers,ditches,andlakes,theelderberrygrowsmainlyintheeasternstates.

EdiblePartsandPreparing:Theflowerscanbesoakedinwaterforeighthoursandthentheliquidcanbedrunk.Thefruitisalsoediblebutdon’teatanyotherpartsoftheplant—theyarepoisonous.

Hazelnut

Description:Thenutsgrowonbushesinverybristlyhusks.

Location:HazelnutgrowsindensethicketsnearstreambedsandinopenareasandcanbefoundallovertheUnitedStates.

EdiblePartsandPreparing:Intheautumn,thehazelnutripensandcanbecrackedopenandthekerneleaten.Eatingdriednutsisalsotasty.

Juniper

Description:Alsoknownascedar,thisshrubhasverysmall,scalyleavesthataredenselycrowdedonthebranches.Berrylikeconesontheplantareusuallyblueandarecoveredwithawhitishwax.

Location:Theygrowinopen,dry,sunnyplacesthroughoutthecountry.

EdiblePartsandPreparing:Bothberriesandtwigsareedible.Theberriescanbeconsumedrawortheseedsmayberoastedtomakeasubstituteforcoffee.Driedandcrushedberriesaregoodtoseasonmeat.Twigscanbemadeintotea.

Description:Thisplanthaslarge,yellowflowersandleavesthatfloatonorabovethesurfaceofthewater.Thelotusfruithasadistinct,flattenedshapeandpossessesaround20hardseeds.

Location:Foundonfreshwaterinquietareas,thelotusplantisnativetoNorthAmerica.

EdiblePartsandPreparing:Allpartsofthelotusplantareedible,raworcooked.Bakeorboilthefleshypartsthatgrowunderwaterandboilyoungleaves.Theseedsarequitenutritiousandcanbeeatenrawortheycanbegroundintoflour.

MarshMarigold

Description:Marshmarigoldhasround,darkgreenleavesandashortstem.Italsohasbrightyellowflowers.

Location:Theplantcanbefoundinbogsandlakesinthenortheasternstates.

EdiblePartsandPreparing:Allpartscanbeboiledandeaten.Donot

consumeanyportionraw.

Mulberry

Description:Themulberrytreehasalternate,lobedleaveswithroughsurfacesandblueorblackseededfruits.

Location:ThesetreesarefoundinforestedareasandnearroadsidesintemperateandtropicalregionsoftheUnitedStates.

EdiblePartsandPreparing:Thefruitcanbeconsumedeitherraworcookedanditcanalsobedried.Makesurethefruitisripeoritcancausehallucinationsandextremenausea.

Nettle

Description:Nettleplantsgrowseveralfeethighandhavesmallflowers.Thestems,leafstalks,andundersidesoftheleavesallcontainfine,hairlikebristlesthatcauseastingingsensationontheskin.

Location:Thisplantgrowsinmoistareasnearstreamsorontheedgesofforests.ItcanbefoundthroughouttheUnitedStates.

EdiblePartsandPreparing:Theyoungshootsandleavesareedible.Toeat,boiltheplantfor10to15minutes.

Description:Thesetreeshavealternatingleavesandacorns.Redoakshavebristlyleavesandsmoothbarkontheupperpartofthetreeandtheiracornsneedtwoyearstoreachmaturity.Whiteoakshaveleaveswithnobristlesandroughbarkontheupperpartofthetree.Theiracornsonlytakeoneyeartomature.

Location:Foundinvariouslocationsandhabitatsthroughoutthecountry.

EdiblePartsandPreparing:Allpartsofthetreeareedible,butmostareverybitter.Shelltheacornsandsoaktheminwaterforoneortwodaystoremovetheirtannicacid.Boiltheacornstoeatorgrindthemintoflourforbaking.

PalmettoPalm

Description:Thisisatalltreewithnobranchesandhasacontinualleafbaseonthetrunk.Theleavesarelarge,simple,andlobedandithasdarkblueorblackfruitsthatcontainahardseed.

Location:Thistreeisfoundthroughoutthesoutheasterncoast.

EdiblePartsandPreparing:Thepalmettopalmfruitcanbeeatenraw.Theseedscanalsobegroundintoflour,andtheheartofthepalmisanutritioussourceoffood,butthetopofthetreemustbecutdowninordertoreachit.

Persimmon

Description:Thepersimmontreehasalternating,ellipticalleavesthataredarkgreenincolor,andinconspicuousflowers.Ithasorangefruitsthatareverystickyandcontainmanyseeds.

Location:Growingonthemarginsofforests,itresidesintheeasternpartofthecountry.

EdiblePartsandPreparing:TheleavesprovideagoodsourceofvitaminCandcanbedriedandsoakedinhotwatertomaketea.Thefruitcanbeconsumedeitherbakedorrawandtheseedsmaybeeatenonceroasted.

Description:Pinetreeshaveneedlelikeleavesthataregroupedintobundlesofonetofiveneedles.Theyhaveaverypungent,distinguishingodor.

Location:Pinesgrowbestinsunny,openareasandarefoundallovertheUnitedStates.

EdiblePartsandPreparing:Theseedsarecompletelyedibleandcanbeconsumedeitherraworcooked.Also,theyoungmaleconescanbeboiledorbakedandeaten.Peelthebarkoffofthintwigsandchewthejuicyinnerbark.Theneedlescanbedriedandbrewedtomaketeathat’shighinvitaminC.

OtherUses:Pinetreeresincanbeusedtowaterproofitems.Collecttheresinfromthetree,putitinacontainer,heatit,anduseitasglueor,whencool,rubitonitemstowaterproofthem.

Plantain

Description:Thebroad-leafedplantaingrowsclosetothegroundandtheflowersaresituatedonaspikethatrisesfromthemiddleoftheleafcluster.Thenarrow-leafspecieshasleavescoveredwithhairsthatformarosette.Theflowersareverysmall.

Location:PlantainsgrowinlawnsandalongthesideoftheroadinthenorthernTemperateZone.

EdiblePartsandPreparing:Young,tenderleavescanbeeatenraw,andolderleavesshouldbecookedbeforeconsumption.Theseedsmayalsobeeateneitherraworroasted.Teacanalsobemadebyboiling1ounceoftheplantleavesinafewcupsofwater.

Pokeweed

Description:Arathertallplant,pokeweedhasellipticalleavesandproducesmanylargeclustersofpurplefruitsinthelatespring.

Location:PokeweedgrowsinopenandsunnyareasinfieldsandalongroadsidesintheeasternUnitedStates.

EdiblePartsandPreparing:Ifcooked,theyoungleavesandstemsareedible.Besuretoboilthemtwiceanddiscardthewaterfromthefirstboiling.Thefruitisalsoedibleifcooked.Nevereatanypartofthisplantraw,asitispoisonous.

PricklyPearCactus

Description:Thisplanthasflat,pad-likegreenstemsandround,furrydotsthatcontainsharp-pointedhairs.

Location:Foundinaridregionsandindry,sandyareasinwetterregions,itcanbefoundthroughouttheUnitedStates.

EdiblePartsandPreparing:Allpartsofthisplantareedible.Toeatthefruit,peelitorcrushittomakeajuice.Theseedscanberoastedandgroundintoflour.

ReindeerMoss

Description:Thisisalowplantthatdoesnotflower.However,itdoesproduce

brightredstructuresusedforreproduction.

Location:Itgrowsindry,openareasinmuchofthecountry.

EdiblePartsandPreparing:Whilehavingacrunchy,brittletexture,thewholeplantcanbeeaten.Toremovesomeofthebitterness,soakitinwaterandthendryandcrushit,addingittomilkorotherfoods.

Sassafras

Description:Thisshrubhasdifferentleaves—somehaveonelobe,otherstwolobes,andothershavenoneatall.Theflowersaresmallandyellowandappearintheearlyspring.Theplanthasdarkbluefruit.

Location:Sassafrasgrowsnearroadsandforestsinsunny,openareas.Itiscommonthroughouttheeasternstates.

EdiblePartsandPreparing:Theyoungtwigsandleavescanbeeateneitherfreshordried—addthemtosoups.Digouttheundergroundportionoftheshrub,peeloffthebark,anddryit.Boilitinwatertomaketea.

OtherUses:Shreddingthetendertwigswillmakeahandytoothbrush.

Spatterdock

Description:Theleavesofthisplantarequitelongandhaveatriangularnotchatthebase.Spatterdockhasyellowflowersthatbecomebottle-shapedfruits,whicharegreenwhenripe.

Location:Foundinfresh,shallowwaterthroughoutthecountry.

EdiblePartsandPreparing:Allpartsoftheplantareedibleandthefruitshavebrownseedsthatcanberoastedandgroundintoflour.Therootstockcanbedugoutofthemud,peeled,andboiled.

Strawberry

Description:Thisisasmallplantwithathree-leavedpattern.Small,whiteflowersappearinthespringtimeandthefruitisredandveryfleshy.

Location:Theseplantsprefersunny,openspaces,arecommonlyplanted,andappearinthenorthernTemperateZone.

EdiblePartsandPreparing:Thefruitcanbeeatenraw,cooked,ordried.Theplantleavesmayalsobeeatenordriedtomaketea.

Thistle

Description:Thisplantmaygrowveryhighandhaslong-pointed,pricklyleaves.

Location:Thistlegrowsinwoodsandfieldsalloverthecountry.

EdiblePartsandPreparing:Peelthestalks,cutthemintosmallersections,andboilthemtoconsume.Therootmaybeeatenraworcooked.

Walnut

Description:Walnutsgrowonlargetreesandhavedividedleaves.Thewalnuthasathick,outerhuskthatneedstoberemovedbeforegettingtothehard,innershell.

Location:Theblackwalnuttreeiscommonintheeasternstates.

EdiblePartsandPreparing:Nutkernelsbecomeripeinthefallandthemeatcanbeobtainedbycrackingtheshell.

WaterLily

Description:Withlarge,triangularleavesthatfloatonwater,theseplantshavefragrantflowersthatarewhiteorred.Theyalsohavethickrhizomesthatgrowinthemud.

Location:Waterliliesarefoundinmanytemperateareas.

EdiblePartsandPreparing:Theflowers,seeds,andrhizomescanbeeateneitherraworcooked.Peelthecorkyrindoffoftherhizomeandeatitraworsliceitthinly,dryit,andgrindintoflour.Theseedscanalsobemadeintoflourafterdrying,parching,andgrinding.

WildGrapevine

Description:Thisvinewillclimbontendrils,andmostoftheseplantsproducedeeplylobedleaves.Thegrapesgrowinpyramidalbunchesandareblack-blue,amber,orwhitewhenripe.

Location:Climbingoverothervegetationontheedgesofforestedareas,theycanbefoundintheeasternandsouthwesternpartsoftheUnitedStates.

EdiblePartsandPreparing:Onlytheripegrapecanbeeaten.

WildOnionandGarlic

Description:Thesearerecognizedbytheirdistinctiveodors.

Location:Theyarefoundinopenareasthatgetlotsofsunthroughouttemperateareas.

EdiblePartsandPreparing:Thebulbsandyoungleavesareedibleandcanbeconsumedeitherraworcooked.

WildRose

Description:Thisshrubhasalternatingleavesandsharpprickles.Ithasred,pink,oryellowflowersandfruit(rosehip)thatremainsontheshruballyear.

Location:Theseshrubsoccurindryfieldsthroughoutthecountry.

EdiblePartsandPreparing:Theflowersandbudsareedibleraworboiled.Boilfresh,youngleavestomaketea.Therosehipscanbeeatenoncetheflowersfallandtheycanbecrushedoncedriedtomakeflour.

Violets

Violetscanbecandiedandusedtodecoratecakes,cookies,orpastries.Picktheflowerswithatinybitofstem,wash,andallowtodrythoroughlyonapapertowelorarack.Heat½cupwater,1cupsugar,and¼teaspoonalmondextractinasaucepan.Usetweezerstocarefullydipeachflowerinthehotliquid.Setonwaxpaperanddustwithsugaruntileveryfloweristhoroughlycoated.Ifdesired,snipoffremainingstemswithsmallscissors.Allowflowerstodryforafewhoursinawarm,dryplace.

EdibleWildMushroomsAwalkthroughthewoodswilllikelyrevealseveralvarietiesofmushrooms,andchancesarethatsomearethetypesthatareedible.However,becausesomemushroomsareverypoisonous,itisimportantnevertotryamushroomofwhichyouareunsure.Nevereatamushroomwithgills,or,forthatmatter,anymushroomthatyoucannotpositivelyidentifyasedible.Also,nevereatmushroomsthatappearwilted,damaged,orrotten.

Herearesomecommonediblemushroomsthatyoucaneasilyidentifyandenjoy.

Chanterelles

Thesetrumpet-shapedmushroomshavewavyedgesandinterconnectedblunt-ridgedgillsunderthecaps.Theyarevariedshadesofyellowandhaveafruityfragrance.Theygrowinsummerandfallonthegroundofhardwoodforests.Becausechanterellestendtobetough,theyarebestwhenslowlysautéedoraddedtostewsorsoups.

Notes:BewareofJackO’Lanternmushrooms,whichlookandsmellsimilarlytochanterelles.JackO’Lanternshavesharp,knifelikegillsinsteadofthebluntgillsofchanterelles,andgenerallygrowinlargeclustersatthebaseoftreesorondecayingwood.

CoralFungi

Thesefungiareaptlynamedfortheirbunchesofupward-facingbranchingstems,whichlookstrikinglylikecoral.Theyarewhitish,tan,yellowish,orsometimespinkishorpurple.Theymayreach8inchesinheight.Theygrowinthesummerandfallinshady,woodedareas.

Notes:Avoidcoralfungithatarebitter,havesoft,gelatinousbases,orturnbrownwhenyoupokeorsqueezethem.Thesemayhavealaxativeeffect,thougharenotlife-threatening.

Morels

Morelsaresometimescalledsponge,pinecone,orhoneycombmushroomsbecauseofthepatternofpitsandridgesthatappearsonthecaps.Theycanbeanywherefrom2to12inchestall.Theymaybeyellow,brown,orblackandgrowinspringandearlysummerinwoodedareasandonriverbottoms.Tocook,cutinhalftocheckforinsects,wash,andsauté,bake,orstew.

Chanterelles.

Corelfungi.

Notes:Falsemorelscanbepoisonousandappearsimilartomorelsbecauseoftheirbrainlike,irregularlyshapedcaps.However,theycanbedistinguishedfromtruemorelsbecausefalsemorelcapsbulgeinwardinsteadofoutward.Thecapshavelobes,folds,flaps,orwrinkles,butnotpitsandridgeslikeatruemorel.

Puffballs

Theseroundorpear-shapedmushroomsareoftenmistakenforgolfballsoreggs.Theyarealwayswhitish,tan,orgrayandsometimeshaveathickstem.Youngpuffballstendtobewhiteandolderonesyelloworbrown.Fullymaturedpuffballshavedarksporesscatteredoverthecaps.Puffballsaregenerallyfoundinlatesummerandfallonlawns,inthewoods,oronoldtreestumps.Toeat,peelofftheouterskinandeatraworbatter-fried.

Notes:Sliceeachpuffballopenbeforeeatingtobesureitiscompletelywhiteinside.Ifthereisanyyellow,brown,orblack,orifthereisadevelop-ingmushroominsidewithastalk,gills,andcap,donoteat!Amanitas,whichareverypoisonous,canappearsimilartopuffballswhentheyareyoung.Donoteatifthemushroomgivesoffanunpleasantodor.

ShaggyManeMushrooms

Thismushroomgotitsnamefromitscap,whichisawhitecylinderwithshaggy,upturned,brownishscales.Asthemushroommatures,thebottomoutsidecircumferenceofthecapbecomesblack.Shaggymanesaregenerally4to6inchestallandgrowinallthewarmseasonsinfieldsandonlawns.

Shaggymanesaretastiesteatenwhenyoung,butthey’reeasiesttoidentifyoncethebottomsofthecapsbegintoturnblack.Theyaredelicioussautéedinbutteroroliveoilandlightlyseasonedwithsalt,garlic,ornutmeg.

Morels

Puffballs

Poisonousamanitamushroom

Shaggymanemushroom

MakeYourOwnFoods

MakeYourOwnButterMakingbuttertheold-fashionedwayisincrediblysimpleandverygratifying.It’sagreatprojecttodowithkids,too.Allyouneedisajar,amarble,somefreshcream,andabout20minutes.1. Startwithabouttwiceasmuchheavywhippingcreamasyou’llwantbutter.

Pouritintothejar,dropinthemarble,closethelidtightly,andstartshaking.

2. Checktheconsistencyofthecreameverythreetofourminutes.Theliquidwillturnintowhippedcream,andtheneventuallyyou’llseelittleclumpsofbutterforminginthejar.Keepshakingforanotherfewminutesandthenbegintostrainouttheliquidintoanotherjar.Thisisbuttermilk,whichisgreatforuseinmakingpancakes,waffles,biscuits,andmuffins.

3. Thebutterisnowready,butitwillstorebetterifyouwashandworkit.Add½cupofice-coldwaterandcontinuetoshakefortwoorthreeminutes.Strainoutthewaterandrepeat.Whenthestrainedwaterisclear,mashthebuttertoextractthelastofthewater,andstrain.

4. Scoopthebutterintoaramekin,mold,orwaxpaper.

Ifdesired,addsaltorchoppedfreshherbstoyourbutterjustbeforestoringorserving.Buttercanalsobemadeinafoodprocessororblendertospeeduptheprocessingtime.

MakeYourOwnYogurtYogurtissimpletomakeandisdeliciousonitsown,asadessert,inbakedgoods,orinplaceofsourcream.Yogurtisbasicallyfermentedmilk.YoucanmakeitbyaddingtheactiveculturesStreptococcusthermophilusandLactobacillusbulgaricustoheatedmilk,whichwillproducelacticacid,creatingyogurt’startflavorandthickconsistency.

YogurtisthoughttohaveoriginatedmanycenturiesagoamongthenomadictribesofEasternEuropeandWesternAsia.Milkstoredinanimalskinswould

acidifyandcoagulate.Theacidhelpedpreservethemilkfromfurtherspoilageandfromthegrowthofpathogens(disease-causingmicroorganisms).

Ingredients

Makes4to5cupsofyogurt1quartmilk(cream,whole,low-fat,orskim)—Ingeneralthehigherthemilkfatlevelintheyogurt,thecreamierandsmootheritwilltaste.Note:Ifyouusehome-producedmilkitmustbepasteurizedbeforepreparingyogurt.Seethecenterboxfortipsonpasteurizingmilk.Nonfatdrymilkpowder—Use⅓cuppowderwhenusingwholeorlow-fatmilk,oruse⅔cuppowderwhenusingskimmilk.Thehigherthemilksolids,thefirmertheyogurtwillbe.Forevenmorefirmnessaddgelatin(directionsbelow).Commercial,unflavored,culturedyogurt—Use¼cup.Besuretheproductlabelindicatesthatitcontainsaliveculture.Alsonotethecontentoftheculture.L.bulgaricusandS.thermophilusarerequiredinyogurt,butsomemanufacturersmayaddL.acidophilusorB.bifidum.Thelattertwoareusedforslightvariationsinflavor,butmorecommonlyforhealthreasonsattributedtotheseorganisms.Allculturevariationswillmakeasuccessfulyogurt.

2to4tablespoonssugarorhoney(optional)1teaspoonunflavoredgelatin(optional)—Forathick,firmyogurt,swell1teaspoongelatininalittlemilkfor5minutes.Addthistothemilkandnonfatdrymilkmixturebeforecooking.

SuppliesDoubleboilerorregularsaucepan—1to2quartsincapacitylargerthanthevolumeofyogurtyouwishtomake.Cookingorjellythermometer—Athermometerthatcancliptothesideofthesaucepanandremaininthemilkworksbest.Accuratetemperaturesarecriticalforsuccessfulprocessing.MixingspoonYogurtcontainers—cupswithlidsorcanningjarswithlids.Incubator—ayogurt-maker,oven,heatingpad,orwarmspotinyourkitchen.Touseyouroven,placeyogurtcontainersintodeeppansof110°Fwater.Watershouldcomeatleasthalfwayupthecontainers.Setoventemperatureatlowestpointtomaintainwatertemperatureat110°F.Monitortemperaturethroughoutincubation,makingadjustmentsasnecessary.

Processing1. Combineingredientsandheat.Heatingthemilkisnecessarytochange

themilkproteinssothattheysettogetherratherthanformcurdsandwhey.Donotsubstitutethisheatingstepforpasteurization.Placecold,pasteurizedmilkinadoubleboilerandstirinnonfat,drymilkpowder.Addingnonfat,drymilktoheatedmilkwillcausesomemilkproteinstocoagulateandformstrings.Addsugarorhoneyifasweeter,lesstartyogurtisdesired.Heatmilkto200°F,stirringgentlyandholdfor10minutesforthinneryogurt,orhold20minutesforthickeryogurt.Donotboil.Becarefulandstirconstantlytoavoidscorchingifnotusingadoubleboiler.

2. Coolandinoculate.Placethetopofthedoubleboilerincoldwatertocoolmilkrapidlyto112°Fto115°F.Removeonecupofthewarmmilkandblenditwiththeyogurtstarterculture.Addthistotherestofthewarmmilk.Thetemperatureofthemixtureshouldnowbe110°Fto112°F.

3. Incubate.Pourimmediatelyintoclean,warmcontainers;coverandplaceinpreparedincubator.Closetheincubatorandincubateabout4to7hoursat110°F,±5°F.Yogurtshouldsetfirmwhentheproperacidlevelisachieved(pH4.6).Incubatingyogurtforseveralhourspastthetimeaftertheyogurthassetwillproducemoreacidity.Thiswillresultinamoretartoracidicflavorandeventuallycausethewheytoseparate.

4. Refrigerate.Rapidcoolingstopsthedevelopmentofacid.Yogurtwillkeepforabout10to21daysifheldintherefrigeratorat40°Forlower.

YogurtTypes

Setyogurt:Asolidsetwheretheyogurtfirmsinacontainerandisnotdisturbed.

Stirredyogurt:Yogurtmadeinalargecontainerthenspoonedorotherwisedispensedintosecondaryservingcontainers.Theconsistencyofthe“set”isbrokenandthetextureislessfirmthansetyogurt.Thisisthemostpopularformofcommercialyogurt.

Drinkingyogurt:Stirredyogurtintowhichadditionalmilkandflavorsaremixed.Addfruitorfruitsyrupstotaste.Mixinmilktoachievethedesiredthickness.Theshelflifeofthisproductisfourto10days,sincethepHisraisedbytheadditionoffreshmilk.Somewheyseparationwilloccurandisnatural.Commercialproductsrecommendathoroughshakingbeforeconsumption.

Fruityogurt:Fruit,fruitsyrups,orpiefillingcanbeaddedtotheyogurt.Placethemontop,onbottom,orstirthemintotheyogurt.

TroubleshootingIfmilkformssomeclumpsorstringsduringtheheatingstep,somemilkproteinsmayhavejelled.Takethesolidsoutwithaslottedspoonor,indifficultcases,aftercookingpourthemilkmixturethroughacleancolanderorcheeseclothbeforeinoculation.

HowtoPasteurizeRawMilk

Ifyouareusingfreshmilkthathasn’tbeenprocessed,youcanpasteurizeityourself.Heatwaterinthebottomsectionofadoubleboilerandpourmilkintothetopsection.Coverthemilkandheatto165°Fwhilestirringconstantlyforuniformheating.Coolimmediatelybysettingthetopsectionofthedoubleboilerinicewaterorcoldrunningwater.Storemilkintherefrigeratorincleancontainersuntilreadyformakingyogurt.

Whenyogurtfailstocoagulateproperly,it’sbecausethepHisnotlowenough.MilkproteinswillcoagulatewhenthepHhasdroppedto4.6.Thisisdonebytheculturegrowingandproducingacids.Addingculturetoveryhotmilk(+115°F)cankillbacteria.Useathermometertocarefullycontroltemperature.Ifyogurttakestoolongtomake,itmaybebecausethetemperatureisoff.Toohotortoocoldofanincubationtemperaturecanslowdownculturegrowth.Useathermometertocarefullycontroltemperature.Ifyogurtjustisn’tworking,itmaybebecausethestarterculturewasofpoorquality.Useafresh,recentlypurchasedculturefromthegrocerystoreeachtimeyoumakeyogurt.Ifyogurttastesorsmellsbad,it’slikelybecausethestartercultureiscontaminated.Obtainnewcultureforthenextbatch.Ifyogurthasover-setorincubatedtoolong,refrigerateyogurtimmediatelyafterafirmcoagulumhasformed.Ifyogurttastesalittleodd,itcouldbeduetooverheatingorboilingofthemilk.Useathermometertocarefullycontroltemperature.Whenwheycollectsonthesurfaceoftheyogurt,it’scalledsyneresis.Somesyneresisisnatural.Excessiveseparationofwhey,however,canbecausedbyincubatingyogurttoolongorbyagitatingtheyogurtwhileitissetting.

StoringYourYogurtAlwayspasteurizemilkorusecommerciallypasteurizedmilktomakeyogurt.Discardbatchesthatfailtosetproperly,especiallythoseduetocultureerrors.Yogurtgenerallyhasa10-to21-dayshelflifewhenmadeandstoredproperlyintherefrigeratorbelow40°F.Alwaysusecleanandsanitizedequipmentandcontainerstoensurealong

shelflifeforyouryogurt.Cleanequipmentandcontainersinhotwaterwithdetergent,thenrinsewell.Allowtoairdry.

MakeYourOwnCheeseThereareendlessvarietiesofcheeseyoucanmake,buttheyallfallintotwomaincategories:softandhard.Softcheeses(likecreamcheese)areeasiertomakebecausetheydon’trequireacheesepress.Thecurdsinhardcheeses(likecheddar)arepressedtogethertoformasolidblockorwheel,whichrequiresmoretimeandeffort,buthardcheeseswillkeeplongerthansoftcheeses,andgenerallyhaveamuchstrongerflavor.

Cheeseisbasicallycurdledmilkandismadebyaddinganenzyme(typicallyrennet)tomilk,allowingcurdstoform,heatingthemixture,strainingoutthewhey,andfinallypressingthecurdstogether.Cheesessuchasquesofrescoorquesoblanco(traditionallyeateninLatinAmericancountries)andpaneer(traditionallyeateninIndia),aremadewithanacidsuchasvinegarorlemonjuiceinsteadofbacterialculturesorrennet.

Youcanuseanykindofmilktomakecheese,includingcow’smilk,goat’smilk,sheep’smilk,andevenbuffalo’smilk(usedfortraditionalmozzarella).Fortherichestflavor,trytogetrawmilkfromalocalfarmer.Ifyoudon’tknowofonenearyou,visitrealmilk.com/where.htmlforalistingofrawmilksuppliersinyourstate.Youcanusehomogenizedmilk,butitwillproduceweakercurdsandamilderflavor.Ifyourmilkispasteurized,you’llneedto“ripen”itbyheatingitinadoubleboileruntilitreaches86°Fandthenadding1cupofunpasteurized,preservative-free,culturedbuttermilkpergallonofmilkandlettingitstand30minutestothreehours(thelongeryouleaveit,thesharpertheflavorwillbe).Ifyoucannotfindunpasteurizedbuttermilk,diluting1/8teaspooncalciumchloride(availablefromonlinecheesemakersuppliers)in¼cupofwaterandaddingittoyourmilkwillcreateasimilareffect.

Rennet(alsocalledrenninorchymosin)issoldonlineatcheesemakingsitesintabletorliquidform.YoumayalsobeabletofindJunketrennettabletsnearthepuddingandgelatininyourgrocerystore.Oneteaspoonofliquidrennetistheequivalentofonerennettablet,whichisenoughtoturn5gallonsofmilkintocheese(estimatefourdropsofliquidrennetpergallonofmilk).Microbialrennetisavegetarianalternativethatisavailableforpurchaseonline.

Preparation

It’simportanttokeepyourhandscleanandallequipmentsterilewhenmakingcheese.1. Washhandsandallequipmentwithsoapydetergentbeforeandafteruse.2. Rinseallequipmentwithcleanwater,removingallsoapyresidue.3. Boilallcheesemakingequipmentbetweenuses.4. Forbest-qualitycheese,usenewcheeseclotheachtimeyoumakecheese.

(Sterilizecheeseclothbyfirstwashing,thenboiling.)5. Squeakycleanisclean.Ifyoucanfeelaresidueontheequipment,itisnot

clean.

YogurtCheese

Thissoftcheesehasaflavorsimilartosourcreamandatexturelikecreamcheese.Apintofyogurtwillyieldapproximately¼poundofcheese.Theyogurtcheesehasashelflifeofapproximatelysevento14dayswhenwrappedandplacedintherefrigeratorandkeptatlessthan40°F.

Ingredients

Plain,whole-milkyogurt

Directions1. Linealargestrainerorcolanderwithcheesecloth.2. Placethelinedstraineroverabowlandpourintheyogurt.Donotuse

yogurtmadewiththeadditionofgelatin,asgelatinwillinhibitwheyseparation.

3. Letyogurtdrainovernight,coveredwithplasticwrap.Emptythewheyfromthebowl.

4. Fillastrong,plasticstoragebagwithsomewater,seal,andplaceoverthecheesetoweighitdown.Letthecheesestandanother8hoursandthenenjoy!

QuesoBlanco

Quesoblancoisawhite,semi-hardcheesemadewithoutcultureorrennet.Itiseatenfreshandmaybeflavoredwithpeppers,herbs,andspices.Itisconsidereda“fryingcheese,”meaningitdoesnotmeltandmaybedeepfriedorgrilled.Quesoblancoisbesteatenfresh,sotrythissmallrecipethefirsttimeyoumakeit.Ifitdisappearsquickly,nexttimedoubleortripletherecipe.Thisrecipewillyieldabout½cupofcheese.

Ingredients

2cupsmilk4tspwhitevinegarSalt

Mincedjalapeño,blackpepper,chives,orotherherbstotasteDirections1. Heatmilkto176°Ffor20minutes.2. Addvinegarslowlytothehotmilkuntilthewheyissemi-clearandthecurd

particlesbegintoformstretchyclumps.Stirfor5to10minutes.Whenit’sready,youshouldbeabletostretchapieceofcurdabout⅓inchbeforeitbreaks.

3. Allowtocool,andstrainoffthewheybyfilteringthroughacheesecloth-linedcolanderoraclothbag.

4. Workinsaltandspicestotaste.5. Pressthecurdinamoldorsimplyleaveinaball.6. Quesoblancomaykeepforseveralweeksifstoredinarefrigerator,butis

besteatenfresh.

RicottaCheese

Makingricottaisverysimilartomakingquesoblanco,thoughittakesabitlonger.Startthecheeseinthemorningforuseatdinner,ormakeadayahead.Useitinlasagna,indesserts,orallonitsown.

Ingredients

1gallonmilk⅓cupplus1tspwhitevinegar¼tspsaltDirections1. Pourmilkintoalargepot,addsalt,andheatslowlywhilestirringuntilthe

milkreaches180°F.2. Removefromheatandaddvinegar.Stirforoneminuteascurdsbeginto

form.3. Coverandallowtositundisturbedfortwohours.4. Pourmixtureintoacolanderlinedwithcheesecloth,andallowtodrainfor

twoormorehours.5. Storeinasealedcontainerforuptoaweek.

Mozzarella

Thismildcheesewillmakeyourhomemadepizzaespeciallydelicious.Orsliceitandeatwithfreshtomatoesandbasilfromthegarden.Freshcheesecanbestoredinsaltwaterbutmustbeeatenwithintwodays.

Ingredients

1gallon2percentmilk¼cupfresh,plainyogurt(seerecipeonpage130)

Onetabletrennetor1tspliquidrennetdissolvedin½cuptapwaterBrine:use2poundsofsaltpergallonofwaterDirections1. Heatmilkto90°Fandaddyogurt.Stirslowlyfor15minuteswhilekeeping

thetemperatureconstant.2. Addrennetmixtureandstirfor3to5minutes.3. Cover,removefromheat,andallowtostanduntilcoagulated,about30

minutes.4. Cutcurdinto½-inchcubes.Allowtostandfor15minuteswithoccasional

stirring.5. Returntoheatandslowlyincreasetemperatureto118°Foveraperiodof45

minutes.Holdthistemperatureforanadditional15minutes.6. Drainoffthewheybytransferringthemixturetoacheesecloth-lined

colander.Useaspoontopresstheliquidoutofthecurds.Transferthematofcurdtoaflatpanthatcanbekeptwarminalowoven.Donotcutmat,butturnitoverevery15minutesfora2-hourperiod.Matshouldbetight

whenfinished.7. Cutthematintolongstrips1to2incheswideandplaceinhotwater

(180°F).Usingwoodenspoons,tumbleandstretchitunderwateruntilitbecomeselastic,about15minutes.

8. Removecurdfromhotwaterandshapeitbyhandintoaballoraloaf,kneadinginthesalt.Placecheeseincoldwater(40°F)forapproximately1hour.

9. Storeinasolutionof2teaspoonssaltto1cupwater.

CheddarCheese

CheddarisaNewEnglandandWisconsinfavorite.Thelongeryouageit,thesharpertheflavorwillbe.Tryaslicewithawedgeofhomemadeapplepie.

Ingredients

1gallonmilk¼cupbuttermilk1tabletrennet,or1tspliquidrennet1½tspsalt

Directions1. Combinemilkandbuttermilkandallowthemixturetoripenovernight.2. Thenextday,heatmilkto90ºFinadoubleboilerandaddrennet.3. Afterabout45minutes,cutcurdsintosmallcubesandletsit15minutes.4. Heatveryslowlyto100ºFandcookforaboutanhouroruntilacooled

pieceofcurdwillkeepitsshapewhensqueezed.5. Draincurdsandrinseoutthedoubleboiler.

6. Placearacklinedwithcheeseclothinsidethedoubleboilerandspreadthecurdsonthecloth.Coverandreheatatabout98ºFfor30to40minutes.Thecurdswillbecomeonesolidmass.

7. Removethecurds,cuttheminto1-inchwidestrips,andreturnthemtothepan.Turnthestripsevery15to20minutesforonehour.

8. Cutthestripsintocubesandmixinsalt.9. Letthecurdsstandfor10minutes,placethemincheesecloth,andpressina

cheesepresswith15poundsfor10minutes,thenwith30poundsforanhour.

10. Removethecheesefromthepress,unwrapit,dipinwarmwater,andfillinanycracks.

11. Wrapagainincheeseclothandpresswith40poundsfor24hours.12. Removefromthepressandletthecheesedryaboutfivedaysinacool,

well-ventilatedarea,turningthecheesetwiceadayandwipingitwithacleancloth.Whenahardskinhasformed,rubwithoilorsealwithwax.Youcaneatthecheeseaftersixweeks,butforthestrongestflavor,allowcheesetoageforsixmonthsormore.

MakeYourOwnSimpleCheesePress

1. Removebothendsofalargecoffeecanorthoroughlycleanedpaintcan,savingoneend.Useanawlorahammerandlongnailtopiercethesidesinseveralplaces,piercingfromtheinsideout.

2. Placethecanonacoolingrackinsidealargerbasin.Leavethebottomofthecaninplace.

3. Useasawtocuta¾-inch-thickcircleofwoodtocreatea“cheesefollower.”Itshouldbesmallenoughindiametertofiteasilyinthecan.

4. Placecheesecurdsinthecan,andtopwiththecheesefollower.Placeseveralbrickswrappedinclothorfoilontopofthecheesefollowertoweighdowncurds.

5. Oncethecheeseisfullypressed,removethebricksandbottomofthecan.Usethecheesefollowertopushthecheeseoutofthecan.

MakeYourOwnIceCreamSupplies

1-poundcoffeecan3-poundcoffeecanDucttape1cupsalt

Ingredients

2cupshalfandhalf½cupsugar1tspvanillaIce

Directions1. Mixalltheingredientsinthe1-poundcoffeecan.Coverthelidwithduct

tapetoensureitistightlysealed.2. Placethesmallercaninsidethelargercanandfillthespacebetweenthe

twowithiceandsalt.

3. Coverthelargecanandsealwithducttape.Rollthecanbackandforthfor15minutes.Toreducenoise,placeatowelonyourworkingsurface,orworkonarug.

4. Dumpouticeandwater.Stircontentsofsmallcan.Storeicecreaminaglassorplasticcontainer(ifyouleaveitinthecanitmaytakeonametallicflavor).

Ifdesired,addcocoapowder,coffeegranules,crushedpeppermintsticksorothercandy,orfruit.

BrewYourOwnBeerMakingyourownbrewisnotdifficult,butbesuretousewaterthatisnotheavilychlorinatedorthathasastrongmineralflavor.Thesweetnessofmalt(frombarley)andthebitternessofhops(thefemaleflowerofthehopvine)balanceeachothertocreatebeer’srichflavor.Thefermentationiscausedbytheyeastconsumingthesugar,whichproducescarbondioxideandalcohol.

Maltisbarleythathasbeguntogerminate,whichcreatesenzymesnecessaryforconvertingstarchtosugar.Whenyou’refirstexperimentingwithbrewingbeer,usestore-boughtmaltandhops,astheywillhavemorepredictableresults.Ifyouwanttomakeyourownmalt,letthebarleygrainssprout.Oncetheshootsarethesamelengthasthekernels,stopthegrowthbyheatingthebarleyto

between185°Fand230°F.Atthatpoint,thebarleyismaltedandmustbecrackedandsoakedin150°Fwaterforaboutsixhours.Finally,strainthebarleyandusetheliquidforyourbeer.

Supplies

10-gallonpailHydrometerSiphonandclamp122-literbottles,sterilized

Ingredients

Water40-ozcanpre-hoppedmaltextract6to7cupswhitesugaror8to9cupscornsugar1tspbrewer’syeast24tspwhitegranulatedsugar

Directions1. Cleanpail,hydrometer,andsiphonwithwarm,soapywaterandrinse

thoroughly.Thensterilizebyrinsingwithamixof1tablespoonhouseholdbleachand1gallonwater.Rinseafinaltimewithcleanwater.

2. Pour2½to3gallonscoldwaterinthepail.3. Bring7½quartsofwatertoaboilinalargepot.Addmaltextractvery

slowly,stirring,andthensimmeruncoveredfor20minutes.4. Addsugarandstiruntildissolved.5. Dumpthehotmixtureintothepailcontainingthecoldwater,splashingitin

toincreasetheoxygenintheliquid(yeastneedsoxygentodoitsjob).6. Addicewateruntilmixtureisabout70°F(waterthatistoohotcankillthe

yeast).7. Addtheyeastandstirwell.8. Coverloosely(ifthelidistootight,thepailcouldexplode)andallowtosit

inamoderatetocoolplace(around62°Fto68°F)for6to10days.Don’topenthepail,tipit,orshakeitforatleast6days.

9. Placethehydrometerinthebeerandgiveitaspintoreleaseairbubbles.Thehydrometershouldreadabout1.008fordarkbeersand1.010to1.105forlightbeers.

10. Whenthebeerisready,placethebucketonabenchorsturdytableandplacethesterilizedbottlesonthefloorbelow.Addabout2teaspoonsofwhitegranulatedsugartoeachbottletohelpcarbonatethebeer.

11. Usethesiphonandclamptosiphonthebeerintothebottles,screwonthelids,givethebottlesaquickshake,andstorethebottlesinawarm,darkareaforafewdays,andthenmoveintocool,darkarea.Storeatleastthreeweeksbeforedrinking.

MakeYourOwnWineSupplies

ColanderorstrainerLargebowlorpot1-galloncontainerwithasecurelidSpoonPotatomasherFunnel

Ingredients

1qtfruit2cupssugar1gallonwater,divided1packageactiveyeast

Directions1. Thoroughlycleanallyourcookingutensilswithwarm,soapywaterand

rinsethoroughly.Thensterilizebyrinsingwithamixof1tablespoonhouseholdbleachand1gallonwater.Rinseafinaltimewithcleanwater.

2. Inabowl,crushthefruitwithapotatomasher(oruseafoodprocessor)untilsmooth.

3. Dissolvethesugarin1cupofhotwater.Allowtocooltoroomtemperatureandaddtothefruit.

4. Dissolvetheyeastin2cupsofwarmwaterandaddtothefruit,alongwiththeremainingwater.Stironceeverydayforaweek.

5. Strainthroughacolanderintoyour1-galloncontainer,closelidsecurely,andallowtorestinacool,darkplacefor6weeks.

6. Strainthewineintoyoursterilizedbottles(leavingoneempty)andcorklightly.Afterthreedays,strainthewinefromonebottleintotheemptyone,leavingabout1inchheadspacebelowthecork.Repeatuntilbottlesarefull.

7. Soaknewcorksinwarmwaterforabout2hours,rinseseveraltimes,placesecurelyinbottles,andsealwithparaffin.

DandelionWine

Ingredients

4qtsdandelionblossoms(usethefulldandelionheads—notjustthepetals)4qtsboilingwater2oranges2lemons4lbssugar2tbspyeast

Directions1. Washdandelionblossomsandplacetheminalargepot.Pour4quartsof

boilingwateroverthemandletstand24hours.2. Strainthroughcheeseclothandaddgratedrindandjuiceoftwoorangesand

twolemons,fourpoundsofgranulatedsugar,andtwotablespoonfulsyeast.3. Letstandoneweek,thenstrainandfillbottles.

PARTTHREE

TheBackyardFarm

“Thegreatnessofanationanditsmoralprogresscanbejudgedbythewayitsanimalsaretreated”

—MahatmaGandhi

Theprospectofraisingfarmanimalsinyourbackyarddoesnotneedtobeoverwhelming.Ifyou’reconcernedaboutnothavingenoughland,keepinmindthatafewchickenscanberaisedonlessthananeighthofanacre;youmaybeabletohaveabeehiveonyourrooftop;andacoupleofgoatsorsheepwillbeperfectlycontentonaquarterofanacre.Worriedaboutthecost?Withchickens,thesmallamountyouwillinvestinbuyingchickswillquicklypayitselfbackinfresheggsormeat,andsincechickenfeedisveryinexpensive,theupkeepcostsareminimal.Ifyousheeryoursheeporllamas,youcanspinthewoolandsellitatalocalmarketoronlinetomakeaprofit.However,iftimeisyourconcern,youshouldstoptothinkbeforepurchasinganimalsorrescuingthemfromshelters.Anyanimalyoubringontoyourpropertydeservesaportionofyourtimeeveryday.Youcertainlydon’thavetospendeverywakingmomentwithyouranimals,butyouwillneedtoprovidefood,water,shelter,andafewothernecessities.Ifyoudon’thavethetimeforthisonaregularbasis,considerhelpingoutatalocalfarmorshelter,orsimplysupportotherfarmersbyshoppingatfarmer’smarkets.Ifyoudohavethetimetocareproperlyforanimals,veryoftenyouwillfindthattheygiveyoufarmorethanyougivethem.

Chickens

Raisingchickensinyouryardwillgiveyouaccesstofresheggsandmeat,andbecausechickensaresomeoftheeasiestcreaturestokeep,evenfamiliesinveryurbanareasareabletoraiseafewinasmallbackyard.Fourorfivechickenswillsupplyyourwholefamilywitheggsonaregularbasis.

HousingYourChickensYouwillneedtohaveastructureforyourchickenstoliveintoprotectthemfrompredatorsandinclementweather,andtoallowthehensasafeplacetolaytheireggs.See“PoultryHouses”onpage175toseeseveraltypesofstructuresyoucanmakeforhousingchickensandotherpoultry.

Placingyourhenhousecloseenoughtoyourownhomewillremindyoutovisititfrequentlytofeedthechickensandtogathereggs.Itisbesttoestablishthehouseandyardindrysoil,awayfromareasinyouryardthatarefrequentlydampormoist,asthisistheperfectbreedinggroundforpoultrydiseases.Thehenhouseshouldbewell-ventilated,warm,protectedfromthecoldandrain,haveafewwindowsthatallowthesunlighttoshinein(especiallyifyouliveinacolderclimate),andhaveasoundroof.

Theperchesinyourhenhouseshouldnotbemorethan2½feetabovethefloor,andyoushouldplaceasmoothplatformundertheperchestocatchthedroppingssotheycaneasilybecleaned.Nestingboxesshouldbekeptinadarkerpartofthehouseandshouldhaveamplespacearoundthem.

Theperchesinyourhenhousecanberelativelynarrowandshouldn’tbemorethanafewfeetfromthefloor.

SelectingtheRightBreedofChickenTakethetimetoselectchickensthatarewell-suitedforyourneeds.Ifyouwantchickenssolelyfortheireggs,lookforchickensthataregoodegg-layers.Mediterraneanpoultryaregoodforfirst-timechickenownersastheyareeasytocareforandonlyneedtheproperfoodtolaymanyeggs.Ifyouarelookingtoslaughterandeatyourchickens,youwillwanttohaveheavy-bodiedfowl(Asiaticpoultry)inordertogetthemostmeatfromthem.Ifyouarelookingtohavechickensthatlayagoodamountofeggsandthatcanalsobeusedformeat,investintheWyandottesorPlymouthRockbreeds.Thesechickensarenotincrediblybulkybuttheyaregoodsourcesofbotheggsandmeat.

Wyandotteshavesevendistinctbreeds:Silver,White,Buff,Golden,andBlackarethemostcommon.ThesebreedsarehardyandtheyareverypopularintheUnitedStates.Theyarecompactlybuiltandlayexcellentdarkbrowneggs.Theyaregoodsittersandtheirmeatisperfectforbroilingorroasting.

PlymouthRockchickenshavethreedistinctbreeds:Barred,White,andBuff.

TheyarethemostpopularbreedsintheUnitedStatesandarehardybirdsthatgrowtoamediumsize.Thesechickensaregoodforlayingeggs,roostwell,andalsoprovidegoodmeat.

Plymouthrockchickensaregoodall-aroundfarmchickenswiththeirdociledispositions,hardiness,tendencytobeveryproductiveegg-layers,andgoodmeat.

Buildingachickencoopclosetoyourhousewillmakeiteasiertotendthechickensandgathereggsininclementweather.

FeedingYourChickens

Chickens,likemostcreatures,needabalanceddietofprotein,carbohydrates,vitamins,fats,minerals,andwater.Chickenswithplentyofaccesstograssyareaswillfindmostofwhattheyneedontheirown.However,ifyoudon’thavethespacetoallowyourchickenstoroamfree,commercialchickenfeedisreadilyavailableintheformofmash,crumbles,pellets,orscratch.Oryoucanmakeyourownfeedoutofacombinationofgrains,seeds,meatscrapsorprotein-richlegumes,andagrittysubstancesuchasbonemeal,limestone,oystershell,orgranite(toaiddigestion,especiallyinwinter).Thecorrectratiooffoodforawarm,securechickenshouldbe1partproteinto4partscarbohydrates.Donotrelytooheavilyoncornasitcanbetoofatteningforhens;combinecornwithwheatoroatsforthecarbohydrateportionofthefeed.Cloverandothergreenfoodsarealsobeneficialtofeedyourchickens.

Asimplemovablechickencoopcanbeconstructedoutoftwo-by-foursandtwowheels.Thefloorofthecoopshouldhaveopenslatssothatthemanurewillfallontothegroundandfertilizethesoil.Anevensimplermethodistoconstructapenthatsitsdirectlyontheground,makingsurethatithasarooftoofferthechickenssuitableshade.Thepencanbemovedoncetheareaiswell-fertilized.

Howmuchfoodyourchickensneedwilldependonbreed,age,theseason,andhowmuchroomtheyhavetoexercise.Oftenit’seasiestandbestforthechickenstoleavefeedavailableatalltimesinseverallocationswithinthechickens’range.Thiswillensurethateventhelowestchickensinthepeckingordergetthefeedtheyneed.

WyandottesoriginatedintheUnitedStatesandwerefirstbredinthe1870s.Thisoneisagoldenlacedwyandott.

ThisoneisabarredPlymouthrockchicken.

ChickenFeed

4partscorn(ormoreincoldmonths)

3partsoatgroats

2partswheat

2partsalfalfamealorchoppedhay

1partmeatscraps,fishmeal,orsoybeanmeal

2to3partsdriedsplitpeas,lentils,orsoybeanmeal

2to3partsbonemeal,crushedoystershell,granitegrit,orlimestone

½partcod-liveroil

Youmayalsowishtoaddsunflowerseeds,hulledbarley,millet,kamut,amaranthseeds,quinoa,sesameseeds,flaxseeds,orkelpgranules.Ifyoufindthatyoureggsarethin-shelled,tryaddingmorecalciumtothefeed(intheformoflimestoneoroystershell).Storefeedinacoveredbucket,barrel,orothercontainerthatwillnotallowrodentstogetintoit.Aplasticorgalvanizedbucketisgood,asitwillalsokeepmold-causingmoistureoutofthefeed.chicks.Tohatchachick,aneggmustbeincubatedforasufficientamountoftimewiththeproperheat,moisture,andposition.Theperiodforincubationvariesbasedonthespeciesofchicken.Theaverageincubationperiodisaround21daysformostcommonbreeds.

HatchingChicksIfyouarelookingtoincreasethenumberofchickensyouhave,orifyouplantosellsomechickensatthemarket,youmaywantyourhenstolayeggsandhatch

Chickensthatareallowedtoroamfreely(“free-range”chickens)willbeableto

scavengemostofthefoodtheyneed,aslongasthereisplentyofgrassorothervegetationavailable.

Ifyouareonlyhousingafewchickensinyourbackyard,naturalincubationistheeasiestmethodwithwhichtohatchchicks.Naturalincubationisdependentupontheinstinctofthemotherhenandthebreedofhen.PlymouthRocksandWyandottesaregoodhenstoraisechicks.Itisimportanttoseparatethesettinghenfromtheotherchickenswhilesheisnestingandtoalsokeepthehencleanandfreefromlice.Thenestshouldalsobekeptclean,andthehensshouldbefedgrainfood,grit,andclean,freshwater.

Anestingboxshouldhaveplentyofcleanhayorstrawforthehentorestin.

Itisimportant,whenyouareconsideringhatchingchicks,tomakesureyourhensarehealthy,haveplentyofexercise,andarefedabalanceddiet.Theyneedmaterialsonwhichtoscratchandshouldnotbeinfestedwithliceandotherparasites.Free-rangechickens,whicheatprimarilynaturalfoodsandgetlotsofexercise,laymorefertileeggsthandotightlyconfinedhens.Theeggsselected

forhatchingshouldnotbemorethan12daysoldandtheyshouldbeclean.

You’llneedtoconstructanestingboxfortheroostinghenandtheincubatedeggs.Theboxshouldberoomyanddeepenoughtoretainthenestingmaterial.Treattheboxwithadisinfectantbeforeusetokeepoutlice,mice,andothercreaturesthatcouldinfectthehenortheeggs.

BacteriaAssociatedwithChickenMeat

Salmonella—Thisisprimarilyfoundintheintestinaltractofpoultryandcanbefoundinrawmeatandeggs.Campylobacterjejuni—Thisisoneofthemostcommoncausesofdiarrhealillnessinhumansandisspreadbyimproperhandlingofrawchickenmeatandnotcookingthemeatthoroughly.Listeriamonocytogenes—Thiscausesillnessinhumansandcanbedestroyedbykeepingthemeatrefrigeratedandbycookingitthoroughly.

Makethenestofdampsoilafewinchesdeep,placedinthebottomofthebox,andthenlaysweethayorcleanstrawontopofthat.

Placethenestingboxinaquietandsecludedplaceawayfromtheotherchickens.Ifspacepermits,youcanconstructasmallershedinwhichtohouseyournestinghen.Ahencangenerallysitonanywherebetween9and15eggs.Thehenshouldonlybeallowedtoleavethenesttofeed,drinkwater,andtakeadustbath.Whenthehendoesleaveherbox,checktheeggsanddisposeofanydamagedones.Anolderhenwillgenerallybemorecarefulandapttoroostthanayoungerfemale.

Oncethechicksarehatched,theywillneedtostaywarmandclean,getlotsofexercise,andhaveaccesstofoodregularly.Makesurethefeedisgroundfinelyenoughthatthechickscaneasilyeatanddigestit.Theyshouldalsohaveclean,freshwater.

Ifaneggbreaks,useitimmediatelyordiscardit.Oncetheeggisexposedtotheairitspoilsmuchmorequickly

StoringEggs

Eggsareamongthemostnutritiousfoodsonearthandcanbepartofahealthydiet.Henstypicallylayeggsevery25hours,soyoucanbesuretohaveafreshsupplyonadailybasis,inmanycases.Buteggs,likeanyotheranimalbyproduct,needtobehandledsafelyandcarefullytoavoidrottingandspreadingdisease.Hereareafewtipsonhowtobestpreserveyourfarm-fresheggs:

1. Makesureyoureggscomefromhensthathavenotbeenrunningwithmaleroosters.Infertileeggslastlongerthanthosethathavebeenfertilized.

2. Keepthefresheggstogether.3. Chooseeggsthatareperfectlyclean.4. Makesurenottocracktheshells,asthiswilltaintthetasteand

maketheeggrotmuchmorequickly.5. Placeyoureggsdirectlyintherefrigeratorwheretheywillkeep

forseveralweeks.

Washfresheggsandthenrefrigeratethemimmediately.

Duckstendtobesomewhatmoredifficultthanchickstoraise,buttheydoprovidewonderfuleggsandmeat.Duckstendtohavepleasanterpersonalitiesthanchickensandareoftenprolificlayers.Theeggstastesimilartochickeneggs,butareusuallylargerandhaveaslightlyricherflavor.Ducksarehappiestandhealthiestwhentheyhaveaccesstoapoolorpondtopaddlearoundinandwhentheyhaveseveralotherduckstokeepthemcompany.

BreedsofDucksTherearesixcommonbreedsofducks:WhitePekin,WhiteAylesbury,ColoredRouen,BlackCayuga,ColoredMuscovy,andWhiteMuscovy.Eachbreedisuniqueandhasitsownadvantagesanddisadvantages.1. WhitePekin—Themostpopularbreedofduck,thesearealsotheeasiestto

raise.Theseducksarehardyanddowellincloseconfinement.Theyaretimidandmustbehandledcarefully.Theirlargeframegivesthemlotsofmeat,andtheyarealsoprolificlayers.

2. WhiteAylesbury—ThisbreedissimilartothePekinbuttheplumageismuchwhiterandtheyareabitheavierthantheformer.TheyarenotaspopularintheUnitedStatesastheWhitePekinduck.

3. ColoredRouens—Thesedarklyplumedducksarealsoquitepopularandfatteneasilyformeatpurposes.

4. BlackCayugaandMuscovybreeds—TheseareAmericanbreedsthatareeasilyraisedbutarenotasproductiveastheWhitePekin.

HousingDucksYouneitherneedalotofspaceinwhichtoraiseducksnordoyouneedwatertoraisethemsuccessfully,thoughtheywillbehappierifyoucanprovideatleastasmallpoolofwaterforthemtobatheandpaddlearoundin.Housingforducksisrelativelysimple.Thehousesdonothavetobeaswarmordryasforchickensbuttheduckscannotbeconfinedforaslongperiodsaschickenscan.Theyneedmoreexerciseout-of-doorstobehealthyandtoproducemoreeggs.Ahousethat

isprotectedfromdampnessorexcessrainwaterandthathasstraworhaycoveringthefloorisadequateforducks.Ifyouwanttokeepyourduckssomewhatconfined,asmallfenceabout2½feethighwilldothetrick.Ducksdon’trequirenestingboxes,astheylaytheireggsonthefloorofthehouseorintheyardaroundthehouse.

Ducksaresocialbirds;theyarehappiestingroups.

WhitePekinswereoriginallybredfromtheMallardinChinaandcametothe

UnitedStatesin1873.

Ducksshouldhaveaccesstoalake,pond,oratleastasmallpool.

FeedingandWateringDucksDucksrequireplentyoffreshwatertodrink,astheyhavetodrinkregularlywhileeating.Duckseatbothvegetableandanimalfoods.Ifallowedtoroamfreeandtofindtheirownfoodstuff,duckswilleatgrasses,smallfish,andwaterinsects(ifstreamsorpondsareprovided).

AccordingtoMrs.BeetoninherBookofHouseholdManagementpublishedin1861,“[Aylesburyducks’]snowyplumageandcomfortablecomportmentmakeitacredittothepoultry-yard,whileitsbroadanddeepbreast,anditsampleback,conveytheassurancethatyoursatisfactionwillnotceaseatitsdeath.”

Ducksneedtheirfoodtobesoftandmushyinorderforthemtodigestit.Ducklingsshouldbefedequalpartscornmeal,wheatbran,andflourforthefirstweekoflife.Forthenextfiftydaysorso,theducklingsshouldbefedthatmixtureinadditiontoalittlegritorsandandsomegreenfoods(greenrye,oats,clover)allmixedtogether.Afterthistime,ducksshouldbefedonamixtureoftwopartscornmeal,onepartwheatbran,onepartflour,somecoarsesand,andgreenfoods.

HatchingDucklingsThenaturalprocessofincubation(hatchingducklingsunderneathahen)isthepreferredmethodofhatchingducklings.Itisimportanttotakegoodcareofthesettinghen.Feedherwholecornmixedwithgreenfood,grit,andfreshwater.Placingthefeedandwaterjustinfrontofthenestforthefirstfewdayswillencouragethehentoeatanddrinkwithoutleavingthenest.Henswilltypicallylaytheireggsontheground,instraworhaythatisprovidedforthem.Makesuretocleanthehousesandpensoftensothelayingduckshavecleanareasinwhichtoincubatetheireggs.

ABlackCayuga(right)standswithtwoSaxonyducks.

CaringforDucklingsYoungducklingsareverysusceptibletoatmosphericchanges.Theymustbekeptwarmandfromgettingchilled.Theducklingsaremostvulnerableduringthefirstthreeweeksoflife;afterthattime,theyaremoreikelytothrivetoadulthood.Constructbroodersfortheyoungducklingsandkeepthemverywarmbyhangingstripsofclothoverthedoorcracks.Afterthreeweeksinthewarmbrooder,movetheducklingstoacoldbrooderastheycannowwithstandfluctuatingtemperatures.

CommonDiseasesOnawhole,ducksarenotaspronetothetypicalpoultrydiseases,andmanyofthediseasestheydocontractcanbepreventedbymakingsuretheduckshaveacleanenvironmentinwhichtolive(bycleaningouttheirhouses,providingfreshdrinkingwater,andsoon).

Twocommonailmentsfoundinducksarebotulismandmaggots.Botulismcausestheduck’snecktogolimp,makingitdifficultorevenimpossiblefortheducktoswallow.Maggotsinfesttheducksiftheydonothaveanycleanwaterinwhichtobathe,andaretypicallycontractedinthehotsummermonths.Bothoftheseconditions(aswellaswormsandmites)canbecuredwiththepropercare,medications,andveterinaryassistance.

Turkeys

Turkeysaregenerallyraisedfortheirmeat(especiallyforholidayroasts)thoughtheireggscanalsobeeaten.Turkeysareincrediblyeasytomanageandraiseastheyprimarilysubsistonbugs,grasshoppers,andwastedgrainthattheyfindwhilewanderingaroundtheyard.Theyare,inasense,self-sustainingforagers.

IfyouarelookingtoraiseaturkeyforThanksgivingdinner,itisbesttohatchtheturkeychickinearlyspring,sothatbyNovember,itwillbeabout14to20pounds.

BreedsofTurkeysThelargestbreedsofturkeysfoundintheUnitedStatesaretheBronzeandNarragansett.Otherbreeds,thoughnotaspopular,includetheWhiteHolland,Blackturkey,Slateturkey,andBourbonRed.

BronzebreedsaremostlikelyacrossbetweenawildNorthAmericanturkeyanddomesticturkey,andtheyhavebeautifulrichplumage.Thisisthemostcommontypeofturkeytoraise,asitisthelargest,isveryhardy,andisthemostprofitable.TheWhiteHollandandBourbonRed,however,aresaidtobethemost“domesticated”intheirhabitsandareeasiertokeepinasmallerroamingarea.

HousingTurkeysTurkeysflourishwhentheycanroostintheopen.Theythriveintheshelteroftrees,thoughthiscanbecomeproblematicastheyaremorevulnerabletopredatorsthaniftheyareconfinedinahouse.Ifyoudobuildahouseforthem,itshouldbeairy,roomy,andveryclean.

Itisimportanttoallowturkeysfreedomtoroam;ifyouliveinamoresuburbanorneighborhoodarea,raisingturkeysmaynotbethebestoptionoryou,asyourturkeysmaywanderintoaneighboringyard,upsettingyourneighbors.Turkeysneedlotsofexercisetobehealthyandvigorous.Whenturkeysareconfinedforlongperiodsoftime,itismoredifficulttoregulatetheirfeeding(turkeysarenaturalforagersandthrivebestonnaturalfoods),andthey

aremorelikelytocontractdiseasethaniftheyareallowedtorangefreely.

HatchingTurkeyChicksTurkeyhenslayeggsinthemiddleofMarchtothefirstofApril.Ifyouarelookingtohatchandraiseturkeychicks,itisvitaltowatchthehencloselyforwhenshelaystheeggs,andthengatherthemandkeeptheeggswarmuntiltheweatherismorestable.Turkeyhensgenerallyaimtohidetheirnestsfrompredators.Itisbest,forthehen’ssake,toprovideherwithacoopofsomesort,whichshecanfreelyenterandleave.Or,ifnocoopisavailable,encouragethehentolayhereggsinanestclosetoyourhouse(puttingalargebarrelonitssideandheapingupbrushnearthehousemayenticethehentonestthere).Thisway,youcankeepaneyeontheeggsandhatchlings.

Hensarewell-adaptedtohatchalloftheeggsthattheylay.Ittakes27to29daysforturkeyeggstohatch.Whilethehensareincubatingtheeggs,theyshouldbegivenadequatefoodandwater,placedclosetotheirnest.Wheatandcornarethebestfoodduringthelayingandincubationperiod.

RaisingthePoultsTurkeychicks,alsoknownas“poults,”canbedifficulttoraiseandrequirelotsofcareandattentionfortheirfirstfewweeksoflife.Inthissense,aturkeyraisermustbe“oncall”tocometotheaidofthehenandherpoultsatanytimeduringthedayforthefirstmonthorso.Manytimes,thehenscanraisethepoultswell,butitisimportantthattheyreceiveenoughfoodandwarmthintheearlyweekstoallowthemtogrowhealthyandstrong.Thepoultsshouldstaydry,astheybecomechilledeasily.Ifyouareable,encouragingthepoultsandtheirmotherintoacoopuntilthepoultsarestrongerwillaidtheirgrowthtoadulthood.

WhatDoTurkeysEat?

Turkeysgainmostoftheirsustenancefromforaging,eitherinlawnsorinpastures.Theytypicallyeatgreenvegetation,berries,weedseeds,wastegrain,nuts,andvariouskindsofacorns.Inthesummermonths,turkeysespeciallyliketoeatgrasshoppers.Duetotheirloveofeatinginsectsthatcandamagecropsandgardens,turkeysarequiteusefulinkeepingyourgrowingproducefreefromharmfulinsectsandparasites.

Turkeysmaybefedgrain(similartoamixturegiventochickens)iftheyaregoingtobeslaughtered,inordertomakethemlarger.

Poultsshouldbefedsoftandeasilydigestiblefoods.Stalebread,dippedinmilkandthendrieduntilitcrumbles,isanexcellentsourceoffoodfortheyoungturkeys.

DiseasesTurkeysarehardybirdsbuttheyaresusceptibletoafewdebilitatingorfataldiseases.Itisafactthatthemortalityrateamongyoungturkeys,eveniftheyare

givenallthecareandexerciseandfoodneeded,isrelativelyhigh(usuallyduetoenvironmentalandpredatoryfactors).

Themostcommondiseaseinturkeysisblackhead.Blackheadtypicallyinfectsyoungturkeysbetween6weeksand4monthsold.Thisdiseasewillturntheheaddarkercoloredorevenblackandthebirdwillbecomeveryweak,willstopeating,andwillhaveaninsatiablethirst.Blackheadisusuallyfatal.

Anotherdiseasethatturkeysoccasionallycontractisroup.Roupgenerallyoccurswhenaturkeyhasbeenexposedtoextremedampnessorcolddraftsforlongperiodsoftime.Roupcausestheturkey’sheadtoswellaroundtheeyesandishighlycontagioustootherturkeys.NutritionalroupiscausedbyavitaminAdeficiency,whichcanbealleviatedbyaddingvitaminAtotheturkey’sdrinkingwater.Itisbesttoconsultaveterinarianifyourturkeyseemstohavethisdisease.

SlaughteringPoultry

Ifyouareraisingyourownpoultry,youmaydecidethatyou’dliketousethemforconsumptionaswell.Slaughteringyourownpoultry

enablesyoutoknowexactlywhatisinthemeatyouandyourfamilyareconsuming,andtoensurethatthepoultryiskepthumanelybeforebeingslaughtered.Herearesomeguidelinesforslaughteringpoultry:1. Toprepareafowlforslaughter,makesurethebirdissecured

wellsoitisunabletomove(eitherhangingdownfromapoleorlaidonablockthatisusedforchoppingwood).

2. Killingthefowlcanbedoneintwoways:onewayistohangthebirdupsidedownandtocutthejugularveinwithasharpknife.Itisagoodideatohaveafunnelorvesselavailabletocollectthedrainingbloodsoitdoesnotmakeamessandcanbedisposedofeasily.Theotheroptionistoplacethebird’sheadonachoppingblockandthen,inonecleanmovement,chopitsheadoffatthemiddleoftheneck.Then,hangthebirdupsidedownandlettheblooddrainasdescribedearlier.

3. Oncethebirdhasbeenthoroughlydrainedofblood,youcanbegintopluckit.Haveapotofhotwater(around140degreesFahrenheit)ready,intowhichtodipthebird.Holdingthebirdbythefeet,dipitintothepotofhotwaterandleaveitforabout45seconds—youdonotwantthebirdtobegintocook!Then,removethebirdfromthepotandbeginpluckingimmediately.Thefeathersshouldcomeofffairlyeasily,butthisprocesstakestime,sobepatient.Discardthefeathers.

4. Oncethebirdhasbeencompletelyridoffeathers,slipbacktheskinfromtheneckandcuttheneckoffclosetothebaseofthebody.Removethecrop,trachea,andesophagusfromthebirdbylooseningthemandpullingthemoutthroughtheholecreatedbychoppingofftheneck.Cutofftheventtoreleasethemainentrails(beingcarefulnottopuncturetheintestinesorbacteriacouldbereleasedintothemeat)andmakeahorizontalslitaboutaninchaboveitsoyoucaninserttwofingers.Removetheentrails,liver(carefullycuttingoffthegallbladder),gizzard,andheartfromthebirdandsetthelastthreeasideifyouwanttoeatthemlaterormakethemintostuffing.Ifyouaregoingtosavetheheart,slipoffthemembraneenclosingitandcutofftheveinsandarteries.Makesuretocleanoutthegizzardaswellifyouwillbeusingitlater.

5. Washthebirdthoroughly,insideandout,andwipeitdry.

6. Cutoffthefeetbelowthejointsandthencarefullypulloutthetendonsfromthedrumsticks.

7. Oncethecarcassisthoroughlydryandclean,storeitintherefrigeratorifitwillbeusedthatsamedayorthenext.Ifyouwanttosavethebirdforlateruse,placeitinamoisture-proofbagandsetitinthefreezer(alongwithanyinnardsthatyoumayhavesaved).

8. Makesureyoucleananddisinfectanysurfaceyouwereworkingontoavoidthespreadofbacteriaandotherdiseases.

Beekeeping

Beekeeping(alsoknownasapiculture)isoneoftheoldesthumanindustries.Forthousandsofyears,honeyhasbeenconsideredahighlydesirablefood.BeekeepingisascienceandcanbeaveryprofitableoccupationitisalsoawonderfulhobbyformanypeopleintheUnitedStates.Keepingbeescanbedonealmostanywhere—onafarm,inaruralorsuburbanarea,andeveninurbanareas(evenonrooftops!).Anywheretherearesufficientflowersfromwhichtocollectnectar,beescanthrive.

Apiculturereliesheavilyonthenaturalresourcesofaparticularlocationandtheknowledgeofthebeekeeperinordertobesuccessful.Collectingandsellinghoneyatyourlocalfarmers’marketorjusttofamilyandfriendscansupplyyouwithsomeextracashifyouarelookingtomakeaprofitfromyourapiary.

WhyRaiseBees?Beesareessentialinthepollinationandfertilizationofmanyfruitandseedcrops.Ifyouhaveagardenwithmanyflowersorfruitplants,havingbeesnearbywillonlyhelpyourgardenflourishandgrowyearafteryear.Furthermore,nothingismoresatisfyingthanextractingyourownhoneyforeverydayuse.

HowtoAvoidGettingStungThoughittakessomeskill,youcanlearnhowtoavoidbeingstungbythebeesyoukeep.Herearesomewaysyoucankeepyourbeestingstoaminimum:1. Keepgentlebees.Havingbeesthat,bysheernature,arenotasaggressive

willreducethenumberofstingsyouarelikelytoreceive.Carniolanbeesareoneofthegentlestspecies,andsoaretheCaucasianbeesintroducedfromRussia.

2. Obtainagood“smoker”anduseitwheneveryou’llbehandlingyourbees.Pumpingsmokeofanykindintoandaroundthebeehivewillrenderyourbeeslessaggressiveandlesslikelytostingyou.

3. Purchaseandwearaveil.Thisshouldbemadeoutofblackbobbinetandwornoveryourface.Also,rubbergloveshelpprotectyourhandsfrom

stings.4. Usea“beeescape.”Thisdeviceisfittedintoaslotmadeinaboardthe

samesizeasthetopofthehive.Sliptheboardintothehivebeforeyouopenittoextractthehoney,anditallowstheworkerbeestoslipbelowitbutnottoreturnbackup.So,byplacingthe“beeescape”intothehivethedaybeforeyouwanttogainaccesstothecombsandhoney,youwillmostlikelytrapallthebeesundertheboardandleaveyoufreetoworkwiththehoneycombswithoutfearofstings.

Wearingahatandveilwillhelptopreventstingsonyourfaceandhead.

WhatTypeofHiveShouldIBuild?Mostbeekeeperswouldagreethatthebesthiveshavesuspended,movableframeswherethebeesmakethehoneycombs,whichareeasytoliftout.Theseframes,calledLangstrothframes,arethemostpopularkindofframeusedbyapiculturistsintheUnitedStates.

Whetheryoubuildyourownbeehiveorpurchaseone,itshouldbebuiltstronglyandshouldcontainaccuratebeespacesandaclose-fitting,rainproofroof.Ifyouarelookingtohavehoneycombs,youmusthaveahivethatpermitstheinsertionofuptoeightcombs.

WhereShouldtheHiveBeSituated?Hivesandtheirstandsshouldbeplacedinanenclosurewherethebeeswillnotbedisturbedbyotheranimalsorhumansandwhereitwillbegenerallyquiet.Hivesshouldbeplacedontheirownstandsatleast3feetfromeachother.Donotallowweedstogrownearthehivesandkeepthehivesawayfromwallsandfences.You,asthebeekeeper,wanttobeabletoeasilyaccessyourhivewithoutfearofobstacles.

SwarmingSwarmingissimplythemigrationofhoneybeestoanewhiveandisledbythequeenbee.Duringswarmingseason(thewarmsummerdays),abeekeepermustremainveryalert.Ifyouseeswarmingabovethehive,takegreatcareandactcalmlyandquietly.Youwanttogettheswarmintoyourhive,butthiswillbetricky.Ittheylandonanearbybranchorinabasket,simplyapproachandthen“pour”themintothehive.Keepinmindthatbeeswillmorelikelyinhabitacool,shadedhivethanonethatisbakinginthehotsummersun.

Asmokerwillhelptorelaxyourbeesandmakethemlessagressive.

Sometimesitisbeneficialtotrytopreventswarming,suchasifyoualreadyhavecompletelyfullhivesFrequentlyremovingthenewhoneyfromthehivebeforeswarmingbeginswilldeterthebeesfromswarming.Shadingthehivesonwarmdayswillalsohelpkeepthebeesfromswarming.

BeePasturesBeeswillflyagreatdistancetogatherfoodbutyoushouldtrytocontainthem,aswellaspossible,toanareawithin2milesofthebeehive.Makesuretheyhaveaccesstomanyhoney-producingplantsthatyoucangrowinyourgarden.Alfalfa,asparagus,buckwheat,chestnut,clover,catnip,mustard,raspberry,roses,andsunflowersaresomeofthebesthoney-producingplantsandtrees.Alsomakesurethatyourbeesalwayshaveaccesstopure,cleanwater.

PreparingYourBeesforWinterIfyouliveinacolderregionoftheUnitedStates,keepingyourbeesalivethroughoutthewintermonthsisdifficult.Ifyourqueenbeehappenstodieinthefall,beforeayoungqueencanbereared,yourwholecolonywilldiethroughoutthewinter.However,thequeen’sdeathcanbeavoidedbytakingsimpleprecautionsandgivingcarefulattentiontoyourhivecomeautumn.

Framefromahealthybeehive.

Rawhoneyisananti-bacterial,anti-uiral,andanti-fungalsubstance—besidesbeingdelicious.

Coloniesareusuallylostinthewintermonthsduetoinsufficientwinterfoodstorages,faultyhiveconstruction,lackofprotectionfromthecoldanddampness,notenoughortoomuchventilation,ortoomanyolderbeesandnotenoughyoungones.

Ifyouliveinaregionthatgetsafewweeksofsevereweather,youmaywanttomoveyourcolonyindoors,oratleasttoanareathatisprotectedfromtheoutsideelements.Buttheessentialcomponentsofhavingacolonysurvivethroughthewinterseasonaretohaveagoodqueen;afairratioofhealthy,young,andoldbees;andaplentifulsupplyoffood.Thehiveneedstoretainaliberalsupplyofripenedhoneyandathicksyrupmadefromwhitecanesugar(youshouldfeedthistoyourbeesearlyenoughsotheyhavetimetotakethesyrupandsealitoverbeforewinter).

Tomakethissyrup,dissolve3poundsofgranulatedsugarin1quartofboilingwaterandadd1poundofpureextractedhoneytothis.Ifyouliveinan

extremelycoldarea,youmayneedupto30poundsofthissyrup,dependingonhowmanybeesandhivesyouhave.Youcaneitheruseatopfeederoraframefeeder,whichfitsinsidethehiveintheplaceofaframe.Filltheframewiththesyrupandplacesticksorgrassinittokeepthebeesfromdrowning.

ExtractingHoneyToobtaintheextractedhoney,you’llneedtokeepthehoneycombsinoneareaofthehiveorpackedoneabovetheother.Beforeremovingthefilledcombs,youshouldallowthebeesampletimetoripenandcapthehoney.Touncapthecombcells,simplyuseasharpknife(apiarysupplierssellknivesspecificallyforthispurpose).Thenputthecombsinamachinecalledahoneyextractortoextractthehoney.Thehoneyextractorwhipsthehoneyoutofthecellsandallowsyoutoreplacethefairlyundamagedcombintothehivetoberepairedandrefilled.

Theextractedhoneyrunsintoopenbucketsorvatsandisleft,coveredwithateatowelorlargercloth,tostandforaweek.Itshouldbeinawarm,dryroomwherenoantscanreachit.Skimthehoneyeachdayuntilitisperfectlyclear.Thenyoucanputitintocans,jars,orbottlesforsellingorforyourownpersonaluse.

Beesthriveonsweetflowers,suchasclover.

MakingBeeswaxBeeswaxfromthehoneycombcanbeusedformakingcandles,canbeaddedtolotionsorlipbalm,andcanevenbeusedinbaking.Renderingwaxinboilingwaterisespeciallysimplewhenyouonlyhaveasmallapiary.

Collectthecombs,breakthemintochunks,rollthemintoballsifyoulike,andputtheminamuslinbag.Putthebagwiththebeeswaxintoalargestockpotandbringthewatertoaslowboil,makingsurethebagdoesn’trestonthebottomofthepotandburn.Themuslinwillactasastrainerforthewax.Useclean,sterilizedtongstooccasionallysqueezethebag.Afterthewaxisboiledoutofthebag,removethepotfromtheheatandallowittocool.Then,removethewaxfromthetopofthewaterandthenre-meltitinanotherpotonverylowheat,soitdoesn’tburn.

Pourthemeltedwaxintomoldslinedwithwaxpaperorplasticwrapandthencoolitbeforeusingittomakeotheritemsorsellingitatyourlocalfarmers’market.

ExtraBeekeepingTips

GeneralTips1. Cliptheoldqueen’swingsandgothroughthehivesevery10daysto

destroyqueencellstopreventswarming.2. Alwaysactandmovecalmlyandquietlywhenhandlingbees.

Beesliveoffofthehoneystoredinthecombs.Inwintermonthstheyneedasupplyofripehoneyandbenefitfromextrasugarysyrup.

Abeekeepercarefullyremovesframesfromthehive.

3. Keepthehivescoolandshaded.Beeswon’tenterahothive.

WhenOpeningtheHive1. Haveasmokerreadytouseifyoudesire.2. Donotstandinfrontofthehivewhilethebeesareenteringandexiting.3. Donotdropanytoolsintothehivewhileit’sopen.4. Donotrunifyoubecomefrightened.

5. Ifyouareattacked,moveawayslowlyandsmokethebeesoffyourselfasyouretreat.

6. Applyammoniaorapasteofbakingsodaandwaterimmediatelytoanybeestingtorelievethepain.Youcanalsoscrapetheareaofthebeestingwithyourfingernailorthedulledgeofaknifeimmediatelyafterthesting.

WhenFeedingYourBees

1. Keepaclosewatchoveryourbeesduringtheentireseason,toseeiftheyarefeedingwellornot.

2. Feedthebeesduringtheevening.

BeeHiveStack

CornerSectionofaHive

BeeHiveCrossSection

ShallowSuperCrossSection

3. Makesurethebeeshaveamplewaterneartheirhive,especiallyinthespring.

MakingaBeehiveThemostimportantpartsofconstructingabeehivearetomakeitsimpleandsturdy.Justaplainboxwithafewframesandacoupleofotherloosepartswillmakeasuccessfulbeehivethatwillbeeasytouseandmanipulate.Itiscrucialthatyourbeehivebewell-adaptedtothenatureofbeesandalsotheclimateinwhichyoulive.Framedhivesusuallysufficeforthebeginningbeekeeper.Belowisadiagramofasimplebeehivethatyoucaneasilyconstructforyourbackyardbeekeepingpurposes.

Goatsprovideuswithmilkandwoolandthriveinarid,semitropical,andmountainousenvironments.Inthemoretemperateregionsoftheworld,goatsareraisedassupplementaryanimals,providingmilkandcheeseforfamiliesandactingasnaturalweedkillers.

BreedsofGoatsTherearemanydifferenttypesofgoats.Somebreedsarequitesmall(weighingroughly20pounds)andsomeareverylarge(weighingupto250pounds).Dependingonthebreed,goatsmayhavehornsthatarecorkscrewinshape,thoughmanydomesticgoatsaredehornedearlyontolessenanypotentialinjuriestohumansorothergoats.Thehairofgoatscanalsodiffer—variousbreedshaveshorthair,longhair,curlyhair,silkyhair,orcoarsehair.Goatscomeinavarietyofcolors(solidblack,white,brown,orspotted).

FeedingGoatsGoatscansustainthemselvesonbushes,trees,shrubs,woodyplants,weeds,briars,andherbs.Pastureisthelowest-costfeedavailableforgoats,andallowinggoatstograzeinthesummermonthsisawonderfulandeconomicwaytokeepgoats,evenifyouryardissmall.Goatsthrivebestwheneatingalfalfaoramixtureofcloverandtimothy.Ifyouhavealawnandafewgoats,youdon’tneedalawnmowerifyouplantthesetypesofplantsforyourgoatstoeat.Theonedrawbacktothisisthatyourgoats(dependingonhowmanyyouown)mayquicklydepletethesenaturalresources,whichcancauseweedgrowthanderosion.Supplementingpasturefeedwithotherfood-stuff,suchasgreenchop,rootcrops,andwetbrewerygrainswillensurethatyouryarddoesnotbecomeovergrazedandthatyourgoatsremainwell-fedandhealthy.Itisalsobeneficialtosupplyyourgoatswithunlimitedaccesstohaywhiletheyaregrazing.Makesurethatyourgoatshaveeasyaccesstoshadedareasandfreshwater,andoffera-salt-andmineralmixonoccasion.

SixMajorU.S.GoatBreeds

Alpine—OriginallyfromSwitzerland,thesegoatsmayhavehorns,areshorthaired,andareusuallywhiteandblackincolor.Theyarealsogoodproducersofmilk.

Alpinegoat

Anglo-Nubian—AcrossbetweennativeEnglishgoatsandIndianandNubianbreeds,thesegoatshavedroopyears,spiralhorns,andshorthair.Theyarequitetallanddobestinwarmerclimates.Theydonotproduceasmuchmilk,thoughitismuchhigherinfatthanothergoats’.TheyarethemostpopularbreedofgoatintheUnitedStates.

Anglo-Nubiangoat

LaMancha—AcrossbetweenSpanishMurcianaandSwissandNubianbreeds,thesegoatsareextremelyadaptable,havestraightnoses,shorthair,mayhavehorns,anddonothaveexternalears.TheyarenotasgoodmilkproducersastheSaanenandToggenburgbreeds,andtheirmilkfatcontentismuchhigher.

LaManchagoats

Pygmy—OriginallyfromAfricaandtheCaribbean,thesedwarfedgoatsthriveinhotterclimates.Fortheirsize,theyarerelativelygoodproducersofmilk.

Pygmygoat

Saanen—OriginallyfromSwitzerland,thesegoatsarecompletelywhite,haveshorthair,andsometimeshavehorns.Goatsofthisbreedarewonderfulmilkproducers.

Saanengoat

Toggenburg—OriginallyfromSwitzerland,thesegoatsarebrownwithwhitefacial,ear,andlegstripes;havestraightnoses;mayhavehorns;andhaveshorthair.ThisbreedisverypopularintheUnitedStates.Thesegoatsaregoodmilkproducersinthesummerandwinterseasonsandsurvivewellinbothtemperateandtropicalclimates.

Toggenburggoat

Goatsenjoyhavingobjectstoclimbon.

Dryforageisanothergoodsourceoffeedforyourgoats.Itisrelativelyinexpensivetogroworbuyandconsistsofgoodqualitylegumehay(alfalfaorclover).Legumehayishighinproteinandhasmanyessentialmineralsbeneficialtoyourgoats.Tomakesureyourforagesarehighlynutritious,besurethattherearemanyleavesthatprovideproteinandmineralsandthattheforagehadanearlycuttingdate,whichwillallowforeasierdigestionofthenutrients.Ifyourforageisgreenincolor,itmostlikelycontainsmorevitaminA,whichisgoodforpromotinggoathealth.

GoatMilkGoatmilkisawonderfulsubstituteforthosewhoareunabletotoleratecow’smilk,orfortheelderly,babies,andthosesufferingfromstomachulcers.MilkfromgoatsisalsohighinvitaminAandniacinbutdoesnothavethesameamountofvitaminsB6,B12,andCascow’smilk.

Lactatinggoatsdoneedtobefedthebestqualitylegumehayorgreenforagepossible,aswellasgrain.Givethegraintothedoeataratethatequals½pound

grainforeverypoundofmilksheproduces.

CommonDiseasesAffectingGoatsGoatstendtogetmoreinternalparasitesthanotherherdanimals.Somegoatsdevelopinfectiousarthritis,pneumonia,coccidiosis,scabies,liverflukedisease,andmastitis.Itisadvisablethatyouestablisharelationshipwithagoodveterinarianwhospecializesinsmallfarmanimalstoperiodicallycheckyourgoatsforvariousdiseases.

MilkingaGoatMilkingagoattakessomepracticeandpatience,especiallywhenyoufirstbegin.However,onceyouestablisharoutineandrhythmtothemilking,thewholeprocessshouldrunrelativelysmoothly.Themainthingtorememberistokeepcalmandneverpullontheteat,asthiswillhurtthegoatandshemightupsetthemilkbucket.Thegoatwillpickuponanyanxiousnessornervousnessonyourpartanditcouldaffecthowcooperativesheisduringthemilking.

SuppliesAgrainbucketandgrainforfeedingthegoatwhilemilkingistakingplaceMilkingstandMetalbuckettocollectthemilkAstooltositon(optional)Awarm,sterilizedwipeorcloththathasbeenboiledinwaterTeatdipsolution(2tbspbleach,1quartwater,onedropnormaldishdetergentmixedtogether)

Directions1.Readyyourmilkingstandbyfillingthegrainbucketwithenoughgraintolastthroughouttheentiremilking.Thenretrievethegoat,separatingher

lastthroughouttheentiremilking.Thenretrievethegoat,separatingherfromanyothergoatstoavoiddistractionsandunsuccessfulmilking.Placethegoat’sheadthroughtheheadholdofthemilkingstandsoshecaneatthegrainandthenclosetheleversoshecannotremoveherhead.

2.Withthewarm,sterilizedwipeorcloth,cleantheudderandteatstoremoveanydirt,manure,orbacteriathatmaybepresent.Then,placethemetalbucketonthestandbelowtheudder.

3.Wrapyourthumbandforefingeraroundthebaseofoneteat.Thiswillhelptrapthemilkintheteatsoitcanbesquirtedout.Then,startingwithyourmiddlefinger,squeezethethreeremainingfingersinonesingle,smoothmotiontosquirtthemilkintothebucket.Besuretokeepatightgriponthebaseoftheteatsothemilkstaysthereuntilextracted.Remember:Thefirstsquirtofmilkfromeitherteatshouldnotbeputintothebucketasitmaycontaindirtorbacteriathatyoudon’twantcontaminatingthemilk.

4.Releasethegripontheteatandallowittorefillwithmilk.Whilethisishappening,youcanrepeatthisprocessontheotherteatandalternatebetweenteatstospeedupthemilkingprocess.

6.Whentheteatsbegintolookempty(theywillbesomewhatflatinappearance),massagetheudderjustalittlebittoseeifanymoremilkremains.Ifso,squeezeitoutinthesamemannerasaboveuntilyoucannotextractmuchmore.

7.Removethemilkbucketfromthestandandthen,withyourteatdipmixtureinadisposablecup,dipeachteatintothesolutionandallowtoairdry.Thiswillkeepbacteriaandinfectionfromgoingintotheteatandudder.

8.Removethegoatfromthemilkstandandreturnhertothepen.

MakingCheesefromGoatMilkMostvarietiesofcheesethatcanbemadefromcow’smilkcanalsobesuccessfullymadeusinggoats’milk.Goats’milkcheesecaneasilybemadeathome.Tomakethecheese,however,atleastonegallonofgoatmilkshouldbeavailable.Makesurethatallofyourequipmentiswashedandsterilized(usingheatisfine)beforeusingit.

CottageCheese1. Collectsurplusmilkthatisfreeofstrongodors.Coolittoaround40ºFand

keepitatthattemperatureuntilitisused.2. Skimoffanycream.Usetheskimmilkforcheeseandthecreamforcheese

dressing.

3. Ifyouwishtopasteurizeyourmilk(whichwillallowittoholdbetterasacheese)collectallthemilktobeprocessedintoaflat-bottomed,straight-sidedpanandheatto145ºFonlowheat.Holditatthistemperatureforabout30minutesandthencooltoaround80ºF.Useadairythermometertomeasurethemilk’stemperature.Then,inoculatethecheesemilkwithadesirablelacticacid–fermentingbacterialculture(youcanusecommercialbuttermilkfortheinitialsource).Addabout7ouncesto1gallonofcheesemilk,stirwell,andletitsitundisturbedforabout10to16hours,untilafirmcurdisformed.

Cottagecheese

4. Whenthecurdisfirmenough,cutthecurdintouniformcubesnolargerthan½inchusingaknifeorspatula.

5. Allowthecurdtositundisturbedforacoupleofminutesandthenwarmitslowly,stirringcarefully,atatemperaturenogreaterthan135ºF.Thecurdshouldeventuallybecomefirmandfreefromwhey.

6. Whenthecurdisfirm,removefromtheheatandstopstirring.Siphonofftheexcesswheyfromthetopofthepot.Thecurdshouldsettletothebottomofthecontainer.Ifthecurdisfloating,bacteriathatproducesgashasbeenreleasedandanewbatchmustbemade.

7. Replacethewheywithcoldwater,washingthecurdandthendrainingthewater.Washagainwithice-coldwatertochillthecurd.Thiswillkeepthe

flavorfresh.8. Usingadrainingboard,draintheexcesswaterfromthecurd.Nowyour

curdiscomplete.9. Tomakethecurdintoacottagecheeseconsistency,separatethecurdas

muchaspossibleandmixwithamilkorcreammixturecontainingsalttotaste.

DomiatiCheese

ThistypeofcheeseismadethroughouttheMediterraneanregion.Itiseatenfreshoragedtwotothreemonthsbeforeconsumption.1. Coolagallonoffresh,qualitymilktoaround105ºF,adding8ouncesofsalt

tothemilk.Stirthesaltuntilitiscompletelydissolved.2. Pasteurizethemilkasdescribedinstep3ofthecottagecheeserecipe.3. Thistypeofcheeseiscoagulatedbyaddingaproteaseenzyme(rennet).

Thisenzymemaybepurchasedatalocaldrugstore,healthfoodstore,oracheesemakerinyourarea.Dissolvetheconcentrateinwater,addittothecheesemilk,andstirforafewminutes.Use1milliliterofdilutedrennetliquidin40millilitersofwaterforevery2½gallonsofcheesemilk.

4. Setthemilkataround105ºF.Whentheenzymeiscompletelydispersedinthecheesemilk,allowthemixtositundisturbeduntilitformsafirmcurd.

5. Whenthedesiredfirmnessisreached,cutthecurdintoverysmallcubes.Allowforsomewheyseparation.After10to20minutes,removeandreserveabout1⁄3thevolumeofsaltedwhey.

Damiaticheese

6. Putthecurdandremainingwheyintocloth-linedmolds(thebestarerectangularstainlesssteelcontainerswithperforatedsidesandbottom)with

acover.Themoldsshouldbebetween7and10inchesinheight.Fillthemoldswiththecurd,foldtheclothoverthetop,allowthewheytodrain,anddiscardthewhey.

7. Oncethecurdisfirmenough,applyaddedweightfor10to18hoursuntilitisasmoistasyouwant.

8. Oncethepressingiscompleteandthecheeseisformedintoablock,removethemoldsandcuttheblocksinto4-inch-thickpieces.Placethepiecesinplasticcontainerswithairtightseals.Fillthecontainerswithreservedsaltedwheyfromstep5,coveringthecheesebyaboutaninch.

Fetacheese

9. Placethesecontainersatatemperaturebetween60ºFand65ºFtocurefor1to4months.

FetaCheese

Thistypeofcheeseisverypopulartomakefromgoats’milk.ThesameprocessisusedastheDomiaticheeseexceptthatsaltisnotaddedtothemilkbeforecoagulation.Fetacheeseisagedinabrinesolutionafterthecubeshavebeensaltedinabrinesolutionforatleast24hours.

AngoraGoats

Angoragoatsmaybethemostefficientfiberproducersintheworld.Thehairofthesegoatsismadeintomohair:along,lustroushairthat

iswovenintofinegarments.AngoragoatsarenativetoTurkeyandwereimportedtotheUnitedStatesinthemid-1800s.Now,theUnitedStatesisoneofthetwobiggestproducesofmohaironearth.

Angoragoatsaretypicallyrelaxedanddocile.Theyaredelicatecreatures,easilystrainedbytheiryear-roundfleeces.Angoragoatsneedextraattentionandaremorehigh-maintenancethanotherbreedsofgoat.Whilethesegoatscanadapttomanytemperateclimates,theydoparticularlywellinthearidenvironmentofthesouthwesternstates.

Angoragoatscanbeshearedtwiceyearly,beforebreedingandbeforebirthing.Thehairofthegoatwillgrowabout¾inchpermonthanditshouldbeshearedonceitreaches4to6inchesinlength.Duringtheshearingprocess,thegoatisusuallylyingdownonacleanfloorwithitslegstied.Whenthefleeceisgathered(itshouldbeshearedinonefullpiece),itshouldbebundledintoaburlapbagandshouldbefreeofcontaminants.Markyournameonthebagandmakesurethereisonlyonefleeceperbag.Formorethoroughrulesandregulationsaboutsellingmohairthroughthegovernment’sdirect-paymentprogram,contacttheUSDAAgriculturalStabilizationandConservationServiceonlineorinoneoftheirmanyoffices.

Shearingcanbeaccomplishedwiththeuseofaspecialgoatcomb,whichleaves¼inchofstubbleonthegoat.Itisimportanttokeepthefleecescleanandtoavoidinjuringtheanimal.Theshearingseasonsareinthespringandfall.Afteragoathasbeensheared,itwillbemoresensitivetochangesintheweatherforuptosixweeks.Makesureyouhaveproperwarminghutsforthesegoatsinthewinterandadequateshelterfromrainandinclementweather.

Sheepwerepossiblythefirstdomesticatedanimalsandarenowfoundallovertheworldonfarmsandsmallerplotsofland.AlmostallthebreedsofsheepthatarefoundintheUnitedStateshavebeenbroughtherefromGreatBritain.Raisingsheepisrelativelyeasy,astheyonlyneedpasturetoeat,shelterfrombadweather,andprotectionfrompredators.Sheep’swoolcanbeusedtomakeyarnorotherarticlesofclothingandtheirmilkcanbemadeintovarioustypesofcheesesandyogurt,thoughthisisnotnormallydoneintheUnitedStates.

Sheeparenaturallyshycreaturesandareextremelydocile.Iftheyaretreatedwell,theywilllearntobeaffectionatewiththeirowner.Ifasheepiscomfortablewithitsowner,itwillbemucheasiertomanageandtocorralintoitspenifit’sallowedtograzefreely.Startwithonlyoneortwosheep;theyarenotdifficulttomanagebutdorequirealotofattention.

BreedsofSheepTherearemanydifferentbreedsofsheep—someareusedexclusivelyfortheirmeatandothersfortheirwool.Sixqualitywool-producingbreedsareasfollows:1. CotswoldSheep—Thisbreedisverydocileandhardyandthriveswellin

pastures.Itproducesaround14poundsoffleeceperyear,makingitaveryprofitablebreedforanyonewantingtosellwool.

2. Leicestersheep—Thisisahardy,docilebreedofsheepthatisaverygoodgrazer.Thisbreedhas6-inch-long,coarsewoolthatisdesirableforknitting.ItisaverypopularbreedintheUnitedStates.

3. Merinosheep—IntroducedtotheUnitedStatesintheearlytwentiethcentury,thissmall-tomedium-sizedsheephaslotsofrollsandfoldsoffinewhitewoolandproducesafleeceanywherebetween10and20pounds.Itisconsideredafine-woolspecialist,andthoughitsfleeceappearsdarkincolor,thewoolisactuallywhiteorbuff.Itisawonderfulforagingsheep,ishardy,andhasagentledisposition,butisnotaverygoodmilkproducer.

4. OxfordDownsheep—Amorerecentbreed,thesedark-facedsheephavehardyconstitutionsandgoodfleece.

5. Shropshiresheep—Thisbreedhaslonger,moreopen,andcoarserfleecethanotherbreeds.ItisquitepopularintheUnitedStates,especiallyinareasthataremoremoistanddamp,astheyseemtobebetterintheseclimatesthanotherbreedsofsheep.

6. Southdownsheep—Oneoftheoldestbreedsofsheep,thesesheeparepopularfortheirgoodqualitywoolandaredeemedthestandardofexcellenceformanysheepowners.Docile,hardy,andgoodgrazingonpastures,theircoarseandlight-coloredwoolisusedtomakeflannel.

HousingSheepSheepdonotrequiremuchshelter—onlyasmallshedthatisopenononeside(preferablytothesouthsoitcanstaywarmerinthewintermonths)andisroughly6to8feethigh.Thesheltershouldbeventilatedwelltoreduceanyunpleasantsmellsandtokeepthesheepcoolinthesummer.Feedingracksormangersshouldbeplacedinsideoftheshedtoholdthefeedforthesheep.Ifyouliveinacolderregionofthecountry,buildingasturdier,warmershedforthesheeptoliveinduringthewinterisrecommended.

Cotswoldsheep

Merinosheep

Southdownsheep

Strawshouldbeusedforthesheep’sbeddingandshouldbechangeddailytomakesurethesheepdonotbecomeillfromanuncleanshelter.Especiallyforthewintermonths,adrypenshouldbeerectedforthesheeptoexercisein.Thefencesshouldbestrongenoughtokeepoutpredatorsthatmayenteryouryardandtokeepthesheepfromescaping.

WhatDoSheepEat?Sheepgenerallyeatgrassandarewonderfulgrazers.Theyutilizeroughand

scantypasturagebetterthanothergrazinganimalsand,duetothis,theycanactuallybequitebeneficialincleaningupayardthatisovergrownwithundesirableherbage.Allowingsheeptograzeinyouryardorinasmallpasturefieldwillprovidethemwithsufficientfoodinthesummermonths.Sheepalsoeatavarietyofweeds,briars,andshrubs.Freshwatershouldalwaysbeavailableforthesheep.

Leicestersheep

Shropshiresheep

Especiallyduringthewintermonths,whengrassisscarce,sheepshouldbefedhay(alfalfa,legume,orcloverhay)andsmallquantitiesofgrain.Cornisalsoagoodwinterfoodforthesheep(itcanalsobemixedwithwheatbran),andstraw,salt,androotscanalsobeoccasionallyaddedtotheirdiet.Goodfood

duringthewinterseasonwillhelpthesheepgrowahealthierandthickerwoolcoat.

ShearingSheepSheeparegenerallyshearedinthespringorearlysummerbeforetheweathergetstoowarm.Todoyourownshearing,investinaqualityhandshearerandascaleonwhichtoweighthefleece.Anexperiencedshearershouldbeabletotaketheentirewooloffinonepiece.

Youmaywanttowashthewoolafewdaystoaweekbeforeshearingthesheep.Todoso,corralthesheepintoapenonawarmspringday(makesurethereisn’tacoldbreezeblowingandthatthereisalotofsunshinesothesheepdoesnotbecomechilled).Dousethesheepinwarmwater,scrubthewool,andrinse.Repeatthisafewtimesuntilmostofthedirtanddebrisisoutofthewool.Diffusesomenaturaloilthroughoutthewooltomakeitsofterandreadyforshearing.

Oxforddownsheep

Thesheepshouldbecompletelydrybeforeshearingandyoushouldchooseawarm—butnotoverlyhot—day.Ifyouareabeginneratshearingsheep,trytofindanexperiencedsheepownertoshowyouhowtoproperlyholdandshearasheep.Thisway,youwon’tcauseundueharmtothesheep’sskinandwillgetthebestfleecepossible.Whenyouarehand-shearingasheep,remembertokeeptheskinpulledtautonthepartwhereyouareshearingtodecreasethepotentialofcuttingtheskin.

Oncethewoolissheared,tagitandrollitupbyitself,andthenbinditwithtwine.Besurenottofolditorbindittootightly.Separateandremoveanydirtyorsoiledpartsofthefleecebeforebinding,asthesepartswillnotbeabletobecardedandused.

CardingandSpinningWoolTomaketheshearedwoolintoyarnyouwillneedonlyafewtools:aspinningwheelordropspindleandwool-cards.Wool-cardsarerectangularpiecesofthinboardthathavemanywireteethattachedtothem(theylooklikecoarsebrushesthataresometimesusedfordogs’hair).Tobegin,youmustcleanthewoolfleeceofanydebris,feltings,orotherimperfectionsbeforecardingit;otherwiseyouryarnwillnotspincorrectly.Alsowashittoremoveanyadditionalsandordirtembeddedinthewoolandthenallowittodrycompletely.Then,allyouneedistogatheryoursuppliesandfollowthesesimpleinstructions:

Wod-cardsareusedtosoftenandcleanthewodfibers.

Sheeryoursheepinthespringorearlysummer,beforetheweathergetshot.

CardingWool1. Greasethewoolwithrapeoiloroliveoil,justenoughtoworkintothe

fibers.2. Takeonewool-cardinyourlefthand,restitonyourknee,gatheratuftof

woolfromthefleece,andplaceitontothewool-cardsoitiscaughtbetweenthewiredteethofthecard.

Spinningonatraditionalspinningwheel

3. Takethesecondwool-cardinyourrighthandandbringitgentlyacrosstheothercardseveraltimes,makingabrushingmovementtowardyourbody.

4. Whenthefibersareallbrushedinthesamedirectionandthewoolissoftandfluffytothetouch,removethewoolbyrollingitintoasmall,fleecyball(roughlyafootormoreinlengthandonly2inchesinwidth)andputitinabaguntilitisusedforspinning.

Note:Cardedwoolcanalsobeusedforfelting,inwhichcasenospinningisneeded.Tofeltasmallblanket,placelargeamountsofcardedwooloneithersideofaburlapsack.Usingfeltingneedles,weavethewoolntotheburlapuntilitistightlyheldbythejuteorhempabricsoftheburlap.

SpinningWool1. Takeonelongrollofcardedwoolandwindthefibersaroundthespindle.2. Movethewheelgentlyandholdthespindletoallowthewoolto“draw,”or

starttopulltogetherintoasinglethread.3. Keepmovingthewheelandallowtheyarntowindaroundthespindleora

separatespool,ifyouhaveamorecomplexspinningwheel.4. Keepaddingrollsofcardedwooltothespindleuntilyouhavethedesired

amountofyarn.

Note:Ifyouareunabletoobtainaspinningwheelofanykind,youcanspinyourcardedwoolbyhand,althoughthiswillnotproducethesametightnessinyouryarnasregularspinning.Allyouneedtodoistakethecardedwool,holditwithonehand,andpullandtwistthefibersintoone,continuouspiece.Windingtheendoftheyarnaroundastick,spindle,orspoolandsecuringitinplaceattheendwillhelpkeepyourfiberstightandyouryarntwisted.

Ifyouwantyouryarntobedifferentcolors,trydyingitwithnaturalberryjuicesorwithspecialwooldyesfoundinartsandcraftsstores.

MilkingSheepSheep’smilkisnottypicallyusedintheUnitedStatesfordrinking,makingcheese,orotherfamiliardairyproducts.Sheepdonottypicallyproducemilkyear-round,ascowsdo,somilkwillonlybeproducedifyoubredyoursheepandhadalambproduced.Ifyoudohaveasheepthathasgivenbirthandthelambhasbeensoldortakenaway,itisimportanttoknowhowtomilkhersoheruddersdonotbecomecaked.Someeweswillstillhaveanabundanceofmilkevenaftertheirlambshavebeenweanedandthisexcessmilkshouldberemovedtokeeptheewehealthyandherudderfreefrominfection.

Tomilkanewe,bringherrearuptoafencesoshecannotstepbackwardsand,placingtwokneesagainsthershoulderstopreventherfrommovingforward,reachunderwithbothhandsandsqueezethemilkintoabucket.Whentheudderisstillsoftbuttheewehasbeenpartlymilkedout,setherlooseandthenmilkheragainafewdayslater.Ifthereisstillmilktobehad,waitanotherthreedaysandthenmilkheragain.Bymilkingtheewesinthismanner,youcanpreventtheiruddersfrombecominginfectedandthemilkfromspoiling.

DiseasesThemaindiseasestowhichsheeparesusceptiblearefootrotandscabs.Thesearecontagiousandbothrequirepropertreatment.Sheepmayalsoacquirestomachwormsiftheyeathaythathasgottentoodamporhasbeenlyingontheflooroftheirshelter.Asalways,itisbesttoestablisharelationshipwithaveterinarianwhoisfamiliarwithcaringforsheepandhaveyourflockregularlycheckedforanyparasitesordiseasesthatmayarise.

Llamas

Llamasmakeexcellentpetsandareagreatsourceofwoolyfiber(theirwoolcanbespunintoyarn).LlamasarebeingkeptmoreandmorebypeopleintheUnitedStatesascompanionanimals,sourcesoffiber,packandlightplowanimals,therapyanimalsfortheelderly,“guards”forotherbackyardanimals,andgoodeducationaltoolsforchildren.Llamashaveaneventemperamentandareveryintelligent.Theirintelligenceandgentlenaturemakethemeasytotrain,andtheirhardinessallowsthemtothrivewellinbothcoldandwarmerclimates(althoughtheycanhaveheatstressinextremelyhotandhumidpartsofthecountry).

Beforeyoudecidetopurchaseallamaortwoforyouryard,checkyourstaterequirementsregardinglivestock.Insomeplaces,yourpropertymustalsobezonedforlivestock.

Llamascomeinmanydifferentcolorsandsizes.Theaverageadultllamaisbetween5½and6feettallandweighsbetween250and450pounds.Llamas,beingherdanimals,likethecompanyofotherllamas,soitisadvisablethatyouraiseapairtokeepeachothercompany.Ifyouonlywanttocareforonellama,thenitwouldbebesttoalsohaveasheep,goat,orotheranimalthatcanbepennedwiththellamaforcamaraderie.Althoughllamascanbeledwellonaharnessandlead,nevertieoneupasitcouldpotentiallybreakitsownnecktryingtobreakfree.

Llamastendtomaketheirowncommunaldungheapinaparticularpartoftheirpen.Thisisquiteconvenientforcleanupandallowsyoutocollectthemanure,compostit,anduseitasafertilizerforyourgarden.

FeedingLlamasLlamascansubsistfairlywellongrass,hay(anadultmalewilleataboutonebaleperweek),shrubs,andtrees,muchlikesheepandgoats.Iftheyarenotreceivingenoughnutrients,theymaybefedamixtureofrolledcorn,oats,andbarley,especiallyduringthewinterseasonwhengrazingisnotnecessarilyavailable.Makesurenottooverfeedyourllamas,though,ortheywillbecome

overweightandconstipated.Youcanoccasionallygivecornstalkstoyourllamasasanaddedsourceoffiber,andyoumayaddmineralsupplementstothefeedmixtureorhayifyouwant.Saltblocksarealsoacceptabletohaveinyourllamapen,andaconstantsupplyoffreshwaterisnecessary.Nursingfemalellamasshouldreceiveagrainmixtureuntilthecria(baby)isweaned.

Besuretokeepfeedandhayofftheground.Thiswillhelpwardoffparasitesthatestablishthemselvesinthefeedandaretheningestedbythellamas.

HousingYourLlamasLlamasmaybeshelteredinasmallstableorevenaconvertedgarage.Thereshouldbeenoughroomtostorefeedandhay,andthesheltershouldbeabletobeclosedoffduringwet,windy,andcoldweather.Llamaspreferlight,openspacesinwhichtolive,somakesureyourshedorshelterhaslargedoorsand/orbigwindows.Thefeedersforthehayandgrainmixtureshouldberaisedabovetheground.Addingaplacewhereallamacanbesafelyrestrainedfortoenailclippingsandvetcheckupswillhelpfacilitatetheseprocessesbutisnotabsolutelynecessary.

Thellamasshouldbeabletoenterandexitthesheltereasilyanditisagoodideatobuildafenceorpenaroundthesheltersotheydonotwanderoff.Afenceaboutfourfeettallshouldbeenoughtokeepyourllamassafeandenclosed.Ifyouhappentohavebothamaleandfemalellama,itisnecessarytohaveseparateenclosuresforthemtostaveoffunwantedpregnancies.

Alpacas,likellamas,aresocialcreaturesandarehappiestwithotheralpacas.

ToenailTrimmingLlamasneedtheirtoenailstobetrimmedsotheydonottwistandfoldunderthetoe,makingitdifficultforthellamatomovearound.Layinggravelintheareawhereyourllamasfrequentlywalkwillhelptokeepthetoenailsnaturallytrimmed,butifyouneedtocutthem,becarefulnottocuttoodeeplyoryoumaycausethetipofthetoetobleedandthiscouldleadtoaninfectioninthetoe.Useshearsdesignedforthispurposetocutthenails.Useonehandtoholdthellama’s“ankle”justabovewherethefootbends.Holdtheclippersinyourotherhand,cuttingawayfromthefoottowardthetipofthenail.Thenail’sareeasiest

toclipintheearlymorningorafterarain,sincethewetnessofthegroundwillsoftenthem.

ShearingItisimportanttogroomandshearyourllama,especiallyduringhotweather.Brushingthellama’scoattoremovedirtandkeepitfrommattingwillnotonlymakeyourllamaslookcleanandhealthybutitwillalsoimprovethequalityoftheircoats.Ifyouwanttosavethefibersforspinningintoyarn,itisbesttobrush,comb,anduseahairdryertoremoveanydustanddebrisfromthellama’scoatbeforeyoubeginshearing.

Llamasenjoyhay,butkeepitoffthegroundtohelppreventyourllamasfromingestingparasites.

Shearingisnotnecessarilydifficult,butifyouareafirst-timellamaowner,youshouldaskanotherllamafarmertoteachyouhowtoproperlyshearyourllama.Toshearyourllama,youcanpurchasebattery-operatedshearstoremovethefibersforsaleoruse.Differentllamaswillrespondindifferentwaystoshearing.Tryholdingthellamawithahalterandleadinasmallerareatobegintheshearingprocess.Donotcompletelyremovethellamafromanyotherllamasyouhave,though,astheirpresencewillhelpcalmthellamayouareshearing.Itisbesttohaveanotherpersonwithyoutoaidintheshearing(toholdthellama,giveittreats,andofferanyotherhelp).Whenshearingallama,don’tshearallthewaydowntotheskin.Allowingathincoatingofhairtocoverthellama’sbodywillhelpprotectitfromthesunandfrombeingscratchedwhenitrollsinthedirt.

Startbyshearingaflattopthelengthofthellama’sback.Next,takingthe

shearsinonehand,movetheminadownwardpositiontoremovethecoat.Shearastripthelengthoftheneckfromthechintothefrontlegsabout3incheswidetohelpcoolthellama.Shearingcantakealongtime,soitmaybenecessaryforbothyouandthellamatotakeabreak.Takethellamaforaquietwalkandallowittogotothebathroomsoitwillnotbecomeantsyduringtherestoftheshearingprocess.

Collecttheshearedfibersinacontainerandmakesureyouareworkingonacleanfloorsoyoucancollectanyexcessfibersandusethemforspinning.Donotstorethefiberinaplasticbag,asmoisturecaneasilyaccumulate,ruiningthefiberandmakingitunusableforspinning.

CaringfortheCriaBabyllamasrequiresomeadditionalcareintheirfirstfewdaysoflife.Itisimportantforthecriatoreceivethecolostrummilkfromtheirmothers,butyoumayneedtoaidinthisprocess.Approachthemotherllamaandpullgentlyoneachteattoremovethewaxyplugscoveringthemilkholes.Sometimes,youmayneedtoguidethecriaintopositionunderitsmotherforitstartnursing.

Babyllamasandalpacasarecalled“Crias.”

Weighthecriaoften(atleastforthefirstmonth)toseethatit’sgainingweightandgrowingstrongandhealthy.Abathroomscale,hangingscale,orlargergrainscalecanbeusedforthis.

Ifthecriaseemstoneedextranourishment,goatorcowmilkcanbesubstitutedduringtimeswhenthemotherllamacannotproduceenoughmilkforthecria.Feedthisadditionalmilktothecriainsmalldoses,severaltimesaday,fromamilkingbottle.

DiseasesLlamasarepronetogettingwormsandshouldbecheckedoftentomakesuretheydonothaveanyoftheseparasites.Thereisspecialwormingpastethatcanbemixedinwiththeirfoodtopreventwormsfrominfectingthem.Youshouldalsoestablisharelationshipwithagoodveterinarianwhoknowsaboutcaringforllamasandcandetermineifthereareanyothervaccinationsnecessaryinordertokeepyourllamashealthy.Otherdiseasesandpeststhatcanaffectllamasaretuberculosis,tetanus,ticks,mites,andlice.

UsingLlamaFibersLlamafiberisuniquefromotheranimalfibers,suchassheep’swool.Itdoesnotcontainanylanolin(anoilfoundinsheep’swool);thus,itishypoallergenicandnotasgreasy.Howoftenyoucanshearyourllamawilldependonthevarietyofllama,itshealth,andenvironmentalconditions.Typically,though,everyyear

llamasgrowafleecethatis4to6incheslongandthatweighsbetween3and7pounds.Llamafibercanbeusedlikeanyotheranimalfiberorwool,makingittheperfectsubstituteforallofyourfabricandspinningneeds.

Llamafiberismadeupoftwoparts:theundercoat(whichprovideswarmthforthellama)andtheguardhair(whichprotectsthellamafromrainandsnow).Theundercoatisthemostdesirableparttouseduetoitssoft,downytexture,whilethecoarserguardhairisusuallydiscarded.

Gatheringllamahairiseasy.Toharvestthefiber,youmustshearthellama.However,thestepsinvolvedinshearingwhenyouaregatheringthefiberareslightlydifferentthanwhenyouaresimplyshearingtokeepthellamacoolerinthesummermonths.Toshearallamaforfibercollection:1. Cleanthellamabyblowingandbrushinguntilthecoatisfreefromdirtand

debris.2. Washthellama.Besuretorinseoutallofthesoapfromthehairandletthe

llamaair-dry.3. Youcanusescissorsorcommercialclipperstoshearthellama.Startatthe

topoftheback,behindtheheadandneckandworkbackwards.Ifusingclippers,shearwithlongsweepingmotions,notshortjerkyones.Ifusingscissors,alwayspointthemdownward.Leaveaboutaninchofwoolonthellamaforprotectionagainstthesunandinsectbites.Youcanshearjusttheareaaroundthebackandbelly(infrontofthehindlegsandbehindthefrontlegs)ifyourmainpurposeistoofferthellamarelieffromtheheat.Oryoucansheartheentirellama—fromjustbelowthehead,downtothetail—togetthemostwool.Oncetheshearingiscomplete,skirtthefleecebyremovinganylittlepiecesorbellyhairfromtheshornfleece.

Thefibercanbehand-processedorsenttoamill(thoughsendingthefiberstoamillismuchmoreexpensiveandisnotnecessaryifyouhaveonlyoneortwollamas).Processingthefiberbyhandisdefinitelymorecost-effectivebutyouwillinitiallyneedtoinvestinsomeequipment(suchasaspinningwheel,dropspindle,orfeltingneedle).

Llamafibercanbedyedandspuntobeusedforknitting.

Llamasshouldbewashedandallowedtoairdrybeforeshearing.

Toprocessthefiberbyhand:1. Pickoutanyremainingdebrisandunwanted(coarse)fibers.2. Cardthefiber.Thishelpstoseparatethefiberandwillmakespinningmuch

easier.Tocardthefiber,putabitoffiberononeendofthecards(standardwool-cardsdothetricknicely)andgentlybrushituntilitseparates.Thiswillproducearolag(log)offiber.

3. Oncethefiberiscarded,youcanuseitinafewdifferentways:a. Wetfelting:Towetfelt,laythefiberoutinadesignbetween2pieces

ofmaterialandsoakitinhot,soapywater.Then,agitatethefiberbyrubbingorrollingit.Thiswillcauseittosticktogether.Rinsethefiberincoldwater.Whenitdries,youwillhaveproducedastrongpieceoffeltthatcanbeusedinmanycraftingprojects.

b. Needlefelting:Forthistypeofmanipulation,youwillneedafeltingneedle(availableatyourlocalartsandcraftsorfabricstore).LayoutapieceofanymaterialyouwantoverapilloworStyrofoampiece.Placethefiberontopofthematerialinanydesignofyourchoosing.Push

theneedlethroughthefiberandthebottommaterialandthengentlydrawitbackout.Continuethisprocessuntilthefiberstaysonthematerialofitsownaccord.Thisisagreatwaytomaketablerunnersorhangingclothsusingyourllamafiber.

c. Spinning:Spinningisagreatwaytoturnyourllamafiberintoyarn.Spinningcanbeaccomplishedbyusingeitheraspinningwheelordropspindle,andapieceoffiberthatiseitherinabatt,rolag,orroving.Aspinningwheel,whilelargerandmoreexpensive,willeasilyhelpyoutoturnthefiberintoyarn.Adropspindleisconvenientbecauseitissmallerandeasiertotransport,andifyouhavetimeandpatience,itwilldojustasgoodajobasthespinningwheel.Tomakeyarn,twisttwoormorepiecesofspunwooltogether.

d. Otheruses:cardedwoolcanalsobeusedtoweave,knit,orcrochet.

Ifyoubecomeverycomfortableusingllamafibertomakeclothingorothercraftitems,youmaywanttotrytosellthesecrafts(oryourllamafiberdirectly)toconsumers.Fibercraftsmaybeparticularlysuccessfulifsoldatlocalcraftmarketsorevenatfarmers’marketsalongsideyourgardenproduce.

PARTFOURSimpleStructuresforYourLand

“Regarditasjustasdesirabletobuildachickenhouseastobuildacathedral.”

—FrankLloydWright

“Developaninfallibletechniqueandthenplaceyourselfatthemercyofinspiration.”

—Lao-Tzu

Evenifyouonlyhaveasmallplotofland,itmaybehelpfultohaveamodestpottingshednearyourgardenoraworkshopwhereyoucankeepyourtools.Ifyou’llberaisinganimals,you’llneedshelterforthem—evenadogdeservesahouseitcancallitsown.Someoftheprojectsinthischapterofferstep-by-stepinstructionsthatwillguideyouthroughtheentirebuildingprocess.Othersaremeanttoofferguidelinesforastructure,whichyoucanthenaltertomeetyourownwantsandneeds.Ifyouarenewtowoodworking,youmaywanttostartoffwithoneofthesimplerprojects,suchasabirdhouse,andthenprogresstomorecomplexstructuresasyoubuildconfidence.Followthedirectionsclosely,measurematerialscarefully,andcross-referencewithsimilarplansfoundonlineorinotherbookswhenneeded.Ifyou’reanexperiencedbuilder,usethedirectionsandillustrationshereasinspirationtocreateyourownuniquemasterpieces.Whateveryourskilllevel,aswitheverything,trytoenjoytheprocessasmuchastheendresult.

Doghouses

Doghousesandkennelsareeasytoconstructandareespeciallyusefulifyouhavedogsthatprimarilyliveoutofdoors.Adogkennelneedstoprotectthedogfromharshwindsandheavyrainsandshouldbespaciousenoughforthedogtomovearoundincomfortably.Doghousesshouldbelocatedneartoyourownhouse,soyoucanhaveeasyaccesstoyourpet,andshouldbesituatedonasideofyourhousethatcreatesanaturalbarrierfromthewindandweather.Dogsshouldnotbeleftoutsideovernightinverycoldweather,evenwithaccesstoadoghouse.Belowareacoupleofdoghousesandkennelsthatcanbeeasilyconstructedforyouroutdoorpet.

StandardDogKennelThiskennelisconstructedtobewarmandwindproof,todirecttherainawayfromthebasebycreatinglargeroofoverhangs,andtobeeasilycleaned.

MaterialsMatchedboardsforthesides,ends,andbottom(standardmeasurementsforthekennelare30incheslong,20incheswide,and30inchestall)WeatherboardsfortheroofStripofsheetmetalWoodenbeading

Directions1. Maketheendsfirstbynailinglengthsofmatchingboardsacrossuprightsof

2x1-inchbatten(f).Atthetop,halvethebattensintothetworoofpieces.Setthetwoouteruprights,XX,inabout¾inchfromtheedgestoallowthesidestobeflushwiththeoutsideoftheends.Placethesefouruprightsontheinside.

2. Itisadvisabletocutoutthedoor—usingapad-sawforthesemicirculartop—beforenailingonYY,whichshouldbealittlenearertooneanotherthanaretheroughedgesofthedoor.Twoshortverticalsontheoutside,alsoprojectingbeyondtheedges,preventthedoginjuringhiscoatonthem.PiecesZZgivethedooraneatfinish.

Thedoghouseiswiderandhasthedoorsetofftooneside,whichallowsforevenmoreprotectionfromtheelements.

3. Thebattensmaybeomittedfromthebackendofthekennel,buttheyultimatelyhelpstrengthenthestructureandsoareadvisabletoinclude.

4. Whentheendsarefinished,thehorizontalboardsforthesidesarenailedontoeachend(b).Beginatthebottom,arrangingthelowestboardwithitstonguepointingupwardsandaddtheupperboardsonebyone.Thedirectioninwhichthetonguepointsisanimportantdetail—iftheboardsareputonthewrongway,waterwillleakmoreeasilyintothekennel,rottingtheboardsandmakingyourdogwet.

5. Battens(d)and(e)arenailedinsidealongthesidesofthekennelandathirdisnailedacrosstheback,atadistanceabovethebottomedgeequaltothethicknessofthebottomboardsandofthebattens(b)and(c),towhichtheyareattached.Ateachenda2x2-inchdeal,(f),isscrewedto(b)and(c)toraisethebottomclearofftheground.

6. Theroofweatherboardsmustbelongenoughtoprojectatleast6inchesbeyondthedoorend,topreventrainfromcomingthroughtheentrance.Theeavesoverhang3inchesandaresupported,asshownin(a),bythreebracketscutoutofhardwood.Beginlayingontheboards,startingattheeavesandfinishingattheridge,whichisclosedwitha6-inchstripofsheetmetalplacedontopofawoodenbeading.

7. Stainalltheexteriorsurfaces,includingthebottom,andfillinthecrackswithcaulkingtokeepthewaterfromseepingthrough.

Theinsidepartofthekennelshouldbeexposedtothesunoccasionallybybeingturnedonitsend,andthebottomshouldbecleanedoften.

Modifythedogkennelplansheretofityourdogifitisalargerbreed.

Refertothisillustrationwhenmakingthedogkennel.Thekennelraisedoffthegroundisshownby(c);(d)illustratesthepartsincontact;(e)isavertical

sectionofthebackend.

Thiskennelhasafloorthatis2feetsquare,is3feet4incheshighinfront,andtheroofhasanoverhangof8inches.

Birdhouses

Ifyouarelookingtoattractbirdstoyouryardduringthespring,summer,andfallmonths,inparticular,itisimportanttohaveshelterforthebirds.Birdhousesdonotneedtobeveryelaborateandtheyshouldberatherinconspicuoussobirdscaneasilycomeandgowithoutattractingpredatorstotheirhouseandnest.Allthatisreallyrequiredofabirdhouseisagoodhidingplace,withanopeningjustlargeenoughforthebirdtofitthrough,andastrongroofthatkeepsouttherain.

Birdhousescanbemadefromavarietyofmaterials—evenanoldhattackedtothesideofashedwithaholecutinthetopcansufficeforabirdhouse.Otherusablematerialsincludetincans,barrels,flowerpots,woodenbuckets,andsmallboxes(preferablywoodenormetal).

Moststandardbirdhousesaremadeofwoodpiecesnailedtogethertolooklikeaminiaturehouse.Ifyouarelookingtohavemanybirdsnestinginyouryard,youmaywanttobuildafewbirdhousesduringthewintersotheycanbereadyforspringtime,whenbirdsarebeginningtonest.Toattractaparticularkindofbirdtoyourbirdhouse,youmustmakethesizeoftheholeappropriateforthetypeofbird.Forwrens,maketheholeabout1inch;forbluebirdsandtree-swallows,theholeshouldbe1½inches;formartins,itshouldbe2½inches.Belowareafewexamplesofbirdhousesyoucaneasilymaketoattractbeautifulbirdstoyouryard.

Becreativewithyourbirdhousedesigns,experimentingwithdifferentshapesandmaterials.

Abirdarkbirdhouse

BirdArkBirdhouseThisbirdhouseisconstructedofthreetincansjoinedtogether.Bothendsofthecentercanareremoved,butthebottomisleftonbothendcans.Tomakethebirdark,simply:1. Cutaholeintothesideofthecentercanandanotherthroughthebottomof

eachcan.Donotremovethepiecesoftinbutbendthemouttoserveasperches.

2. Cuttheroofboardsofthecorrectsizetoprojectovertheendsandsidesabout1inch,nailthemtogether,andthenfastentheminplacebynailingtheboardstotheconnectingblocksbetweenthecans.

3. Fastenthearkbetweentheblocksonaplatformorboardandthenmounttheplatformonpostsupportsandbraceitwithbrackets,asseeninthepictureabove.Attachseveralsticksforperches.

LogCabinBirdhouseThisbirdhousecanbemadeoutofanysizedbox.Nailpiecestogethertoformtheroof,andthenthatchtheroofingitselftoblendintothesurroundingenvironment.Themoreslopedtheroof,theeasiertheraincanfalloffandnotpenetrateintothehouse.Thishouseisslightlymoreelaborateinthesensethatthesupportpolepassesthroughthehousetoforma“chimney.”Thewindowscanbecutoutandfakedoorspaintedonforaestheticpurposes.Smallbranchesshouldbecuttotheproperlengths,split,andthennailedallovertheexteriorofthehousetoproduceasortof“logcabin”look—thisalsohelpsthebirdhousetobetterblendintothesurroundingtreesandfoliageinyouryard.

Crosssectionofalogcabinbirdhouse

TempleBirdhouseThisisasmallbirdhouse,perfectforwrens.Thisbirdhousehangsfromatreebranch.

MaterialsLargetincanWoodenboardabout7inchessquareCarpetorupholsterytacksEarthenflowerpotSmallcorktopluguptheflowerpotholeEyescrewShortstickWireSmallnails

Templebirdhouse

Directions1. Markthedoorwayonthesideofthecanandcuttheopeningwithacan

opener.2. Fastenthecantothesquarebaseboard(A)bydrivinglargecarpettacks

throughthebottomofthecanintotheboard.3. Inverttheflowerpottomaketheroof.Plugupthedrainholetomakethe

housewaterproof(useacorkorothermeansofstoppingupthehole)(B).4. Screwtheeyescrewintothetopoftheplugtoattachthesuspendingwire.

Drillasmallholethroughthelowerendoftheplugsothatashortnailcanbepushedthroughaftertheplughasbeeninsertedtokeepitfromcomingout.

5. Fastentheflowerpotoverthecanwithwire,passingtheloopofwireentirelyaroundthepotandthenrunningshortwiresfromthiswiredowntosmallnailsdrivenintothefourcornersofthebase,(C).

6. Nowthebirdtemplecanbepaintedandhungonatree.

BirdhousesforSpecificBirdSpecies

SimpleStables

Ifyouareraisinglargerlivestock—sheep,goats,horses,orllamas,forexample—youwillneedasmallstablewheretheycangoforprotectionduringinclementweatherandespeciallyduringthewintermonthsincoolerregions.Buildingstablescanbedonerelativelyeasilyandinexpensively,anddoingityourselfmeansthatyoucancustomizethedesigntofityourandyouranimals’needs.

Stablesshouldbebuiltonrelativelyflatgroundthatdoesnotbecomeexcessivelywetorfloodedduringheavyrains.Layingdownathickbedofgravelorsandbelowthestablefloorwillhelpkeepsurfacewaterdrained.Alsoconsiderthepositioningofthestable;trytofindanareathatisprotectedfromstrongwindsbutalsonearyourownhomesoyoudon’thavetogotoofartotendtheanimalsduringbadweather.Facingthestabletowardthesouthorwestwillhelpkeepanicebreezeflowingthroughyourstablewhileprotectingitfromharshnortherlywinds.Aplacetostorefeedandhayforyouranimalsisalsoaworthwhileadditionwhenplanningandbuildingasimplestable.

GeneralStableConstructionWhenbuildingastableforyourlivestock,makesurethattheinteriorwallsareweatherproofandfreeofdampness.Tokeepmoistureoutofthestable,thebuildingshouldbesituatedonslightlyhighergroundthanthatsurroundingit.Thiswillkeepthegroundfromgettingtoodamp,andvaporswillnotbeaslikelytorisethroughthefloorandfoundationwalls.Ifpossible,itisbesttomakethestableflooroutofconcretebetween4and6inchesthick.

Thestablewallsshouldbebuiltsolid.Brickandstonearepreferabletowood,butwoodenstablesalsodoanadequatejobofprovidingshelterandaremuchmorecommonintheUnitedStates,duetotheavailabilityofwood.Ifyoudecidetobuildyourstableusingbricks,buildingthewallsonebrick(9inches)thickshouldbesuitable.Internalwallsshouldbebuiltsolid,andthefoundationmustbedeepandwideenoughtogivethewholestructurestability.Ifonesideofyourstablegetsthebruntofdrivingrainormoisture,itisagoodideatocoveritwithanextralayerofcementorstucco,orhangshinglestoprotectthewall.

TheDutchdooronthisstablecankeepanimalsenclosedwhileallowingfreshairtocirculate.

Plansforasmallstable

Theexternalanglesofallofthedoorsandwindowsshouldberounded.Thiscanbedonebyusingbull-nosedbricks.Thisway,horsesandotherlivestockwillnotbeinjuredbycomingintocontactwithanysharpanglesorledges.

ASmallStableforHorses,Llamas,orSheepThissimplestableisinexpensivetobuildandhasplentyofroomfortwohorses,

llamas,orsheep,alongwithfeedandtack.Hayandgraincanbekeptintheloft.Placethewindowsashighupaspossibleandhingethematthebottomsothey’llopeninwardlytopermittheairtopassovertheanimalswithoutblowingdirectlyonthem.Makethestabledoora“Dutchdoor”;thatis,adoordividedhorizontallyinthemiddlesothattheupperhalfmaybeopenedandthelowerhalfremainclosed.

Astablecanbemadeoutofavarietyofmaterials,includingbrickandwood.

PoultryHouses

Poultryhousesshouldbewarm,dry,well-lighted,andventilatedshelterswithconvenientarrangementsforroosts,feedingspace,andnestboxes.Inwinter,ifyou’relivinginacoolclimate,lightandwarmthareoftheupmostimportance.Fowlwillstoplayingeggsandtheirhealthwillsufferwhenconfinedincold,wet,anddarkconditions.Windowsfacingthesouthorsoutheast,largeenoughtoadmitthesunfreely,shouldbeprovidedandmadetoslideopentoincreasecirculationduringthesummer.

Beyondthesefewrequirements,housesforyourpoultrycanbemadeinavarietyofwaysandare,generally,relativelyeasytoconstruct.Belowaremanydifferenttypesofpoultryhousesthatcanbeusedtokeepyourfowlwarm,dry,andhealthy.

SimplestPoultryHouseWhilepoultrycansurviveinthistypeofcheaplyandsimplybuiltcoop,itisbestusedinwarmerclimates,wherethewintermonthsdonotbecomeincrediblycoldandnotmuch,ifany,snowfalls.Also,thistypeofcoopisbestsuitedforonlyoneortwochickensorducks.

MaterialsFourpiecesof1x2-inchboardsforthestudsandraftersStrongnailsWirenettingTarredpaper1. TaketwooftheboardsandnailthemtogetherinaTshape.Repeat

withtheothertwo.Settheseapartfromeachotherabout2feet10inchesonthecenters,andcoverthemwithtightlydrawnwirenetting(cuttosize).

2. Coverthewirenettingwithtarredpaper,creatingabarrierbetweentheoutsidewindsandweatherandthefowlinside.

YoungPoultryCoopsChicksneedextrawarmthandprotectionfrompredators.Thiscoop,ifithousessmallchicks,shouldnotholdtheotherfowl,astheymaybullyorevenharmtheyoungchicks.

Thispitchedroofchickencoopconsistsofapitchedroofmountedonthreeboards,6feethigh.Thiscoopis3feetwideand2feetdeep.Nailslatsacrossthefronttopreventthehenfromgettingoutbuttoallowthechickstoenterandexitfreelyintoasmallfenced-inareasurroundingthecoop.

Thecooppicturedaboveissimilartothepitchedroofchickencoopexceptthatthereisacanopythatkeepstherainoutandshadestheinteriorofthecoopsoitdoesnotbecometoowarm.Thiscoopis3feetlong,2feetwide,and30incheshighatthefrontand24incheshighintheback.Thecoopcanbeconstructedfromboardswithmatchededgesandshouldberaisedaninchortwoabovethegroundtoensurethefloorremainsdry.Tackapieceoflightcanvasormuslintotherooftoserveastheawning.

Apitchedroofchickencoop

Chickencoopwithcanopy

Thishenhousehasascratchingshed,whichallowsthechickensaccesstotheopenairwhilestillbeingprotectedfromtheelements.

PracticalHenhouseThissimpleandefficienthenhousehasashedroofand,asmostpoultryhousesshould,facestowardthesouth.Thishousecanbeupto10feetwideandaslongasyouneedtoaccommodateyourchickens.

Ascratchingshedisinthecenterofthebuildingandhaswindowsthatletsunlightin.Thesleepingquartersshouldbekeptwarm.Anopen,wire-enclosedfrontforthescratchingshedshouldbeincluded,too.Theroostsshouldbemademoveableandfreshbeddingshouldbekeptonthefloorofthehenhouse.

Theroofofthehenhouseshouldprojectout1footoverthesouth,east,andwestsides.Itshouldalsobe5incheshigherthanthesiding,allowingforfreeventilation.Twolargewindowswilladmitlightandwarmthintothehenhouse.

Alayingboxshouldextendtheentirelengthoftheroomandmustbedividedintocompartmentsandcoveredwithahingedlid.Thisallowstheeggstobegatheredsimplybyraisingthelidfromtheoutside.Makesuretheflooriscleanedweeklytokeepoutdisease.Theinsideofthewallsshouldbewhitewashedoftentokeepoutmoistureandpests.

Two-RoomHenhouseThistwo-roomhenhousehasasouth-facingfronttoallowamplesunlightandwarmthintothehouse.Itcanbemadeaslargeas10x12feetandshouldbeconstructedofwoodortimberplanks.Itisdividedintotworoomsbyapartitionmadeoutofwirenetting.Thishenhousecanservetwoseparateyards.Afenceconstructedinthemiddleofthehouseyardshouldjointhecenterofthefrontofthebuilding(andatthebackaswellifyousodesire).Inthishouse,bothhensandroosterscanbekeptandareeasilyseparatedwhileallowingeachenoughspaceandexercise.

Atwo-roomhenhousewithasouth-facingfront

Youcanbuildasimpleramptogiveyourchickenseasyaccesstothecoop

Thesepicturesshowhowtheperchescanbemovedtoallowforeasycleaning

Theplatformandperchesshouldbeconstructedinsideofeachroom.Whentheperchesareinneedofcleaning,theyareraisedupagainstthewallinthehouse,inaperpendicularposition.Tocleanthetrough,theperchesandplatformareraisedperpendiculartothefloor.

DuckHousesDucks,whiletheycansurviveratherwellinanytypeofpoultryhouse,arehappiestwhentheyhaveeitherastreamorpondinwhichtoswim,bathe,andgatherfood.Ifyouhaveastreamorpondonyourproperty,situatingaduckhousenearbywillhelpensurethattheduckeggsaresafeandsecure.

Ifyouareraisingagoodnumberofducks,yourduckhouseshouldbeabout30feetlongand12feethigh.Doorsshouldbesituatedinthefrontofthehouseandthehouseshouldhaveafewsmallwindowsthatcanbeslidopentoallowfreshairtocirculatewithintheduckhouse.Therearofthehouseshouldholdthenests(boxesopenatthefront).Asmalldoorshouldbesituatedbehindeachnestsotheeggscanbeeasilyremoved.

Youcanuseastripofwirenettingtoencloseasmall,narrowyardinthefrontofthehouse.Donotusetwinenetting,however,astheduckscouldgettheirheadstwistedinitandstranglethemselves.

Easy,CreativeCoopsIfyoudon’thavemuchspaceinyouryardandonlyhaveafewchickenstokeep,verygoodcoopscanbemadeataverysmallcostfromitemsfoundaroundyour

house,yard,oratrummagesales:1. BarrelCoop

a. First,driveshinglenailsthroughthehoopsonbothsidesofeachstaveandclinchthemdownontheinside.

b. Dividethebarrelinhalf,ifitisbigenough,bycuttingthroughthehoopsandthebottom.

c. Drivesticksintothegroundtoholdthecoopinplace,anddrivealongstickateachsideoftheopenedendjustfarenoughfromthecooptoallowthefrontdoortobeslippedinandout.

d. Thenightdoorcanbemadefromtheheadofthebarreloranysolidboard,andtheslatteddoor,usedtoconfinethehen,canbemadebynailinguprightstripsoflathtoacrosslathattopandbottom.

2. BoxCoopa. Findaboxthatisroughly2to2½feetlong,16inchesdeep,and2feet

highandsawahole,d,inoneend.b. Strengthentheboxwithnarrowstripsofwood,b,c,oneachsideof

thehole.Thisactsasagrooveforthedoor,a,toslidein.Bydoingso,youwillhaveaslidingdoorthatopensandshutseasily.

c. Thefrontofthecoopisenclosedwithlath,ornarrowstrips,placed2½to3inchesapart.Thetopshouldbecoveredwithagoodgradeofroofingpapertomakeitcompletelywaterproof.

3. PortableCoop—Thistypeofcoopwillallowyoutohaveafreshyardforyourchickensandotherpoultrytoscroungeinandiseasilytransportedtoanyplaceonyourproperty.a. ThecoopisbuiltofordinarymaterialonabaseframeandwithaV-

shapedroofandsideframes.Thepreferredlengthofthecoopisabout2feetandtheyardshouldbearound3to4feet.

b. Theridgepoleisextended,asshownateachend,toformahandle.c. Ifdesired,thehenmaybeallowedtofreelyroamtheyardorcanbe

containedwithinthecoopbyslats,asispicturedinthedrawing.

Afoldingchickenroost

Abarrelchickencoop

Floorplanfortheduckhouse.

Aportablechickencoop

Asimpleboxcoop

PoultryHouseAidsandOtherConsiderations

FoldingChickenRoost

Thisroostismadeof3-inchboardscuttoanydesiredlengththatwillfitwithinyourpoultryhouse.Asmallboltfastenstheuprightpiecesattheirtopendsandthehorizontalpiecesarefastenedonwithnails.Thisroostcanbekeptatanyangleandmaybequicklytakenoutofthehousewhenitistimetoclean.Thissortofroostwillaccommodatemorefowlinthesamespacethantheflatkind.

KeepingRatsandMiceOutofthePoultryHouse

Ifyouarebuildingapermanentpoultryhouse,youshouldtrytomakeitasrodent-proofaspossible.Ifratsandmicecaneasilyenteryourpoultryhouse,theywillnotonlystealeggsandspreaddiseases,buttheycouldscareorevenharmthefowl.Cheapandefficientwallscanbemadeofsmallfieldstonesinthisway:1. Digtrenchesforthewallsbelowthefrostline.2. Drivetworowsofstakesintothetrenches,onerowateachsideofthe

trench.3. Setupboardsinbetweenthestakes.Theboardswillholdthestonesand

cementinplaceuntilthecementhardens.Thetopboardsshouldhaveastraightupperedgeandshouldbeplacedleveltodeterminethetopofthewall.

4. Placetwoorthreelayersofstoneinthebottomofthetrench,pourinthinlymixedcement,andpounditin.Repeatthisuntilthedesiredheightisreached.

5. Thetopofthewallshouldbesmoothedoffwithatrowelandleftuntilthecementcompletelyhardens.Thesideboardscannowberemovedandthepoultryhousebuilt.

WinterCareofFowl

Ifchickensandotherfowlarenotkeptwarminthewinter,theywillstopgrowing,ceaselayingeggs,andcanbecomeill.Thereareseveralwaysyoucanwinterizechickencoopstoensureyourbirds’comfortandwell-being.

Especiallyifyouliveincolderclimates,havingahousewithhollowordoublesidewallswillhelpkeepyourfowlwarmduringthewinterseason.Buildingswithhollowsidewallsarewarmerinthewinterandarealsocoolerinthesummer.Theydonotcollectasmuchseverefrostandresultinlessmoistureseepingintothehenhouseoncethefrostmelts.

Theoutsidewallsofchickencoopscanbeplasteredorlinedwithmatchedboardsandthespacesbetweentheboardsfilledwithwoodshavings,sawdust,orhay.Thefloorshouldbecoveredwithseveralinchesofdrysand,woodshavings,orstraw,andtheventilatingholesneartheroofshouldbepartlystoppeduporshuttersarrangedtoclosemostoftheminverycoldweather.Youdon’twanttosealtheplaceupcompletely,though.Nothingismoreimportanttothehealthoffowlthanpureair.Birdsbreathewithgreatrapidityandmaintainarelativelyhighbodytemperature,sotheyneedplentyofoxygen.

Constructingasolid,insulatedroofforyourpoultryhouseforthewinterisveryimportant.Aroofcanbebuilteitherbysealingtheinsidewithmaterialtoexcludedraughtsorbyplacingroofboardsclosetogetherandcoveringthemthoroughlywithtarredpaperbeforeshingling.Anordinaryshingledroofallowstoomuchwindtocomeintothehouseandcouldcauseyourfowltogetfrostedcombsorwattles.Ifthishappens,therewillnotbemuch,ifany,eggproductioninthewintermonths.

Hangingcurtainsinfrontoftheperchesisalsoagreatwaytokeepyourfowlwarmduringthewintermonths.Makethesecurtainsofburlapandhangthemfromtheroofinsuchawaythattheperchesareenclosedinalittleroom.Make

surethecurtainsarelongenoughtotouchthefloorallaround,andsewtheedgesoftheburlaptogether,exceptatthecorners.Atnight,thecornerscanbepinnedtogethertokeepthebirdsfromleavingtheirshelteredperches.Thispseudo-sleepingroomallowsairtomoveinwithoutcreatingdraftsanditalsohelpsretainthebirds’bodyheat.Thismaintainsacomfortabletemperatureforthebirdsduringcold,winternights.

Adrinkingfountainforyourchickenscanbemadewithacanorbucketandatray.Cutoutoneendofthecanandpokeholesalongtheedgeasshown.Fillwithwater,coverwithashallowtray,andturnthewholethingoverquickly.

Chickswillbeabletodrinkwatereasilywithoutriskofdrowning.

Fences,Gates,andPens

Whetheryouarelookingtoaddalovelyfenceandgatearoundyourgardenplantsoryouhavepoultryorotherlivestocktokeepincheck,youmayneedtobuildafence,gate,oranimalpen.Thesestructurescanbeattractiveifwellbuiltandshouldbeabletostanduptoallkindsofweatherandanimals.Dependingonyourneeds,herearesomevariousfences,gates,andpensyoucaneasilyconstructinyouryardoronyourproperty.

FencesFencesareperfectforkeepinganimalsoryoungchildreninaconfinedspaceorfordrawingboundariesbetweenyoursandyourneighbor’spropertylines—butcheckwithyourneighborsbeforeyouconstructyourfencetomakesuretheydon’tmind.Alsocallyourlocalutilitycompaniestomakesurethatyouwillnotbedigginguppowerorgaslines.

WoodenFences

Woodenfencesallowforgoodventilationandanopen,airyfeel.Theycanprovideprotectionforyoungshrubsandplantsaswellaskeepanimalsandchildrensafewithintheyardorfenced-inspace.

Themostcommontypeofwoodenfenceconsistsofhorizontalrailsnailedtopostsorstakesthatareplacedverticallyintotheground.Thesefencescanbeconstructedwiththreeorfourhorizontalrailsthataremadeoutofsplitwood,spruce,orpinewoodplanks.Thepostsareusuallyabout6feetlongandsharpenedattheendthatwillbedrivenintotheground(toadepthofroughly8inches).Thesepostsshouldbespacedabout6feetapart.

Inordertokeepthepointed,earth-boundendsfromrotting,diptheminmeltedpitchbeforeinsertingthemintotheground.Todothis,boillinseedoilandstirinpulverizedcoaluntilitreachestheconsistencyofpaint.Brushacoatofthisonthewoodenpost.Makesurethepostsarecompletelydrybeforepaintingthem.Ifproperlydone,thisshouldkeepmoisturefromseepingintotheburiedpartsofthepostsandwillkeepyourfenceuprightformany,manyyears.

Asimplewoodenfenceisenoughtokeepmostanimalsintheirpastures.

Inordertodrivethepostsintotheground,youwillneedeitheraverygoodshoveloraheavywoodenmallet.Forlongerpoles,useapost-holeborer.Thissaveslotsoftimeandenergyandwillworkwithalmostalltypesofsoil.

Toconstructabasicwoodenfence,you’llneed:

MaterialsPost-holediggers,apost-holeborer,orashovel4x4woodenposts(woodthathasbeentreatedwilllastlongerbutisnotnecessary)2x4lumber(thistoocanbetreatedbutdoesnotneedtobe)orfenceboards(whichcanbepurchasedatyourlocalhomeandgardeningcenter)Thick,longnails

Directions1. Decidewherethefencewillbeconstructedandthenlayalineoftwineor

stringtomarkouttheborder.2. Decidehowtallyouwantyourfencetobe.Takeintoconsiderationwhat

thefenceisbeingusedfor(ifit’sforlargeranimals,suchasllamas,youmaywanta6-foot-tallfence;iffordecoration,ashorterfencemaydothetrick).

3. Digholesforyourendposts(inallfourcornersofyourfence).Makesuretheholesaredeepenoughtobeabletosupporttheendposts.Fillindirtaroundthepostsandpackinthesoilverywell.

Youcannailwiremeshtotherailsofawoodenfenceforextrasecurityortoallowvinesorotherclimbingplantstogrowupalongtheposts.

Aholeborerliftsthesoilfromtheholewithouthavingtousespades.Theseborerscanbeusedbyhandorelectricmodelscanbepurchasedforthe

samepurpose.

Apicketfenceisconstructedbynailingtwoormorelongboardstoposts,andthennailingnarrowverticalboardstothehorizontalones.

4. Startdiggingtheremainingholes,tryingtokeeptheminalignmentwiththeendposts.

5. Inserttheremainingpostsintotheholes,pilinginthedirtandpackingitdownasbefore.

6. Nailonyourfenceboards,leavingalittlespaceinbetween.Paintorstainthefinishedfenceifyouwish.

Note:Ifyouwantaprivacyfence,youcannailthickerboardshorizontallyorverticallybetweeneachpost,makingsurethespaceinbetweenisquitesmall.

WireFences

Wirefencesarebothportableanddurable,makingthemconvenientandeconomicaltobuild.Wirefencesusuallyhavealongerstayingpowerthanwoodenfencessincetheyarelesspronetodeteriorationorrot.

Themostcommontypeofwirefenceisonethathaswirelinesstrungbetweenwoodenposts.Thewiresarefastenedtothepostsbygalvanizedwirestaples.Thewoodenpostsshouldbespacedroughly6feetapartandshouldusefivesinglewires.

AmoresubstantialwirefencecanbemadewithG-linewires.Eachlineconsistsofathree-plystrand.Insteadofthewiresbeingfastenedtothepostbystaples,holesareboredthroughthepostsandthelinespassthrough.Strainingeyeboltswithnutsandwashersareattachedfortighteningupthefence.Thistypeoffence,however,ismuchmoreexpensivetobuildand,unlessyoudesireafencethatisincrediblystrong,isprobablynotnecessary.

Awirenettingfence

[onlyoneexamplebelow(andsomepicturesthathavealreadybeenexplained)]

WireNettingFence

Galvanizedwirenettingfencesareusedforenclosingrootgardensandforpoultryfences.Thestandardtypeofnettingusedwhenmakingthisfenceis3-inchmeshnettingthatis3feetx3feet,andisratherinexpensivetobuy.

Aseparatestripof2-inchgalvanizedwirenettingthatis6incheswidecanbelaidflatonthegroundonthesideofthefencewherethepoultryare—thiswaytheycannotdigunderneath,especiallyoncegrassandothernaturalmaterialshidethewirenetting.

Todiginthistypeoffence,makeatrenchabout6inchesdeep,dropthenettingintoit,andthenfillthetrenchupwithdirt,stones,orevenconcrete,dependingonhowpermanentyouwantthefencetobe.

PortableFences

Ifyouneedatemporaryfenceorifyouwanttobeabletoeasilymoveyourlivestockfencetonewgrazingareasonyourproperty,youmaywanttoconsideroneoftheseeasilymademoveablefences.Belowareafewtypesofportablefencesthatcanbetailoredtoyourspecificneeds.

ConvenientandPortableFence

Oftenitishelpfultohaveafencethatcanbequicklyerectedanddisassembled.Thisfenceisverycheap,strong,andconvenienttouse.Itisbuiltoutofpine(anyotherwoodcanbesubstituted,butpineistypicallylighterandeasiertomove),1x6inchesforthebottomrailand1x4inchesforthetoprails.The

bracesthatholdituprightare2x4inchesandthebase(crosspiece)is2x6inches.Thebaseisnotched2inchesandthebottomboardsarenotchedwithholes.

Thebasepiece,whichismoresusceptibletorot,couldbemadeoutofastrongerwood,suchasoak.

Driveyourfencepolesfarenoughintothegroundthattheystandfirmlyuprightevenwhenmoderatepressureisappliedtooneside.

AG-linewirefenceconsistsofthree-plystrandsofwire.

Makesurethepanelsaren’ttoolongortheymightwarpoutofshape.Thisfencecanbeputupveryquicklyandtakendownagainwitheaseifyouwanttomoveittoanotherpartofyouryardorgetridofitforawhile.

ScotchHurdleFence

Thismoveablefenceconsistsoftwoposts,each2x3inchesand4½feetlong.Thelowerendsarelongandpointed—thisallowsthemtoeasilyenterthegroundandpropupthefence.Thebraceandtwodiagonalsaremadeoflarchorfirwood.Thisfenceisaround9feetlongand4feethigh.

Aportablefence

TheScotchHurdlefenceiseasytosetup.Theinclineshouldbefacingawayfromanylivestockyoumighthavecontainedinsideofit.Astayshouldbeplacedbetweeneverytwohurdlestokeeptheminposition.Onewoodenpegshouldbefastenedtooneendofthehurdleandanotherpegdriventhroughtheotherendandintotheground.

EnglishHurdlePortableFence

Thismoveablefenceismuchlighter,cheaper,andmoreconvenientthantheScotchhurdlefence.Usuallymadeofsplitoak,thisfenceistoughandimpenetrable.Itconsistsoftwouprightendpiecesthatarejoinedbyfourorfivemortisedbars7to9feetlong.Thesearestrengthenedbyanuprightbarinthemiddleandtwo

ThisScotchhurdlefenceisgoodfortemporaryuse.Ifyouliveinaverywindyarea,however,thisfencemaynotsuityouwell,astheydohaveatendencytofalloverinverystronggales.ormorediagonals.Theendpiecesarelongandpointedforsettingintotheground.Tosettheseintotheearth,useanironcrowbartoavoidsplittingthetopofthewoodenpiece.

Anenglishhurdleportablefence

Thesefencesareseterectandnostayisneeded.Thetwoadjoiningendsofthefencesareconnectedwithabandthatispassedoverthem.

GatesGatesareanecessarypartofanyfenceorpenandtheycanbesituatedinthefencewherevertheycanbeeasilyaccessed.Ifyouhaveafield,yourgateshouldberoughly10feetwidetoallowsmallmachinerythrough.

Mostgatesaremadeofeitherwoodoriron(thoughironisobviouslymuchmoreexpensiveandmorecomplicatedtoworkwith).Woodengateswillsufficeformostofyourhomesteadingneeds.Thefollowingareafewsimplegatesthatcanbeusedforyourgarden,yourbackyardfences,andyourpenshousinglivestock.

Inexpensive,SimpleGate

Alight,useful,anddurablegatecanbemadeofsassafraspoles(orothertallgrasspoles)andwire.Digandplaceastrongpost4feetinthegroundinthemiddleofthegatewayandbalancethegateonit.Thelowerrailismadeoftwoforkedsassafraspolessecurelynailedtogethersotheycanbecoiledbackoverthepost.

Gatescanbeusefulforentrancestoayardorwalkway,aswellasforanimalpensorpastures.

Abasicwiregatecanbeconstructedwhenyouneedanopeninginyourfence.

Aneasilyopenedgate

EasilyOpenedGate

Toconstructthissimplegate,takeanoldwheel(possiblyfoundatanantiquestoreorrummagesale)andfastenittomakeagatethatyouwillbeopeningfrequently.Thepieceofboard(C)dropsbetweenthespokesofthewheelandholdsthegateeitheropenorclosed.

SimpleGate

Thisisasimpleandappealinggate,especiallyforfencesleadingintopastures.Thematerialsrequiredtomakethisgatevarydependingonwhatpurposethegatewillserve.

Forapaddockorpasturegate,makeitoutofseasonedboards,1x6inchesand12to14feetlong.Thepostssupportingthegateshouldbeplacedabout5inchesapart,theoneontheinsidebeingabout8inchesaheadoftheother.Thesearejoinedtogetherbycleatsorrollersthatsupportthegateandallowittobepushedbackandswingopen.Ifrollersarenotobtainable,cleatsmadeofanyhardwoodareacceptable.

Asimpleslidinggatecanbemadeforanymodernorwirefence.

Thiswiregateishungonordinaryironposts.Theheelofthegate,madeofangleiron,isfittedwithwindingbracketsfortighteningthewirebars.

PensIfyouhavebuiltasimplestabletohouseyourllamas,sheep,orotheranimals,itwillbebeneficialtobuildasmallfencearounditasanoutdoorpen.Abasicwoodenfenceorasimplewirefencewillenclosemostofyourlivestockinanareaaroundthestableorshelter.Ifyouhaveallamaortwo,itisbesttohaveatleasta4-footfencesotheycannotescape.Ifyouhaveamplespace,havingapathwayintoalargergrazingfieldorpasturefromyourpenwillallowyouranimalstocomeandgoastheyplease.Or,ifyouwanttokeepthemconfinedin

thepen,asimplegatewillsufficeforwhentheanimalsneedtoberemovedorrelocated.

Abamboofenceorgatecanbeconstructedbylashingthebambootogetherwithstrongrope.

BasicBridges

Ifyouhaveariverorbrookonyourproperty,youmaywanttoconstructasimplebridge.Buildingthesebridgescanbequiteeasy,especiallyifyoudon’tplanontransportingveryheavymachineryorcarsoverthem.Hereareafewdifferentwaystobuildbasicbridgesoverstreams,creeks,orotherrathernarrowwaterways.

FootbridgeThisnatural-lookingfootbridgecanbebuiltbetween8feetand12feetlong.

Excavatethebanksofthestreamorcreektoallowforthebuildingofasmall,lowrubbleorstonewall.Thesleeperswillrestonthiswall.Thegirdersareformedofwoodenspars(fourareusedinthisplan).Thegirdersshouldbebetween8and10inchesindiameter.Laythegirdersdownandboltthemtogetherinpairswithsix¾-inch-diametercoachbolts.Wedgethepoststofitmortisesinthegirders.

Thepostsandtoprailsshouldberoughly4½to5½inchesindiameterandtheintermediaterails3inchesindiameter.Finally,jointherailstotheposts.

Thebridgeshouldbeanchoredwellifit’sinaplacewherefloodingisfrequent,asyoudon’twantyourfootbridgefloatingawayinthestream.Todoso,drivefourshortpilesintothesoilontheinsideofthegirders,neartheirends.Fastenthegirderstothepileswithcoachbolts.Thepiletopsarehiddenbytheendsofthefloorbattens.

Now,ifyouwanttodecorateyourfootbridge,youcanusesmalltwigsandnailstomakepatternsonyourbridge.

SmallStreamBridgeIfyouhaveasmallcreekorstreamonyourproperty,youmaywanttoconstructasimplebridgeforeasyaccesstotheotherside.Tobuildthisbridge,you’llneedlumberthatis6incheswideand2inchesthick,andadditionallumberforthefloorandfoursidebraces.

Directions1. Saw11piecesofwoodthelengthrequiredforthetwosides.

Bridgecanbefashionedinarangeofshapes,styles,andsizestomeetyourneeds.

2. Boreboltholes1½inchesfromeachend.Use5/8-inchbolts8½incheslongforwherefourpiecescometogether,anduse6½-inchboltswherethreepiecesmeet.

3. BoltontheA-shapedsupportsandpiecesfortheapproachesatonetime,andthenputonthesidebraces.

4. Thesidesofthebridgearemadeoftriangles.Thefirsttriangleismadeofpiecesa,b,andc.Thesecondtriangleismadeofpiecesb,d,ande.

5. Thepiersforthisbridgemaybemadeofposts,stone,orevenconcrete,dependingonhowpermanentyouwishyoursmallstreambridgetobe.

Acrosssectionofthefootbridge

Jointherailsofthefootbridgetothepostsasshownhere.

Abridgeforasmallstream

Awoodenfootbridge

AVerySimpleBridgeAnotherverysimplewayofbuildingabridgeacrossacreekorstreamistofindanarrowpartofthewaterwayandthenfindtwologsthatarelongerthanthecreekiswide.Theselogsshouldbeverysturdy(notrottedout)andthick.Placethemacrossthecreek,sotheymakeanarrowbeamoverthewater.Eachlogshouldhaveanextrafootateachendofthecreek,sotheycanbesecurelywalkeduponwithnodangerofslippingintothecreekbed.Placethelogsroughlytwofeetapart.

Ifthewatercomesupclosetothebottomofthelogs,raisethemsothebridgedoesnotgetwashedawayinheavystormsorduringthecourseofthestreamrising.Toraisethebridgewillrequireabitmorework,aseachlogwillneedtobesetintoanotherlogontheedgeofthestreambedorevenintostonetomakeitmorepermanent.

Afteryouhavethetwobaselogssecured,findsomesticksthatarelongenough(andrelativelythick)tolayacrossthetopsofthetwologs.Or,ifyouhaveextraplywoodorotherboards,thosecanbeusedaswell.Justmakesuretoplacethesticksorboardsfairlyclosetooneanother,leavingonlylittlegapsbetweenthem.Then,onceallthestickshavebeenlaiddown,securethesebytyingtwineorropetothemandthebaselogs.

Ifyou’dlikeyourbridgetolastalittlelonger,youcanpaveitwithclayorfinecement.Usingashovel,coatthebridgewiththeclayorcementuntilit’sabout2inchesthick.Thenshoveldirtontotheclaymixture,packingitdownallover,andmakethebridgeasthickasyoulike.However,forjustasimplebridgeacrossanarrowstreamorcreek,thewoodensticksorboardswillworkjustfineandwon’trequirequiteasmuchtimeandenergy.

ToolShedsandWorkshops

Beforebuildingatoolshed,thinkaboutwhatyouwanttohouseinit.Ifyoujustneeditforsmalltools,suchasshovels,buckets,andawheelbarrow,asmallershedwillbefine.However,ifyouplantohouseyourmachinerythere,suchasatractor,lawnmower,chainsaw,orrototiller,you’llneedalargershedandyoumaywanttoplanforaslidinggaragedoor–styleentrance.Willyouwantaworkbench,spacetopotplants,shelving,anddrawers?Doyouwantelectricaloutletsforpowertoolsandlights?Alsoconsiderlocation:Itmaybemoreconvenienttohaveitclosetoyourhouse,oryoumayprefertohaveitnearerthegarden.Belowareacoupleofexamplesoftoolshedsthatyoucanmodifytomeetyourneeds.

Medium-sizedToolShedandWorkshopThisshedislargeenoughtoeasilystoreyourbasicfarmmachinery.Theshedisbasicallyagiantumbrellawithposts30feetapartinonedirectionand12or16feetapartintheother.Therearenosidestothisshedatall(thoughyoucouldmodifythisifyouwanttostoreothertoolshere).Ifyouparkyourmainmachinery(tractor,lawnmower,andsoon)intheinnermostpartoftheshed,youshouldstillhaveanoverhangof10feet.Thisshedwouldbemostbeneficialifitwere10feethigh—thatway,mostanykindofmachineyouwanttohouseunderitwillfitwell.Boardingupone,two,orthreesideswillhelppreventsnowfromdriftinginduringthewinterandrainfromrustingyourequipment.Makingwallswillalsoallowyoutohangtoolsontheinsideoftheshed,suchasclippers,weedwhackers,orhoses.

Theworkshophousedabovewillholdalotofsmallertoolsandisagoodplacetomendharnesses,makerepairs,andstoregrain.Theworkshopgivesabouta30-footclearancespacefortheshedbelow.Theentirebuildingisbuilttogetherusingthefollowingmaterials:

2x8-inchpostsThreepiecesof2x12-inchwoodmaterials(spacethese2inchesapart)2x10-inchboxplates6x6-inchbridgetruss

2x4-inchor2x6-inchbeamsfortherafters(dependingonhowmuchweighttheymusthold)

Thefloorofyourshedshouldbeeitherharddirtorcementandthepostsshouldbeanchoredfirmlyintothegroundoronstonepillars.Ashingleroofwillensureyoursmallerworkshoptoolsarekeptsafefromtherainandsnow.

Decidewhatyouwillwanttostoreinyourshedbeforeyoubeginbuildingsoyouknowwhatsizetomakeit.

Plansforamedium-sizedtoolshedandworkshop.

Small,RusticToolShedThissmall,rustictoolshedismadefrom“slabs”or“roughplanks.”Ifyouareusingtreesfromyourownpropertytobuildtheshed,youwon’thavetobotherpeelingthebarkfromthelogsorcuttingthemasexactly.Slabsarecheaptobuy(theycanbefoundatsawmillsandsometimesathomecenters),andcreateanattractive,“woodsy”look.Althoughtheboardsaretypicallynotuniforminsize(somearewiderthanothers),youcanpositiontheminsuchawayastominimizethenumberoflargecracksinyourshed.

Theseboardsmayneedtobestraightened(especiallytheedges)withasaworaxe,andtheinteriorofthetoolshedshouldbelinedwiththinboardstocoverupcracksandtokeepoutinsectsandanimals.

Whenbeginningconstructiononthistypeofshed,searchforboardsthatlendthemselvesbettertobeingendpostsandthosethatarebettersuitedforthewalls.Thecornersofthefourmainposts(4inchessquare)constructabuildingroughly7x5feet.Digholes2feetintothegroundandfitintheendposts.

Onthetopsoftheseposts,restthewallplates—theseshouldbe3inchesdeep.Theseboardswillbeatthebackandsidesoftheshedonly.Thesideswillalsoneedcrossrailsthatarearound2to3inchesthickwithendsflushtothecornerposts.Nailthesideandbackboardstothesecrossboardstosecurethem.

Placetwodoorpostsinthefrontoftheshed.Theyshouldstand2feet8inchesapartandshouldbeabout

Plansfortheinsideofarustictoolshed.

3inchessquare.Theyshouldriseabout6feetorsotoattachtotherafters.Fillinthespacebetweenthedoorandcornerpostswithextraboards.

Theroofforthistoolshedcanbethatchedormadeofboardsandshingles,whicheveryouprefer.Makeraftersandlathsoutofregularboards,arrangingthemabout1footapart,andthelathsshouldbeplaced6inchesapartforthatching.Theshedcanalsobecheaplyroofedwithgalvanizedironortinroofing.

Thedoorofthetoolshedhastheslabsnailedtoitontheoutsideonly,tomakeitaestheticallyconsistent.Attachhingesandthedoorshouldbeready.Insidetheshed,setsofshelvesmaybehunginwhichtoolsandotheritemscanbestored(c).Awheelbarrowcanbestoreduprightattheback(d)andtoolshungfromhookscomingdownfromtherafters.Gardeningtoolsandrakescanbestoredontheright-handside(e)andachaircansitnearthefrontofthedoor(f).

Afinishedsmall,rustictoolshed.

Smokehouses

Ifyouareslaughteringyourownpoultryorotherlivestock,orifyoujustlikethetasteofsmokedmeat,trymakingyourownsmokehouse.Smokehouseshelpexposemeatstotheactionofcreosoteandempyreumaticvaporsresultingfromtheimperfectcombustionofwood.Thepeculiartasteofsmokedmeatisfromthecreosote—thisalsohelpspreservethemeat.Otherflavorsarealsoimpartedontothemeatbythechoiceofwoodthatisburnedinthesmokehouse,suchashickory.

Tomakeasmokehouseyou’llneedaspace(anythingfromthesizeofabarreltoabarn-sizedareawillwork)thatcanbefilledwithsmokeandcloseduptightly.You’llalsoneedawaytohangthemeatthatneedstobecured.Incommonsmokehouses,afireismadeonastoneslabinthemiddleofthefloor.Inotherinstances,apitisdugaboutafootdeepintothegroundandthefireisbuiltwithinit.Sometimesastoneslabcoversthefirelikeastandardtable.Thepossibilitiesaremany,dependingonyourspaceandneeds.Belowareafewexamplesofsmokehousesthatcanbebuiltandusedforsmokingyourownmeats.

StandardSmokehouseThissmokehousediffusestherisingsmokeandpreventsthedirectheatofthefirefromaffectingthemeatsthatarehungdirectlyaboveit.Inthepicture,asectionofthesmokehouseisshown.

Thisstandardsmokehouseis8feetsquareandbuiltofbricks—makingitasomewhatpermanentstructureinyouryard.Ifyouwanttomakeitoutofwood,besuretoplasteriscompletelyontheinside.Thechimney,(c),hasan8-inchflueandthefireplace,(b),isoutside,belowthelevelofthefloor.Fromthispoint,aflue,(f),iscarriedunderneaththechimneyintothemiddleofthefloorwhereitopensupunderastonetable,(e).

Tokindlethefire,avalveisdrawntodirectlydraftupthroughthechimney.Thewoodchipsarethrownontothefireandthevalveisthenplacedsotodirectthesmokeintothebricksmokehouse.Thereareopenings,(g,g),inboththe

upperandlowerpartsofthechimneythatareclosedbyvalves(thesecanbemanipulatedfromoutsidethesmokehouse.Thedoorofthesmokehouseshouldbemadetoshutverytightlyand,whenbuildingthesmokehouse,besurethattherearenotanycracksinthebrickormortarthroughwhichsmokecaneasilyescape.

Smokehousescanbemadeoutofstucco,brick,orwood.

Thisisasectionalviewofabricksmokehousethatcanbebuilttoanysize.

Thistypeofsmokehouseisnicebecausethesmokecoolsbeforeitispumpedintothechamberandnoashesrisewiththesmoke.Meatmaybekeptinthissmokehouseallyearwithouttastingtoosmoky.

AnotherBrickSmokehouseAsmokehouseofthiskind,built7x9feet,willbesufficientforprivateuse.Thebottomofthissmokehousehasabrickarchwithbricksleftoutsporadically.Thisistoallowtheextractionofsmokefromthehouse.

Locatedabovethearcharetwoseriesofironrodsthathavehookswithgroovedwheels.Youcanfindtheseatmostlocalhardwarestores.Theopenarchwayisforhousingthefireandthereisadoorwithstepsleadinguptoit.Aseriesofventilatingholesaresituatedabovethelowerbarandbelowtheupperbar.Theseholesaremeanttoallowthesmoketoescapefromthehouse.Byreinsertingbricksintotheseholes,thesmokewillstaymostlyconfinedtotheinsideofthesmokehouse.

Thearchconfinesthefireandashes,preventinganymeatthatmightfallfrombeingruinedorburned.Thearchismadeoverawoodenframeofafewpiecesofregularwoodboard,cutintoanovalarchshape.Stripsofwoodarethennailedtothis.Whenthebrickworkisdry,thecenterisknockedoutandremoved.Asmalldoorcanbefashionedtocloseupthearchwhenthefireisbeingkilned.

Interiorviewofastandardsmokehouse

Thedrawingshowsacommonsmokehousethatisbuiltonabrickwallandoverabrickarch.Thereareanumberofholesleftinitforsmoketoescape.Theashpitislocatedbeneaththearch,andthereisalsoadoorthatopenstothispit.To

reachthemeatroomdoor,useasturdyladder.

Theinteriorofasmokehouse

Asmokebarrelisasimplemethodforsmokingmeats.

SimpleWaytoSmokeMeatsIfyoudon’twanttocommittobuildingapermanentsmokehouseinyouryardbutyouwouldliketosmokemeatsoccasionally,youcanusedalargecaskorbarrelasasmokehousesubstitute.

Tomakethebarrelintoaneffectivesmokehouse,justfollowthesesteps:1. Digasmallpitandplaceaflatstoneorabrickacrossit.Thisiswherethe

edgeofthecaskwillrest.2. Makingsurethathalfofthepitisbeneaththebarrelandhalfisoutside,

removetheheadandbottomofthebarrel(orcutaholeintothebottomslightlylargerthantheportionofthepitbeneathit).

3. Removethetopofthebarrelandthenhangthemeatoncross-sticks.Restthesecross-sticksoncrossbarsthataremadetofitintoholesboredintothesidesofthebarrel,closetothetop.

4. Putthelidontopofthebarrelandcoveritwithasacktoconfinethesmokeinside.

5. Putcoalsintothepitoutsideofthecask,andthenfeedthefirewithdampcorncobsorafinebrush.

6. Coverthepitwithaflatstonethatwillhelpregulatethefireandcanberemovedwhenmorefuelisneeded.

Fishthatarehungandreadytobesmoked

RootCellars

Whilemostmodernhouseshavebasementsorcrawlspacesinwhichtokeepfreshvegetablesandpreservescoolanddry,youmaywanttoconstructanadditionalrootcellarifyou’llbestoringsignificantamountsoftheseitems.Arootcellarshouldbelocatedneartoyourhomeandshouldbedry,wellventilated,andfrostproof.Creatingyourownrootcellarisnotterriblyexpensiveandwillgiveyouryardandpropertyatrueback-to-basicsfeel.

RootCellarIfyouhaveahillyareainyouryard,thisistheperfectplacetomakearootcellar.Toconstructtherootcellar,followthesesimplesteps:1. Makeanexcavationinthesideofthehill,determininghowlargeyou’dlike

yourrootcellartobe.2. Intheexcavation,erectasturdyframeoftimberandplanks,orevenof

logs.Putupplankstostandassidewalls,andbuildastrongroofovertheframe.

3. Throwtheexcavatedearthoverthestructureuntilitiscompletelycoveredbyatleast2feetofsoil.

4. Ontheexposedend,makeadoorthatislargeenoughforyoutoenterwithoutducking.Or,ifyoulike,youcanmakeasortof“manhole”throughwhichyoucanenter—thiswillactuallyprotectyourrootcellarfromthefrostmuchbetterthanafull-sizeddoor.

Ifthesoilinthehilliscomposedofstiffclay,youmaynotevenneedtoconstructanysidewalls,andtheroofcanbefitteddirectlyintotheclay.Thenbuildupthefrontofthecellarwithplanks,bricks,orstone,andcreateadoor.

Arootcellarcanbebuiltintothesideofahillusingstone,bricks,orwood.

RootHouseIfyoudonothavealargehillonyourpropertyandwouldstillliketoconstructarootcellar,findaknollorotherdryplaceandremovethesoiloveraspacethatisslightlylargerthanthesizeofthecellar(orroothouseifthestructureisnotbuiltintoahill)andabout2feetdeep.Toconstructthisroothouse:1. Selectpolesorlogsoftwodifferentsizes.Thewideronesshouldbeshorter

thantheothertwo.2. Cuttheendsofthelogsveryflatsotheywillfitcloselytogetherandmake

averytightpen-likestructure.3. Cuttwologsineachlayerlongenoughtopassthroughandfitintotheouter

pen.Thiswillhelpfastenthetwowallstogether.4. Buildthedoorwayupwithshortlogspassingfromonelayerofpolestothe

other.Theseserveassupportstotheendsofthewallpoles.5. Fillinthespacebetweenthesetwowallswithsoil.Itisimportantthatthese

arefilledinfully(sodmayalsobeusedtopackinspacesbetweenthelogs)toprotecttheinsidestorageitemsfromfrostandtokeepthewholestructurecool.Packupthesoilasyouconstructthewallssoyoucanmoreeasilycompactitasyoubuildup.

6. Whenthewallsareabout5or6feetononesideand2or3feetontheother,puttheroofon.Theroofismadeofpolesplacedclosetogether,securedtothelogs,andcoveredwithsod,then18inchesofsoil.Itisthenfinishedoffwithsodonceagain.

Thebaseoftheroothouse.

Thefinishedroothouse.

Rootcellarsorhousesaregreatforkeepingvegetableslikepotatoesorcarrotsandforapples,whichcankeepformonthsincool,drystorage.

PARTFIVEEnergy

“Energyconservationisthefoundationofenergyindependence.”

—ThomasH.Allen

Withtheextremefluctuationinoilpricesandever-growingconcernsaboutthestateofourenvironment,it’snowonderthatmoreandmorepeopleareturningtothenaturalelementsforpower.Sun,wind,water,andearthhaveprovidedforthebasicneedsofhumanitysincethebeginningoftimeanditonlymakessensetolearnhowtoworkwiththemmoreefficiently.Theterm“self-sufficiency,”asitiscommonlyused,issomethingofamisnomer.Wewillneverbeabletomeetallofourownneedsalone.Wedon’tcreatethenaturalworldthatsuppliesuswiththelight,heat,andotherresourcesthatwedependon.Butwecanlearnhowtomakegooduseofthosegifts.Inthesepagesyouwillfindbothsimpleandadvancedprojectstodoso,fromfashioningandusingsolarcookerstobuildingandinstallingwindturbinestoutilizinggeothermalsystems.There’salothere,butit’sonlyasamplingofthemethodsavailableforharnessingnaturalenergy.Lookonlineorvisityourlibraryformoreideas,plans,andtips;you’llalsofindanextensivelistofresourcesinthebackofthisbook.Rememberthatthesimplestandperhapsmosteffectivewaytobeenergy-efficientistouselessofit.Thesimplethings,liketurningoffalightwhenyou’renotintheroom—orevenusingcandlelightintheevenings—canmakeabigdifference.Themoreyouunderstandabouttheprocessofturningthenaturalelementsintousableenergy,themoreyou’llappreciatethevalueofelectricityandwanttoconserveitinanywayyoucan.

SolarEnergy

Solarenergyis,initssimplestform,thesun’sraysthatreachtheearth(alsoknownassolarradiation).Whenyoustepoutsideonahot,sunnysummerday,youcanfeelthepowerofthesun’sheatandlight.Solarenergycanbeharnessedtodoavarietyofthingsinyourhome.Theseinclude:

HeatingyourhomethroughpassivesolardesignorthroughactivesolarheatingsystemsGeneratingelectricityHeatingwaterinyourhomeHeatingswimmingpoolwaterLightingyourhomebothinsideandoutDryingyourclothesviaaclotheslinestrungoutsideindirectsunlightSolarenergycanalsobeconvertedintothermal(heat)energyandusedtoheatwaterforuseinhomes,buildings,orswimmingpoolsandalsotoheatspacesinsidehomes,greenhouses,andotherbuildings.

Photovoltaicenergyistheconversionofsunlightdirectlyintoelectricity.Aphotovoltaiccell,knownasasolarorPVcell,isthetechnologyusedtoconvertsolarenergyintoelectricalpower.APVcellisanon-mechanicaldevicemadefromsiliconalloys.PVsystemsareoftenusedinremotelocationsthatarenotconnectedtoanelectricgrid.Thesesystemsarealsousedtopowerwatches,calculators,andlightedroadsigns.

SolarThermalEnergySolarthermal(heat)energyisusedmostoftenforheatingswimmingpools,heatingwatertobeusedinhomes,andheatingspecificspacesinbuildings.Solarspaceheatingsystemsareeitherpassiveoractive.

PassiveSolarSpaceHeating

Passivespaceheatingiswhathappensinacaronasunnysummerday—thecargetshotinside.Inbuildings,airiscirculatedpastasolarheatsurfaceand

throughthebuildingbyconvection—lessdense,warmairtendstorisewhilethedenser,coolerairmovesdownward.Nomechanicalequipmentisneededforpassivesolarheating.

PVSystemComponents.

AdvantagesofSolarEnergyIt’sfree.Itssuppliesareunlimited.Solarheatingsystemsreducetheamountofairpollutionandgreenhousegasesthatresultfromusingfossilfuels(oil,propane,andnaturalgas)forheatingorgeneratingelectricityinyourhome.Solarheatingsystemsreduceheatingandfuelbillsinthewinter.Itismostcost-effectivewhenusedfortheentireyear.

DisadvantagesofSolarEnergyTheamountofsunlightthatarrivesattheearth’ssurfaceisnotconstantanddependsonlocation,timeofdayandyear,andweatherconditions.Alargesurfaceareaisrequiredtocollectthesun’senergyatausefulrate.

Passivesolarspaceheatingtakesadvantageofthewarmthfromthesunthroughdesignfeatures,suchaslarge,south-facingwindowsandmaterialsinthefloorsand/orwallsthatabsorbwarmthduringthedayandreleaseitatnightwhentheheatisneededmost.Sunspacesandgreenhousesaregoodexamplesofpassivesystemsforsolarspaceheating.

Passivesolarsystemsusuallyhaveoneofthesedesigns:1. Directgain—Thisisthesimplestsystem.Itstoresandslowlyreleasesheat

energycollectedfromthesunshiningdirectlyintothebuildingandwarmingupthematerials(tileorconcrete).Itisimportanttomakesurethespacedoesnotbecomeoverheated.

2. Indirectgain—Thisissimilartodirectgaininthatitusesmaterialstohold,store,andreleaseheat.Thismaterialisgenerallylocatedbetweenthesunandthelivingspace,usuallyinthewall.

3. Isolatedgain—Thiscollectssolarenergyseparatelyfromtheprimarylivingarea(asunroomattachedtoahousecancollectwarmerairthatflowsthroughtherestofthehouse).

ActiveSolarSpaceHeating

Activeheatingsystemsrequireacollectortoabsorbthesolarradiation.Fansorpumpsareusedtocirculatetheheatedairortheheat-absorbingfluid.Thesesystemsoftenincludesometypeofenergystoragesystem.

Therearetwobasictypesofactivesolarheatingsystems.Thesearecategorizedbasedonthetypeoffluid(liquidorair)thatisheatedintheenergycollectors.Thecollectoristhedeviceinwhichthefluidisheatedbythesun.Liquid-basedsystemsheatwateroranantifreezesolutioninahydroniccollector.Air-basedsystemsheatairinanaircollector.Bothofthesesystemscollectandabsorbsolarradiation,transferringsolarheattotheinteriorspaceortoastoragesystem,wheretheheatisthendistributed.Ifthesystemcannotprovideadequateheating,anauxiliaryorbackupsystemprovidesadditionalheat.

Liquidsystemsareusedmoreoftenwhenstorageisincludedandarewellsuitedforradiantheatingsystems,boilerswithhotwaterradiators,andabsorptionheatpumpsandcoolers.Bothliquidandairsystemscanadequatelysupplementforcedairsystems.

Activesolarspaceheatingsystemsarecomprisedofcollectorsthatabsorb

solarradiationcombinedwithelectricfansorpumpstodistributethesolarheat.Thesesystemsalsohaveanenergy-storagesystemthatprovidesheatwhenthesunisnotshining.

Anothertypeofactivesolarspaceheatingsystem,themediumtemperaturesolarcollector,isgenerallyusedforsolarspaceheating.Thesesystemsoperateinmuchthesamewayasindirectsolarwaterheatingsystemsbuthavealargercollectorarea,largerstorageunits,andmuchmorecomplexcontrolsystems.Theyareusuallyconfiguredtoprovidesolarwaterheatingandcanprovidebetween30and70percentofresidentialheatingrequirements.Allactivesolarspaceheatingsystemsrequiremoresophisticateddesign,installation,andmaintenancetechniquesthanpassivesystems.

PassiveSolarWaterHeaters

Passivesolarwaterheatersrelyongravityandonwater’snaturaltendencytocirculateasitisheated.Sincetheseheaterscontainnoelectricalcomponents,passivesystemsaremorereliable,easiertomaintain,andworklongerthanactivesystems.Twopopulartypesofpassivesystemsare:1. Integral-collectorstoragesystems—Theseconsistofoneormorestorage

tanksthatareplacedinaninsulatedboxwithaglazedsidefacingthesun.Thesolarcollectorsarebestsuitedforareaswheretemperaturesdonotoftenfallbelowfreezing.Theyworkwellinhouseholdswithsignificantdaytimeandeveninghot-waterneedsbuttheydonotworkasefficientlyinhouseholdswithonlymorninghot-waterdrawsastheylosemostofthecollectedenergyovernight.

Acombinationofanindirectwaterheaterandahighlyefficientboilercanprovideaveryinexpensivemethodofwaterheating.

2. Thermospyhonsystems—Theseareaneconomicalandreliablechoiceparticularlyinnewerhomes.Thesesystemsrelyonnaturalconvectionofwarmwaterrisingtocirculatethewaterthroughthecollectorsandintothetank.Aswaterinthecollectorheats,itbecomeslighterandrisestothetankaboveitandthecoolerwaterflowsdownthepipestothebottomofthecollector.Infreeze-proneclimates,indirectthermosyphons(usingglycolfluidinthecollectorloop)canbeinstalledonlyifthepipingisprotected.

ActiveSolarWaterHeaters

Activesolarwaterheatersrelyonelectricpumpsandcontrollerstocirculatethewater(orotherheat-transferfluids).Twotypesofactivesolarwaterheatingsystemsare:1. Directcirculationsystems—Theseusepumpstocirculatepressurized

potablewaterdirectlythroughthecollectors.Thesesystemsaremostappropriateforareasthatdonothavelongfreezesorhard/acidicwater.

2. Indirectcirculationsystems—Thesepumpsheattransferfluidsthroughthecollectors.Theseheatexchangersthentransfertheheatfromthefluidtopotablewater.Someoftheseindirectcirculationsystemshaveoverheatprotectorssothecollectorandglycolfluiddonotbecomesuperheated.Commonindirectsystemsincludeantifreeze,inwhichtheheattransferfluidisusuallyaglycolwatermixture,anddrainback,inwhichpumpscirculatethewaterthroughthecollectorsandthenthewaterinthecollectorloopdrainsbackintoareservoirtankwhenthepumpstops.

InstallingaPassiveSolarSpaceHeater

Apassivesolarspaceheaterworkswhenthesunshinesthroughthesolarpanelstoheattheairinsideabox.Astheairheatsupinthebox,itrisesandmovesintothehouse.Coolairmovesintotheboxandoutofthehouse—inthisway,thehouseisheatedwithouttheuseofamechanizedheatingsystem.Usingapassivesolarheaterworksbestifyouhaveahousethatfacessouthandhasbothbasementandfirstfloorwindowsonthatsideofthehouse.Ifyourhousemeetstheserequirements(andtherearen’ttoomanyobstructionsthatwouldimpedethesunfromshiningontheheater),thenyoucanbeginconstruction.

Thepassivesolarspaceheaterismadeupofafloorandtwotriangularendwalls,allofwhichcanbemadesimplyoutofplywood.Inbetweentheopenspace,insulationcanbeplaced.Alidcanalsobeaddedtocovertheheaterinthesummer.

Tobuildsuchasolarspaceheater,firstdecidewhereonthesouthernwallyourcollectorwillbelocated.Ifyoucanplacetheheaterinbetweenwindows,thatisthebestoption.Youmayneedtocutthroughthewallnearawindowtoallowfortheproperventilationbutifyoudon’twanttodothis,youcanalsopurchaseadetachableplywood“chimney”tomovetheheatedairintothehouse.Next,findthestudsthatwillsupportthefiberglasspanelandfindapanelthatwillbeoftheappropriatesize.

Apassivesolarspaceheater.

Asolarwaterheater

Next,makethebaseforyoursolarheatingsystem.Thebasecanbemadeof3/8-inchplywoodboard.Nailtheboardtoa2x4andlevelit.Next,addinsulation(thekindfoundonrollsisbest),nailingittotheplywood.Then,nailthewholeboardtothesideofthehouse.Makeslopingsupportsoutof2x4s.Makesuretheendwallstuddingisnailedin,andthenattachtheoutsidepaneltoit.

Undertheshingles,installflashingorsomethingelsethatwillkeepwateroutofthetopofthesolarheater.Then,installthefiberglasspanels,makingsuretheedgesarecaulkedsonowatercancomein.Enclosetheedgesofthefiberglasswithsmallstripsofplywood.Then,installtheouterfiberglasspanelsothatitisflushwiththetopsurfaceandcaulkit.Tofinishup,painttheinsideoftheplywoodsurfacesblacktoabsorbtheheat.Theinsideofthecoverpanelshouldbepaintedwhitetoreflectthelight.

BuildingYourOwnSolarWaterHeaterThisverysimpleandbasicsolarwaterheaterisalowpressuresystemandsoshouldnotbecombinedwithyourhomeplumbingsystem.Thistypeofheaterisperfectforcampingtripsorothersmallerwaterheatinguses.Findthesuppliesonlineoratahardwarestore.

SuppliesCorrugated,highdensitypolyethylenedrainingtube(4inchesispreferred)

AnEPDMrubbercapwithclamp(availableathardwarestoresoronline)Polyethyleneterephthalatebottles(3-literarepreferred—sodabottlesarefine)

Toconstructthewaterheater,simplystretchtheEPDMrubbercapoveroneendofthedrainingtubeandmakecertaintheclampistight.Cuttheendsoffthebottlesandfitthemovertheotherendofthedrainagepipe.Thiswillserveastheglazingtoheatthewater.Eachbottleshouldbeabletofittightlyovertheotherbottleifyoucutasmallholeinthebottomofeach.Fillthetubewithwater,placeitinthesun,andallowthewaterinsidethebottlesanddrainagetubetoheatup.Onceit’swarm(around120°Fisthemaximumitwillheatthewater),itcanbeusedtowashdishesorclothes,orforasmallbath.

HeatingaRoomUsingCollectorsAircollectorscanbeinstalledonarooforanexterior,south-facingwalltofacilitatetheheatingofoneormoreroomsinahouse.Factory-builtcollectorscanbeusedbutyoucanalsomakeandinstallyourownaircollector,thoughnotethatthisisnotalwayscost-efficient.

Theaircollectorshouldhaveanairtightandinsulatedmetalframeandablackmetalplate.Thiswillabsorbtheheatthroughtheglazingonthefront.Thesun’sraysheattheplate,whichthenheatstheairinthecollector.Afanorblowercanpulltheairfromtheroomthroughtothecollectorandblowitintotheroom.

RoomAirHeatingwithCollectors

Aircollectorscanbeinstalledonarooforanexterior(southfacing)wallforheatingoneormorerooms.Althoughfactory-builtcollectorsforon-siteinstallationareavailable,do-it-yourselfersmaychoosetobuildandinstalltheirownaircollectors.Asimplewindowairheatcollectorcanbemadeforafewhundreddollars.Simplewindowboxcollectorfanswillfitinawindowopening.Thesefanscanbeactiveorpassive.Apassivecollectorfanallowsairtoenterthebottomofthecollector,riseasitheats,andentertheroom.Adamperkeepstheroomairfromflowingbackintothepanelonovercastorcloudydays.Windowboxsystemsonlyprovideasmallamountofheatasthecollectorsarequitesmall.

Solarcollectorsonaroof

RoofAreaNeededinSquareFeet(showninBoldType)

SolarCollectors

Solarcollectorsareanessentialpartofactivesolarheatingsystems.Thesecollectorsharnessthesun’senergyandtransformitintoheat.Then,theheatistransferredtowater,solarfluid,orair.Solarcollectorscanbeoneoftwotypes:1. Nonconcentratingcollectors—Thesehaveacollectorareathatisthesame

sizeastheabsorptionarea.Themostcommontypeisflat-platecollectorsandtheseareusedwhentemperaturesbelow200°Faresufficientforspaceheating.

2. Concentratingcollectors—Theareaofthesecollectorsgatheringthesolarradiationismuchgreaterthantheabsorberarea.

Solarthermalenergycanbeusedforsolarwaterheatingsystems,solarpoolheaters,andsolarspaceheatingsystems.Therearemanytypesofsolarcollectors,suchasflatplatecollectors,evacuatedtubecollectors,andintegralcollectorstoragesystems.

CalculatingElectricityBillSavingsforaNet-MeteredPVSystem

Firstdeterminethesystem’ssizeinkilowatts(kW).Areasonablerangeis1to5kW.Thisvalueisthe“kWofPV”inputintheequations.Next,basedonyourgeographiclocation,selecttheenergyproductionfactorfromthemapbelowfor

thekWh/kW-yearinputfortheequations.

EnergyfromthePVsystem=(kWofPV)x(kWh/kW-year)=kWh/year.(Dividethisnumberbytwelveifyouwanttodetermineyourmonthlyenergyreduction.)

Energybillssavings=(kWh/year)x(ResidentialRate)/100=$/yearsaved.(ResidentialRateinthisaboveequationshouldbeindollarsperkWh;for

example,arateof10centsperkWhisinputas$0.10/kWh.)

Forexample,a2-kWsysteminDenver,CO,ataresidentialenergyrateof$0.07/kWhwillsaveabout$266peryear(1,900kWh/kW-yearx$0.07/kWhx

2kW=$266/year).

Includingplentyofenergy-efficientwindowsinyourhomewillallowsunlighttowarmyourroomsnaturally.

AnotherFormofSolarHeating:DaylightingSolarcollectorpanelsarenottheonlywayinwhichthesun’sheatcanbeharnessedforenergypurposes.Daylightinguseswindowsandskylightstobringsunlightintoyourhome.Usingenergy-efficientwindows,aswellascarefullythought-outlightingdesign,reducestheneedforartificiallightingduringthedaytime.Thesewindowsalsocutdownonheatingandcoolingproblems.

Theeffectivenessofdaylightinginyourhomewilldependonyourclimateandthedesignofyourhouse.Thesizesandlocationsofwindowandskylightsshouldbebasedonthewayinwhichthesunhitsyourhomeandnotontheoutwardaestheticsofyourhouse.Facingwindowstowardthesouthismostadvantageousfordaylightingandformoderatingseasonaltemperatures.

Asimplesolaroven

Placingwindowsthatfacetowardthesouthwillallowmoresunlightintoyourhomeduringthewintermonths.North-facingwindowsarealsousefulfordaylightingastheyallowarelativelyeven,naturallightintoaroom,producelittleglare,andcapturenoundesirablesummerheat.

MakeYourOwnSolarCookingOvenThistypeofsimple,portablesolarovenisperfectforcampingtripsorifyouwanttodoanoutdoorbarbequewithadditionalcookedfoodsinthesummer.Thishomemadesolarovencanreacharound350ºFwhenplacedindirectsunlight.

SuppliesAreflectivecarsunshadeoranysturdybutflexiblematerial(suchascardboard)coveredwithtinfoilandcuttothenotchedshapeofacarsunshadeVelcroAbucketAcookingpotAwiregrillAbakingbag

Directions1. Placethecarsunshadeontheground.CuttheVelcrointothreeseparate

piecesandstickonhalfofeachpieceontotheedgenearthenotch.Then,testtheshadetoseeiftheVelcropieces,whenbroughttogether,formafunnel.Placethefunnelatopthebucket.

2. Placethecookingpotonthewiregrill.Putthisallinthebakingbagandputitinsidethefunnel.Therackshouldnowbelyingontopofthebucket.Nowplacethewholecookerindirectsunlightandanglethefunnelinthe

directionofthesun.Adjusttheangleasthesunmoves.

MakeYourOwnSolarPanelsMakingyourownsolarpanelscanbetrickyandtime-consuming,butwiththerightmaterialsandlotsofpatience,youcancertainlycreateaneffectivesolarenergypanel.

SuppliesPegboardSolarcells(quantitywillbedeterminedbyhowmuchpoweryouwanttogetfromyoursolarpanel)ContactwireWirecuttersSolderSolderingironBoltswithwashersandwingnutsPlexiglass

Solarovenscanbefashionedinavarietyofways.Thegoalistohaveasmuchsurfaceareaaspossiblereflectingthesuntowardyourfood.

AluminumframingSiliconecaulking

Screws

Directions1. Applysiliconecaulkinginverticalstripsbetweentherowsofholesonthe

pegboard.Placethesolarcellsfaceupalongthecaulkinginstraightrows,carefullyaligningthemsothatthewirespokethroughtheholes.Thesolarcellsshouldcompletelycovertheboard.

2. Placeasoftsheetorblanketonthegroundortable(topreventthecellsfromscratching)andcarefullyflipthebaordsothatitisfacedown.Soldertogetherthewirescomingouttocreateonethickwirestemmingfromeachhole.Thenuseconnectingwireormetalstripstoconnectthewiresalonghorizontallines.Besuretoconnectallpositivewirestogetherandallnegativewirestogether,withoutmixingthetwo.

Refertotheseillustrationswhileconstructingyourownsolarpanel.

3. Drilltwoholesinthebackofyourpanelandattachapositiveandnegativebolt,washer,andwingnut.Solderthepositivewirestothepositiveboltandthenegativewirestothenegetaivebolt.

4. Buildawatertightframetosize,usingaluminumframingforthesides,plywoodforthebacking,andaplexiglassfacetoallowthesunlighttoshinethrough.Sealallcracksandedgeswithsiliconesealant.

InstallingYourHeatCollectorIfpossible,installyourownsolarheatcollectoronthesouthsideofyourhouse(thesidethatreceivesthemostsunlightduringtheday).Itcanbeplacedinawindowtohelpminimizeyourheatingcostsduringthewintermonths.

Asolarheatcollectorcanbemadefromheavy-dutyfoaminsulation,windowglass,sealant,aluminumfoil,andheavy-dutytape.Paintthefoampanel,orbothsidesofthealuminumsheets,blackandthenmountitoncubesthatarecementedtothesideofyourhousenearawindow.Thiswillallowtheairtocomeinonbothsidesoftheheatcollector.

Allsidesofthefoamshouldbecoveredwithaluminumfoilandthenadheredtothefoamboard.Thenplaceandsealtheglasspanelsoverthefoam,sealingitwiththesealantandheavy-dutytapeifneeded.Anotherpieceoffoamcanbeutilizedasacoverfortheductatnightorduringthewarm,sunnysummermonths.Hingethisonwithhingebracketsorclasps.

Themoresurfaceareayoucoverwithsolarpanels,themorepoweryou’llget.It’sbesttoinstallyourpanelsonthesouthsideofyourhome.

Alternatesolarheatingpanel

AnAlternativeSolarHeatingPanelThistypeofsolarpanelisquitedifferentfromtheexpensive,manufacturedpanelsyoucanpurchaseandhaveinstalledonyourrooforthesideofyourhouse.Itisgreatforheatingairbutcannotproduceelectricity.Youcaneithersituatethisheaterinasouth-facingwindowofyourhomeorplaceitontheoutside,southernwallorontheroof.Heatingpanelsthatareontheoutsideofahousegenerallycreatemoreheatandaremuchmoreeffectiveinheatingaroomorareaofyourhome.

Tostart,youwillneedtopurchaseglassorPlexiglasforyoursolarheatingpanel.Eitheroneshouldbedouble-panedtokeepoutmoisture.Tobuildtheframeforyoursolarheatingpanel,use2x4sandcreateasquareorrectanglethatwillfityourpaneofglass.Nailplywoodtothebackoftheframe.Next,takeapieceofinsulationboardandputitatthebackofthepanel.Heatabsorptioncanbegainedthroughaluminumflashingorcopper.Afterthisisinserted,screwdownthewindowframe,ifyouareusingone,andmakesureitiscaulkedwelltokeepoutanyleakingwater.

Solarpanelscanbeplacedinafieldorothersunnyareatocollectenergy,whichisstoredandthenusedasneeded.

Addtheinteriorboardsthatlinetheframeandthebafflestosealthetopoftheglass.Screwtheseinteriorboardstothesidesofthepaneltokeepthemsecure.Then,cutouttheairopeningsusingajigsaw.Onecircularopeningshouldbeinthelowerleftandtheotherintheupperrightofyourheatingpanel.Beforehangingthepanelup,youwillneedtodeterminewherethestudsareinthewallorwheretheroofraftersarelocated(ifyouareinstallingonyourroof).Itisalso

importantthatyouropeningsdonotfallontopofastudorrafterasthiswilldefeattheirabilitytodirectairflow.Screwinboardsalongthestudsorrafters,onwhichyouwillthenmountthepanel.

RegulationsforInstallingandBuildingSolarHeatingSystems

Beforeyouinstallasolarenergysystem,itisimportanttolearnaboutthelocalbuildingcodes,zoning,andneighborhoodcovenantsastheyapplytothesesystems.Youwillmostlikelyneedtoobtainabuildingpermittoinstallasolarenergysystemontoanexistingbuilding.Commonproblemsyoumayencounterasahomeownerininstallingasolarenergysystemare:exceedingroofload,unacceptableheatexchangers,improperwiring,tamperingwithpotablewatersupplies,obstructingpropertyandyards,andplacingthesystemtooclosetothestreetorlotlines.Therearealsolocalcompliancesthatmustbefactoredinbeforeinstallingyoursystem.Contactyourlocaljurisdictionzoningandbuildingenforcementdivisionsandanyhomeowner’s,neighborhood,orcommunityassociationsbeforebuildingandinstallinganysolarheatingequipment.

Oncethepanelissecuredtothewallorroof,begintoinstalltheairdeliverysystemsothehotaircanbecirculatedthroughoutyourhome.Youmaywanttoaddasmallfan(oneusedinacomputerwillbefine)toyourheatingpanelsoyoucanbettercirculatetheairthroughoutthesystem,thoughthisisnotnecessarytooperateyourheatingpaneleffectively.Ifyoudochoosetouseafan,itmustbeabletofitinsidethewallplate.Youwillneedtodrillaholeinyourwallwherethepanelholesaresituatedontheoutside.Cuttheholeandaddtheconnectortotheductwork,slidingitthroughtheholeintotheroom,andsealofftheedgesofthehole.

Placethefanwithinthewallplateintheroom,andplaceanelectricalboxnearthefantoturnitonandoff.Ifyouaren’tfamiliarwithelectricalwork,youmaywanttoaskanelectriciantohelpyouwithconnectingtheelectricalwiring.Next,mountthesolarpanelsoitfacestothesouth,runningawireintothe

electricalboxinsidetheroom.Thiswillsaveyoumoneyandenergywhilerunningyourfan.Nowturnonthefanandfeelthewarmairstartingtoblowthroughyourroom.

Tofinishyouroutsidepanel,simplypainttheinsideblacktoabsorbmoreheat,addsomeweatherstrippingtosealtheglasstightly,andscrewtheglasspiecetothepanel.

SolarGreenhouseGreenhousescollectsolarenergyonsunnydaysandthenstoretheheatforuseintheeveningandondayswhenitisovercast.Asolargreenhousecanbesituatedasafreestandingstructure(likeashedorlargerenclosure)orinanundergroundhole.

Forgardenerswhowanttogrowsmallamountsofproduce,passivesolargreenhousesareagoodoptionandhelpextendthegrowingseason.Activesystemstakesupplementalenergysourcestomovethesolarheatedairfromitsstoragefacilitytootherpartsofthegreenhouse.Solargreenhousescanutilizemanyofthesamefeaturesandinstallationtechniquesaspassivesolarheatingsystemsusedinhomestostayheated.

Whilestandardgreenhousesalsorelyonthesun’sraystoheattheirinteriors,solargreenhousesaredifferentbecausetheyhavespecialglazingthatabsorbslargeamountsofheatduringthewintermonthsandalsouse

Asolargreenhouse

materialstostoretheheat.Solargreenhouseshavealotofinsulationinareaswithlittlesunlighttokeepheatlossataminimum.

TypesofSolarGreenhouses

Twocommontypesofsolargreenhousesaretheattachedsolargreenhouseandthefreestandingsolargreenhouse.Attachedsolargreenhousesaresituatednexttoahouseorshedandaretypicallylean-tostructures.Theyarelimitedintheamountofproducetheycangrowandhavepassivesolarheatingsystems.

Freestandingsolargreenhousesarelargestructuresthatarebestsuitedforproducingalargevarietyandquantityofproduce,flowers,andherbs.Theycanbeconstructedintheformofeitherashedstructureorahoophouse.Inashedgreenhouse,thesouthwallisglazedtomaximizetheheatingpotentialandthenorthwallisextremelywellinsulated.Hoophousegreenhousesareroundedinsteadofshapedlikeanelongatedshed.Solarenergyiscollectedandstoredinearththermalstorageandinwater.Thesesystems,whilecommon,arenotaseffectiveinutilizingsolarenergyastheshedandlean-tostructures.

Bothflowersandvegetablescanthriveingreenhouses.

SitesforSolarGreenhouses

Theglazingportionofthesolargreenhouseshouldideallyfacedirectlysouthtogainthemaximumexposuretothesun’sheat.Situatingthesolargreenhouseonaslightslopefacingupwardwillmaximizetheamountofsolarenergyitcanabsorb.

MaterialsUsedinSolarGreenhouseConstruction

Forasolargreenhousetobeabletocollect,circulate,andmaintainthegreatestamountofheat,itisimportantthatitisconstructedoutofthepropermaterials.Glazingmaterialsneedtoallowphotosyntheticradiationtogetthroughsoitcanreachtheplants.Clearglassallowsdirectlightintothegreenhouseandsoshouldbeusedasaglazingmaterial.Itisalsoimperativethatwhentheglazingmaterialsaremountedonthegreenhouse,therearenocracksorholesthatcanallowforheattoescape.Thus,glazingmaterialshouldhavehighheatefficiencyandbemadeofresistantmaterialtoholdupininclementweatherandhail.

Solargreenhousesalsoneedtobeabletostoretheheatthatiscollectedforuseoncloudydaysoratnight.Theeasiestmethodforstoringheatistosituaterocks,concrete,and/orwaterinthepathofthesunlightthatisenteringthegreenhouse.Thesematerialswillabsorbtheheatduringthedayandreleaseitduringtheeveninghours.Poolsofwater,rocks,andconcreteslabsorsmallwallsshouldbelargeenoughtoabsorbandemitenoughheattolastforthenightorforafewcloudydays.

Phase-changematerialsmayalsobeusedtoeffectivelystoreheatinyoursolargreenhouse.Thesematerialsconsistofparaffin,fattyacids,andGlauber’ssalt.

Thesematerialsstoreheatastheychangeintoliquidandreleaseitastheyturnbackintoasolidform.Theyarekeptinsealedtubesandmanyareneededtoprovideenoughheat.

Greenhousescanbemadeinarangeofshapesandsizesandcanbeattachedtoyourhomeorseparatefromit.

Allareasofthegreenhousethatarenotglazedneedtobeinsulatedtokeepinthemaximumamountofheat.Weatherstrippingishelpfulinsealingdoorsandvents;foaminsulationishelpfulforwalls.Placeapolyethylenefilmbetweentheinsulationandthegreenhousewallstokeepthesematerialsdry—iftheybecometoowetorsaturated,theywillbelesseffectiveandmaystarttomold.Thefloorsofasolargreenhousecanalsoloseheatsotheyshouldbemadeoutofbrickorflagstone(withinsulationfoamunderneath)tokeeptheheatin.

Thesolargreenhouseneedsoutdoorinsulationaswell,whichcanbeattainedbyplacinghaybalesalongtheedgesofthegreenhouse,orthegreenhousecanbesituatedslightlyunderground(apitgreenhouse).Ofcourse,ifagreenhouseisdugintothesoil,itneedstobeinanareathatisabovethewaterleveltominimizeleakage.

Asolargreenhouse,likeanyothergreenhouse,alsoneedsproperventilationforthewarmersummermonths.Ventsinthesidesofthegreenhousewillhelpcreateairflow.Ridgeventsintheroofwillallowthehottestairtoescapeoutofthetopofthegreenhouseaswell.Ifagreenhouseneedsmoreventilation,asolarchimneycanbehookeduptothepassivesolarcollectorstoreleaseextraheatoutintotheair.

WindEnergy

WindenergyiscreatednaturallybycirculationpatternsintheEarth’satmospheredrivenbytheheatfromthesun.Thesewindsarecausedbytheunevenheatingoftheatmospherebythesun,theirregularitiesoftheearth’ssurface,andtherotationoftheearth.Windpatternsaremodifiedbytheearth’sterrain,bodiesofwater,andvegetation.Sincetheearth’ssurfaceismadeofverydifferenttypesoflandandwater,itabsorbsthesun’sheatatdifferentrates.Duringtheday,theairabovethelandheatsupveryquickly.Thewarmairoverthelandexpandsandrisesandtheheavier,coolerairrushesintotakeitsplace,creatingwinds.Atnight,thewindsarereversedastheaircoolsrapidlyoverland.Thisairflowisusedformanypurposes:sailing,flyingkites,andgeneratingelectricity.

SmallWindElectricSystemsSmallwindelectricsystemsareoneofthemostcost-effective,home-basedrenewableenergysystems.Thesesystemsarenonpollutingandarefairlyeasytosetup.Asmallwindelectricsystemcaneffectively:

Loweryourelectricitybillsby50to90percentHelpyouavoidhighcostsofhavingutilitypowerlinesextendedtoaremotelocationHelpuninterruptiblepowersuppliesridethroughextendedutilityoutages

HowDoSmallWindElectricSystemsWork?Whenthewindspinsawindturbine’sblades,arotorcapturesthekineticenergyofthewind,convertingitintorotarymotiontodrivethegenerator.Mostturbineshaveautomaticoverspeed-governingsystemstokeeptherotorfromspinningoutofcontrolonverywindydays.

Asmallwindsystemcanbeconnectedtoanelectricdistributionsystem(grid-connected)oritcanstandalone(off-grid).Tocaptureandconvertthewind’skineticenergyintoelectricity,ahomewindenergysystemmustgenerallybecomprisedofthefollowing:

Warmairoverthelandrises

1. Awindturbine—Thisconsistsofbladesattachedtoarotor,agenerator/alternatormountedonaframe,andatail

2. Atower3. Balance-of-systemcomponents—i.e.,controllers,inverters,and/orbatteries

Awind-electricturbinegenerator,morecommonlyknownasa“windturbine,”convertskineticenergyinthewindintomechanicalpower.Thispowercanbeuseddirectlyforspecifictasks,likegrindinggrainsorpumpingwater.Ageneratorcanalsoconvertthismechanicalpowerintoahigh-value,highlyflexibleandusefulformofenergy—electricity.

Windturbinesmakeelectricitybyworkingintheoppositewayasafan.Insteadofusingelectricitytomakewind,asafandoes,turbinesusewindtomakeelectricity.Thewindturnstheblades,spinningashaftthatconnectstoagenerator,whichmakeselectricity.

Thebasicpartsofasmallwindelectricsystem

ABriefHistoryofWindEnergy

Peoplehavebeenharnessingenergyfromthewindsinceancienttimes.Windwasusedtosailshipsandwindmillswerebuildtohelpgrindwheat,corn,andothergrains.WindmillswerealsousedtopumpwaterandtocutwoodatsawmillsintheformativeyearsoftheAmericancolonies.Evenintotheearlytwentiethcentury,windmillswerebeingusedtogenerateelectricityinruralpartsofAmerica.Thewindmillagaingainednationalattentionintheearly1980swhenwindenergywasfinallyconsideredarenewableenergysource.ItcontinuestobeagrowingindustrythroughouttheUnitedStates.

InstallingaSmallElectricWindSystem

Smallwindelectricsystems,withtheproperinstallationandmaintenance,canlastover20years.Beforeinstallingyoursystem,firstfindthebestsite,determinetheappropriatesizeofyourwindturbine,decidewhetheryouwantagrid-connectedorstand-alonesystem,andfindoutaboutyourlocalzoning,permitting,andneighborhoodcovenantrequirements.

Manypeopledecidetoinstallthesesystemsontheirown(thoughthemanufacturerand/ordealershouldalsobeabletohelpyouinstallthesmallwindelectricsystem).However,beforeyouattempttoinstallthewindturbine,makesureyoucananswerthesedo-it-yourselfquestions:1. CanIpourapropercementfoundation?2. DoIhaveaccesstoalift,ladder,oranotherwaytoerectthetowersafely?3. DoIknowthedifferencebetweenalternatingcurrent(AC)anddirect

current(DC)wiring?4. DoIknowenoughaboutelectricitytosafelywiremyturbine?5. DoIknowhowtosafelyhandleandinstallbatteries?

Iftheanswertoanyofthesequestionsis“No,”thenyoushouldhavesomeonehelpyouinstallthesystem(contactthemanufactureroryourstateenergyoffice).

EvaluatingaPotentialSiteforYourSmallWindTurbineThesiteonwhichyouchoosetoinstallyoursystemshouldmeetthefollowingcriteria:

Yourpropertyhasagoodwindresource—goodannualwindspeedsandaprevailingdirectionforthewind.

InsideaWindTurbine

Partsofawindturbine:Anemometer:measuresthewindspeedandtransmitswindspeeddatatothecontroller.Blades:mostturbineshaveeithertwoorthreebladesandthewindblowsovertheblades,causingthebladestoliftand

rotate.Brake:adiscbrake,appliedmechanically,electrically,orhydraulically,andstopstherotorinemergencies.Controller:startsupthemachineatwindspeedsofabout8to16mphandshutsoffthemachineatabout55mphwindspeeds.Turbinesdonotoperateatwindspeedsabove55mphbecausetheymaybedamaged.Gearbox:gearsconnectthelow-speedshafttothehigh-speedshaftandincreasetherotationalspeedsfromabout30to60rotationsperminute(rpm)toabout1000to1800rpm—therotationalspeedrequiredbymostgeneratorstoproduceelectricity.Thegearboxisacostlyandheavypartofthewindturbine.Generator:usuallyanoff-the-shelfinductiongeneratorthatproduces60-cycleACelectricity.High-speedshaft:drivesthegenerator.Low-speedshaft:turnedbytherotoratabout30to60rpm.Nacelle:sitsatopthetowerandcontainsthegearbox,low-andhigh-speedshafts,generator,controller,andbrake.Somenacellesarelargeenoughforahelicoptertolandon.Pitch:Turnsthebladesoutofthewindtocontroltherotorspeedandkeeptherotorfromturninginwindsthataretoohighortoolowtoproduceelectricity.Rotor:thebladesandhub.Tower:madefromtubularsteel,concrete,orsteellattice.Sincewindspeedincreaseswithheight,tallertowersenableturbinestocapturemoreenergyandgeneratemoreelectricity.Winddirection:an“upwind”turbineoperatesfacingintothewindwhileotherturbinesaredesignedtoface“downwind”orawayfromthewind.Windvane:measureswinddirectionandcommunicateswiththeyawdrivetoorienttheturbineproperlywithrespecttothewind.Yawdrive:usedtokeeptherotorfacingintothewindasthewinddirectionchanges(notrequiredfordownwindturbines).Yawmotor:powerstheyawdrive.

Yourhomeislocatedonatleastoneacreoflandinaruralarea.Yourlocalzoningcodesandcovenantsdonotprohibitconstructionofawindturbine.Youraverageelectricitybillis$150permonthormore.

Ifyouliveinanareathathascomplexterrain,becarefulwhenselectinganinstallationsite.Ifyouplaceyourwindturbineonthetopofahilloronanexceptionallywindyside,youwillhavemoreaccesstoprevailingwindsthaninagullyorontheshelteredsideofahill.Additionally,itisimportanttoconsideranyexistingobstacles—trees,houses,sheds—thatmaybeinthewayofthewind’spath.Youshouldalsoplanforfutureobstructions,suchasnewbuildingsorlandscaping.Yourturbineneedstobepositionedupwindofanybuildingsandtrees,anditneedstobe30feetaboveanythingwithin300feetofitssite.

Whendeterminingthesuitabilityofyoursiteforasmallelectricwindsystem,estimateyoursite’swindresource.Windresourcecanvarysignificantlyoveranareaofjustafewmilesbecauseoflocalterrain’sinfluenceonwindflow.Usethefollowingmethodstohelpestimateyourwindresourcebeforeinstallingyoursmallelectricwindsystem:1. Consultawindresourcemap.Thisisusedtoestimatethewindresourcein

yourarea.YoucanfindaspecificmapforyourstateattheU.S.DepartmentofEnergy’sWindPoweringAmericaProgramWebsite.A

generalU.S.mapisshowninthefigure.2. Obtainwindspeeddata.Theeasiestwaytoquantifythewindresourcein

yourareaisbyobtainingtheaveragewindspeedinformationfromalocalairport.Airportwinddataaretypicallymeasured20to33feetaboveground.Averagewindspeedsincreasewithheightandmaybeasmuchas15to25percentgreateratausualwindturbinehub(80feethigh)thanthosemeasuredatairports.

3. Watchvegetationflagging.Flaggingistheeffectofstrongwindsonanareaofvegetation.Forexample,ifagroupoftreesonflatgroundisleaningsignificantlyinonedirection,chancesarethey’vebecomethatwayduetostrongwinds.

4. Useameasurementsystem.Directmonitoringusingameasurementsystematacertainsiteprovidesthebestpictureoftheavailablewindresource.Theseareveryexpensive,however,andsomaynotbepracticaltouse.

5. Obtaindatafromalocalsmallwindsystem—ifthereisasmallwindturbinenearyourarea,youmaybeabletoobtaininformationontheannualoutputofthesystem,aswellaswindspeeddata.

WindPowerClassification

SmallWindTurbinesUsedforHomesSingle,small,stand-aloneturbinesthataresizedbelow100kilowattsareusedforhomes,telecommunicationdishes,andwaterpumping.Usedinresidentialapplications,thesesmallwindturbinescanrangefrom400wattsto20kilowatts.Inadditiontobeingusedforgeneratingelectricityandpumpingwater,theycanbeusedforchargingbatteries.MostU.S.manufacturersratetheirsmallwindturbinesbytheamountofpowertheycansafelyproduceatwindspeedsbetween24and36mph.

Anaveragehomeusesabout9,400kilowatthoursofelectricityperyear.Thus,awindturbineratedinthe5-to15-kilowattrangewouldmakeasignificantcontributiontothisenergydemand.Beforedecidingonawindturbineyoushould:1. Establishanenergybudget.Trytoreducetheelectricityuseinyourhome

soyouwillonlyneedasmallturbine.

Vegetationflaggingistheeffectofstrongwindsonvegetation.It’sagoodindicatorofhowstrongthewindsareinthatarea.

2. Determineanappropriateheightforthewindturbine’stowersoitwillgeneratethemaximumamountofenergy.

3. Rememberthatasmallhome-sizedwindmachinehasrotorsthatarebetween8and25feetindiameterandstandaround30feettall.Ifyourpropertydoesnothaveenoughspacetoaccommodatethis,youmaynotbeabletohaveapowerfulenoughturbinetohelpsignificantlyreduceyourenergycosts.

Windmillbladescanvaryinshapebutshouldalwaysbeangledtocatchthemostwind.

MaintainingYourSmallWindTurbineInordertokeepyourturbinerunningsmoothlyandefficiently,doanannualcheckofthefollowing:

Checkandtightenboltsandelectricalconnectionsasnecessary.Checkmachinesforcorrosion.Checktheguywiresforpropertension.Checkforandreplaceanywornleading-edgetapeontheturbineblades.Replacetheturbinebladesand/orbearingsafter10years.

TypesofWindTurbinesModernwindturbinesfallintotwobasiccategories:horizontal-axisvarietiesandvertical-axisdesigns.

Horizontal-axisWindTurbines

Mostwindmachinesusedtodayfallintothiscategory.Horizontal-axiswindmachineshavebladeslikeanairplanepropeller.Astandardhorizontalwindmachinestandsabout20storiestallandhasthreebladesspanning200feetacross.Thesearethemachinesmostreadilyfoundinlargefieldsandonwind

farms.

Themajorityofsmallwindturbinesmadetodayareofthehorizontal-axisstyle.Theyhavetwoorthreebladesmadeofcompositematerial,suchasfiberglass.Theturbine’sframeisastructuretowhichtherotor,generator,andtailareallattached.Thediameteroftherotorwilldeterminetheamountofenergytheturbinewillproduce.Thetailhelpskeeptheturbinefacingintothe

Stand-AloneandSmallHybridSystems

Asolarandwindhybridenergysystem

Windpowercanalsobeusedinoff-gridsystems.Thesearecalledstand-alonesystemsbecausetheyarenotconnectedtoanelectricdistributiongrid.Inthesesystems,smallwindturbinescanbeusedincombinationwithothercomponents,suchassmallsolarelectricsystems,tocreateahybridpowersystem.Hybridpowersystemsprovidereliableoff-gridpowerforhomes(andevenforentirecommunitiesincertaininstances)thatarefarfromlocalutilitylines.

Ahybridelectricsystemmaybeapracticalsystemforyouif:Youliveinanareawithaverageannualwindspeedofatleastninemph.Agridconnectionisnotavailableorcanonlybemadethrough

averycostlyextension.Youwouldliketobecomeindependentfromyourenergyutilitycompany.Youwouldliketogeneratecleanpower.

Smallhybridsystemsthatcombinewindandsolartechnologiesofferseveraladvantagesovereithersinglesystem.InmanypartsoftheUnitedStates,windspeedsarelowinthesummerwhenthesunshinesthebrightestandforthelongesthours.Conversely,thewindisstrongerinthewinterwhenlesssunlightisavailable.Thesehybridsystems,therefore,aremorelikelytoproducepowerwhenyouneedit.

Iftherearetimeswhenneitherthewindnorthesolarsystemsareproducingenergy,mosthybridsystemswillthenprovidepowerthroughbatteriesoranenginegeneratorpoweredbydieselfuel(whichcanalsorechargethebatteriesiftheyrunlow).

Hybridpowersystemscombinemultiplesourcestodelivernonintermittentelectricpower.

wind.Mountedonatower,thewindturbinehasbetteraccesstostrongerwinds.

Thesemachinesalsorequirebalance-of-systemcomponents.Thesepartsarerequiredforwaterpumpingsystemsandotherresidentialusesofyourwindturbine.Thesealsovarybasedonthetypeofsystemyouareusing:eitheragrid-

connected,stand-alone,orhybrid.

Forexample,ifyouhavearesidentialgrid-connectedwindturbinesystem,yourbalance-of-systemspartswillinclude:

AcontrollerStoragebatteriesApowerconditioningunit(inverter)Wiring

Ahorizontal-axiswindturbine

Ahybridwindandsolarenergysystem

ElectricaldisconnectswitchGroundingsystemFoundationforthetower

Vertical-axisWindTurbines

Thesemachineshavebladesthatgofromtoptobottom.Themostcommontypelookslikeagianttwo-bladedeggbeater.Vertical-axiswindmachinesaregenerally100feettalland50feetwide.Thoughthesewindturbineshavethepotentialtoproduceagreatdealofenergy,theymakeuponlyasmallpercentageofthewindmachinesthatareinusecurrentlyduetothecostandeffortrequiredtosetthemup.Inaddition,theyproduceagreatdealofnoise,canbeunsightly,hurtthebirdpopulation,andrequirelargeroadsandheavy-dutyequipmenttogetthemupandrunning.

Grid-ConnectedSmallWindElectricSystemsSmallwindenergysystemscanbeconnectedtotheelectricitydistributionsystemtobecome“grid-connectedsystems.”Thesewindturbinescanhelpreduceyourconsumptionofutility-suppliedelectricityforappliances,electricheat,andlighting.Theutilitywillmakeupthedifferenceforanyenergythat

yourturbinecannotmake.Anyexcesselectricitythatisproducedbythesystem,andcannotbeusedbythehousehold,canoftenbesentorsoldtotheutility.Onedrawbacktothissystem,however,isthatduringpoweroutages,thewindturbineisrequiredtoshutdownforsafetyreasons.

Grid-connectedsystemsareonlypracticalif:Youliveinanareawithaverageannualwindspeedsofatleast10mph.Utility-suppliedelectricityisexpensiveinyourarea.Theutility’srequirementsforconnectingyoursystemtoitsgridarenotexceedinglyexpensive.Therearegoodincentivesforthesaleofexcesselectricity.

MountingYourSmallWindElectricSystemonaTowerSincewindspeedsincreasewithheight,itisessentialthatyoursmallwindturbinebemountedonatower.Thehigherthetower,themorepowerthewindsystemwillbeabletoproduce.Todeterminethebestheightforyourtower,youwillneedtoknowtheestimatedannualenergyoutputandthesizeofyourturbine.

Therearetwotypesoftowers:self-supporting(free-standing)andguyed.Mosthomewindpowersystemsuseaguyedtowerasitistheleastexpensive.Guyedtowersconsistoftheseparts:

Latticesections

Agrid-connectedsmallwindelectricsystem

PipeTubing(dependingonthedesign)Supportingguywires

Thesetowersareeasiertoinstallbuttheydorequirelotsofspace—theradius

ofthetowermustbe½to¾ofthetowerheight.

Tilt-downtowers,whilemoreexpensive,offeraneasywaytomaintainsmaller,lightweightturbinesthatarelessthan10kilowatts.Thesetowerscanbeloweredtothegroundduringsevereweatherorunusuallyhighwinds.

Generally,itisagoodideatoinstallasmallwindturbineonatowerwiththebottomoftherotorbladesaround30feetaboveanyobstaclethatiswithin300feetfromthetower.

WindmillsWindmillsareusedforpumpingwater,milling,andoperatinglightmachineryallaroundtheworld.Theyareconstructedinavarietyofshapesandsomearequitepicturesque.Whensetupproperly,windmillscostnothingtooperateandifthewheelismadewell,itwilllastformanyyearswithoutneedformajorrepairs.Tomakeawindmillrequiresagoodunderstandingofcarpentryandworkmanshipbutitisnotincrediblydifficultorexpensivetodo.

Detailsofthewindmill.Figure(a)showsageneralviewwiththetailturnedto“off”position.Figure(b)showsdetailsofthetail,and(c)showsacross-piece

ofthetail.

ConstructingaWindmill

Windmillscanbeofallsizes,thoughthelargerthewindmill,themorepoweritcangenerate.Thiswindmillandtowercanbeeasilyconstructedoutofwood,anoldwheel,andafewironfittingsyoumaybeabletofindatahardwarestoreorhomecenter.Constructingthewindmillinsectionsistheeasiestwaytocreatethisstructure.Simplyfollowthesedirectionstomakeyourownenergy-producingwindmill:

TheTower1. Thetoweristhefirstparttobebuiltandshouldbeconstructedoutoffour

sprucesticksthatare16feetlongand4inchessquare,inaconfigurationthatmeasures30inchessquareatthetopand72inchessquareatthebase.

2. Thedeckshouldbe36inchessquareandshouldproject2inchesoverthetoprails.

3. Therailsandcrossbracescanbespruceorpinestripsandshouldmeasure4incheswideand7/8inchthick.Attachthesetothecornerpostswithsteel-

wirenails.4. Embedthecornerposts2feetintotheground,leaving14feetabovethe

surface.Therailatthebottom,whichisattachedtothefourposts,shouldmeasure3feetabovetheground.Midwaybetween

Beveledcrossbracesfitsnuglyagainstthecorners.

thisandthetoprailofthedeck,runamiddlerailaroundthepost.Makesurethatwhereyourwheelwillbeattached,thispointrisesatleast2feetaboveanyobstructions(buildings,trees,etc.)soitcanhaveaccesstotheblowingwind.

5. Thecrossbracesshouldbebeveledattheendssotheyfitsnuglyagainstthecorner.

6. Theposts,rails,andbracesshouldbeplanedsotheypresentaniceappearanceattheendofthebuilding.Aladdercanalsobeconstructedatonesideofthetowertoalloweasyaccesstothemill.

7. Nailaboardacrosstwooftherailshalfwayupthetower.Securethelowerendofatrunktightlyhereifyouareconstructingapumpingmill.However,ifawoodenmilliswhatyouareafter,youcanuseanoldwheelfromawagonandsixbladesofwood.

Thewindmillturntable(d,e,andf)holdsthewheelandtail.Theflange(detaileddrawingsgandh)formsasupportforthetimberframing.

TheTurntable1. Theturntableholdsthewheelandtail.Itshouldbebuiltof2½x2-inch

timberand2-inchgalvanizedwroughtiron“water”tubeandflanges.2. Theupperflangesupportsthetimberframing.Itshouldbecountersunk,

usingahalf-roundfile,andscrewedtightlyontothetubeasfaraspossible.Theendofthetubeshouldprojectjustslightlybeyondthefaceoftheflangesothatitcanberivetedovertofillthecountersink.

3. Boltthetwolooseflangestotheframeworkofthetower.Usethemwith2-inchpipewiththethreadfiledawaysotheymayslidefreelyontothetube.Theupperlooseflangeshouldformafootstepbearingandthelowerflangeaguidefortheturntable.

4. Nowmounttheturntableontheballbearingtomakesurethemillheadcanturnfreely.Screwontwobacknutstoguardagainstanypossibilityoftheturntablebeingliftedoutofplacebyastrongwind.

TheHead1. Thisisthepartthatwillcarrythewheelspindle.2. Notchthejointsandsecurethemwith2-inchbolts.3. Theupright,whichcarriesaboltorpinforthespur-wheeltorevolveupon,

iskeptinplaceinthefrontandatthesidesbyapieceofhoopiron.

Detailsofthewheelshaftframe(i,j);frontandsideviews,(k,l);axleof

wheel(m);attachmentofinnerendofvanetoinnerringofframe(n);vaneonrings(o);attachmentofvanetoouterbracketsbybracket(p).

4. Thetailvaneswivelisapieceof5-inchboretubewithbacknutsandwashers.Passanironboltorotherpieceofironthroughthis,screwittoeachend,andfititwithfournutsandwashers.

TheWheelShaft1. Usewrought-irontubingandflangestocreatethewheelshaft.Theboreof

thetubeisatleast5inches,andtheoutsidediametershouldberoughly1½inches.Boththetubeandthefittingsshouldbeofgoodqualityandathickgauge(steamqualityispreferred).

2. Iflatheisavailable,lightlyskimitoverthetubing.However,ifit’snot,acarefulfilingwilldojustaswelltosmoothdowntheedges.

3. Screwthetubehigherupononeendtoreceivetheflangesformingthehub.Screwtheseonandsecurethemononesidewithbacknutsandontheotherwithadistancepiecemadeoutofa1½-inchboretube.Fitacaptoclosetheopenfrontendofthetube.

4. Greasetwoplummerblockswithsomeformoflubrication.Thesewillbethebearingsfortheshaft.

5. Apinionisneededofatleast2½inchesindiameteratthepitchcircle.Boreittofitthewheelshaft.Aspurwheelof7inchesindiametershouldfollowthat(gearwheelsfromalawnmowercanbeusedifavailable).

TheWheel1. Thewheelshouldbeatleast5feetindiametertoproduceagoodamountof

energy.Theframingconsistsofaninnerandouterringandfourdoublearmswithcrossstaysanddiagonals(aregularwoodenwheelwillbesufficient,oryoucanfindonemadeofgalvanizedsteel).

2. Cuteachspokeatanangleononesidesothatthebladeswillhavethenecessarypitchtomakethewindturnthem.

3. Thebladesshouldbe18incheslong,12incheswideattheouterends,and6incheswidenexttothehub.Eachbladeshouldbeonly¾inchthick.Attachthemtothespokeswithsimplescrews.

4. Ifyoudesire,youcanstringawirebetweentheouterendofeachbladetotheendofthenextspoke.Thiswillhelpsteadytheblades.

TheTail1. Runafinesawcutupabout2feet6inchesfromtheouterendtoreceive

thevane(optional).2. Passacordovertwopulleysanddowntheturntabletube.Itisnecessaryto

attachtheendofthecordtoashortcylinderofhardwoodormetal(about2to3inchesindiameter).Thisrevolveswiththeturntablebutcanbeslidupordown.

Eachspokeshouldbecutatananglesothatthebladeswillhavethepitchtomakethewindturnthem.

3. Ifyouplanonusingapump,itisimportanttocutaholethroughtheaxisofthecylindertofitthepumprod.

4. Cutagrooveinthecircumferenceofthecylinder,andbendtwopiecesofironintoshapeandplacethemintothegrooves.Nowtakethecordsfromthetwobolts,untyingthestraps.Jointhesetwocordstoanothercord,whichactsasareelorleveratthebaseofthetower.Inthisway,thepositionofthetailcanberegulatedfromastationarypoint.

AddingPumpstoYourWindmill

Ifyouwanttousethiswindmilltopumpwater,thenyoumayneedtodosomeexperimentingwithdifferentlengthsofpumpstroke.Belowisatableindicatingwhatshouldbeexpectedfromthepump,andalsoprovidingthesizeofthesingle-actionpumpsuitableforagivenlift(usingaratioof1to3).

Makesurethatyourpumpisnottoolarge;otherwise,itmaynotstartinalightwindorbreeze.

Thepumpisdrivenbyapinscrewedintothesideofthespurwheelandissecuredwithalocknut.Drillandtapthreeorfourholesatdifferentdistancesfromthecenterofthewheelsothelengthofthestrokecanbeadjusted.Ifthespokesonthewheelaretoothinfordrilling,youcanuseaclampwithaprojectingpininstead.

Apumprod—acontinuouswoodenrodabout1inchsquareandthickeratthetopend—canbeusedinconnectingthebottomend(bybolting)tothe“bow”suppliedwiththepump.Intermediatejoints,ifneeded,canbefashionedwith1x½-inchfishplatesroughly6incheslong.Ifthepumpisnomorethan12feetbelowthecrankpin,oneguidewillbeadequate.Thepumprodmustbeabletorevolvewiththeheadandwillbeneedtobethickenedupinacircularsectionwhereitpassesthroughtheguide.Maketheguideintwohalvesandscreworboltittoabarrunningacrossthetower.

FinalTouches

Whenconstructionisfinished,paintallofthewoodworkanycolorthatcomplementsyouryardorpropertyand,ifdesired,lacquerittoprotectthewoodfromrainandsnow.Awindmillofthissizewillcreateatleastaonequarterhorsepowerina15mphwind.

BuildingaSmallWindMotorThissmallwindmotorcaneasilybemadetogenerateenergyforsmallmachines,toolshedlightbulbs,andothersmallmechanics.Thefoundationforthiswind-wheelcanbemadeoutofthefrontwheelofanoldbicyclewiththefrontspindleandconescompletelyintact.

Detailsofsmallwindmotor

Attacheightto12vanesofstoutsheettintotherim.Thesesheetsshouldbearound8incheslongand4to6incheswideandshouldlieata30-degreeangletotheplaneoftherim.Thevaneswillbemuchmoreefficientiftheyarecurvedinacirculararcaboutthesameradiusasthewheel.Theconcavesideshouldbepositionedtofacetowardthewind.

Onthebackofeachvane,rivetaribofstripiron½inchthick.Thisstripshouldprojectabout½inchbeyondthetipand1½inchesattheotherend.There,twistandbendittomakeabracketandthenboltthevanetothecenterlineoftherim.

Theillustrationaboveshowsasideviewofthemotorwithitsgearingandsupports.Aistherimandpartofthespokesofatoothedwheelthatareattachedatseveralpointstothespokesofthebicyclewheel.Itislooselyfixedandadjusteduntilitrunswellwhenthewheelismoved.Itshouldnotwobble.Adrivesasmallercog,B,mountedonthesamespindle,a.Thisspindlerevolvesaroundtwoplates,PP,screwedtoF.Cdrivesalargecog,D,andaneccentric,E,whichmovestheeccentricrod,R,upanddown.Thisworksthesmallpumpat

thefootofthemastthatsupportsthewindmill.Ecanbequicklymadeoutofathickdiscwithtwolargerdiscssolderedtoit.RisapieceofstoutbrassstripbentaroundEandclosedwithascrew.

Zoning,Permitting,andCovenant

Requirements

Beforeyouinvestinormakeyourownsmallwindenergysystem,youshouldresearchanyzoningandneighborhoodcovenantissuesthatmaydeteryourinstallingawindturbinesystem.Youcanfindoutaboutlocalzoningrestrictionsbycontactingalocalbuildinginspector,boardofsupervisors,orplanningboard.Theywillinformyouwhetherornotyou’llneedabuildingpermitandwillprovideyouwithalistofotherrequirements.Further,yourneighborsorhomeowners’associationmayobjecttoawindmachinethatwillblocktheirvieworasystemthatwillbetoonoisy.

Whenallofthevanesareinposition,connectthetipsoftheribsandvanestogetherwithringsofstoutwireandsolderthemonatallthecontactpoints.Screwoneofthespindlenutstightlyagainstitscone.Theotherendofthespindleshouldpassthroughonearmofthestirrup(F)madeoutof½-inchiron1½incheswide.Thisisthensecuredbyawasherandnutontheinside.Thestirrupandcircularplate(V)areboredtoaccommodatetheendoftheironpipe

Closeoffthetopofthehole(F)andheatthetopofthepipetoexpandittofitintothechamber.Cleanthesepartswellandweldthemtogether.ItisimportantthattheTissquarewiththestirrup.Then,cutthepipeoff9inchesbelowV.SolderasmallringtotheundersideofVtopreventmoisturefromworkingitswayalongTandruiningyourmotor.

Thetailsparisawoodenbar1½x2½incheswideand40incheslong.Itisnotchedtofitthestirrupandtaperedofftowardthetail.Asheetofsturdyiron,15x12inches,isthenfittedintothesawcut.Twoboltsclipthewingsoftheforkedendtightlyagainstthesidesofthestirrup.ThetailshouldbeabletobalancethewheelontheverticalpivottoavoidstressingthejointatthetopofT.

Awind-wheelthissizewillspinquiteeffectivelyinablusterywindbutwillprobablyonlygenerateenoughenergytopowerasmallpump.Thiswilldonicelytofillawateringcanforyourgardenorforpoweringotherlightmachinery.

APumpingWindmillApumpingwindmillcanhelpyoupumpwaterfromawellorotherundergroundreservoirintoasuctionpump.Thiswindmillhasasimplewheelwithspokesandsails.Itconsistsofahub,sixspokes,afantail,andatrunkorpoleforattachingthewheel.

Apumpingwindmill

Windmillpumpdetails

Thehubisahexagon6x6inches.Onespokecanbedrivenintoaholemadeoneitherside(Figure1).Thespokesshouldbe3feetlong,3x1½inchesatthehubend,and1x1½inchesontheouterend.Thespokesaredrivenintotheholesinthehubandpinnedtoholdtheminplace.

Thehubshouldbemadeofhardwoodandtheholesmaybecutwithamortisechiselandmallet.Makesuretheholesarespacedevenlysothespokeswilllightupproperly.

Attachtriangularpiecesoftwilledmuslinsheetingtothefaceofeachspoke.Theloosecornerofeachcanbeattachedtothenextspokeendwithapieceofstring.Thiscreatesanoutletbetweentheleechandthespokeofeachspacebetweenthespokesothatthewindcanpassthrough.This,ineffect,makesthewheelturn.

Thewheelshouldbeheldinplaceatthetopofthesupportingpostbyashaftpassingthroughthehubandboltedtothefrontofthewheelwithanut.Figure2isagoodexampleofwhatthisshouldlooklike.Theshaftshouldbeabout1inchsquarewhereitpassesthroughthehub.Atthefrontend,itshouldbetightenedwithanutandwasher.Thesquarepart,A,wheretheendofthehubwillbe,shouldbeweldedatBtoholdthehubintheproperplace.Aboutaninchbeyondthesquareshoulder,anotherone,C,shouldbeweldedtotheshaft.Thishelpsbalancethewheel.

Nowacrankcanbeformed,2incheswideand3inchesoutfromtheshaft.Anothercollar,C,C,shouldbeweldedontothecrankandthen,beyondthispoint,theshaftshouldstickoutabout6inches.

Thetotallengthoftheshaftis15inches,andthewholedevicecanbepainted.Toattachthefantail,aheadmadeoutoftwoblocksofwoodshouldbeattachedandfastened5inchesapartonthelowerrails(Fig.3).Theupperendsoftheblocksshouldbecutsoastoallowtheshafttoenterthem.Thecollars,CandC,C,areplacedattheinsideoftheblocks.Toholdtheshaftinplace,smallironstrapscanbescrewedtightlyoverthetopofeachblock.

Whatwouldhappenifweusedmorewindenergy?

AccordingtotheAmericanWindEnergyAssociation,ifweincreaseournation’swindenergycapacityto20percentby2030,itwouldhavethefollowingeffects:

ReduceGreenhouseGasEmission:Acumulativetotalof7,600milliontonsofCO2wouldbeavoidedby2030,andmorethan15,000milliontonsofCO2wouldbeavoidedby2050.ConserveWater:Reducecumulativewaterconsumptionintheelectricsectorby8percentor4trilliongallonsfrom2007through2030.LowerNaturalGasPrices:Significantlyreducenaturalgasdemandandreducenaturalgaspricesby12percent,savingconsumersapproximately$130billion.ExpandManufacturing:Toproduceenoughturbinesandcomponentsforthe20percentwindscenario,theindustrywouldrequiremorethan30,000directmanufacturingjobsacrossthenation(assumingthat30to80percentofmajorturbinecomponentswouldbemanufactureddomesticallyby2030).GenerateLocalRevenues:Leasepaymentsforwindturbineswouldgeneratewellover$600millionforlandownersinruralareasandgenerateadditionallocaltaxrevenuesexceeding$1.5billionannuallyby2030.From2007through2030,cumulativeeconomicactivitywouldexceed$1trillionormorethan$440billioninnetpresentvalueterms.

Theuseoflargescalewindmillsisoftencontroversial.Theycanprovideasignificantamountofcleanenergy,buttheyalsoclutterridgelines,producealot

ofnoise,andhurtthebirdpopulation.

Thisheadrestsonthetopofahollowsquarepostthroughwhichtherodpasses,connectingthecrankwiththepiston-rodofthepump(Fig.4A).Aflatironcollar,B,shouldbescrewedtightlyatthetop.Tokeeptheheadproperlysecured,fourironcleats(Fig.4C)shouldbescrewedtightlyunderthecornersoftheheadtohelpgriptheprojectingedgeofthecollar.Thiswillholdtheheadrigidwhileallowingittomoveaboutwiththeforceofthewind.

ApplyalittlebitofgreaseorVaselinetothetopofthecollarsotheheadwillmoveeasily.Thetopoftheconnectingrodshouldbeattachedtothecrankandboltedtothetopofthehardwoodrod(Fig.4D).

Thetail,whichis33incheslongand24incheswideattheend,ismadeofboardsthatare¾inchthick.Thetailshouldbeattachedtothehead(Fig.5).

Toplacethewindmilloverapump,buildaplatformthatisbracedwithpiecesofwood(seetheillustration).Wirescanalsoberunfromtheupperpartofthetrunkdowntopegsdrivenintotheground.Thiswilladdadditionalsupportandsteadinesstotheuprightshaft.

Tostartthewheel,snaptheendsofthesheetstothespokeends.Tostopthewheel,unsnaptheendsandfurlthesailsaroundthespokes,tyingthemsecurelywithapieceofyarnoracottoncord.

Hydropower

Waterisconstantlymovingthroughavastglobalcycle,evaporatingfromlakesandoceans,formingclouds,precipitating,andthenflowingbackintotheocean.Theenergyofthiswatercycle,whichismainlydrivenbythesun,canbetappedtoproduceelectricityortopowermachines—aprocesscalledhydropower.Hydropoweruseswaterasatypeoffuelthatisneitherreducednorusedupintheprocess.Sincethewatercycleisendlessandwillconstantlyrechargethesystem,hydropowerisconsideredarenewableenergy.

Hydropower(alsoknownashydroelectricpower)ismadewhenflowingwateriscapturedandturnedintoelectricity.Therearemanytypesofhydroelectricfacilitiesthatareallpoweredbythekineticenergyderivedfromflowingwaterasitmovesdownstream.Generatorsandturbinesconvertthisenergyintoelectricity.Thisisthenfedintotheelectricalgridforuseinhomes,businesses,andotherindustries.

TypesofHydropowerPlantsTherearethreetypesofhydropowerplants:1. Impoundment—Impoundmentfacilitiesarethemostcommontypeof

hydroelectricpowerplants.Thisfacility,typicallyalargehydropowersystem,usesadamtostoreriverwaterinareservoir.Waterthatisreleasedfromthereservoirflowsthroughaturbine,spinningit.Thisactivatesageneratortoproduceelectricity.Thewatermaybereleasedeithertomeetthechangingelectricityneedsortomaintainaconstantreservoirlevel.

2. Diversion—Adiversionfacility,sometimesreferredtoasarun-of-riverfacility,channelsaportionofariverthroughacanalorpenstock.Thisdoesnotalwaysrequiretheuseofadam.

3. Pumpedstorage—Apumpedstoragefacilitystoresenergybypumpingwaterfromalowerreservoirtoanupperreservoirwhenelectricitydemandsarelow.Duringtimeswhenelectricaldemandsarehigh,wateristhenreleasedbackintothelowerreservoirtogenerateelectricity.

Somehydropowerplantsusedamsandothersdonot.Manydamswere

originallybuiltforotherpurposesandthenhydropowerwasaddedatalaterdate.IntheUnitedStates,only2,400ofthe80,000damsproducepower—therestareusedforrecreation,farmponds,floodcontrol,watersupply,andirrigation.

SizeofHydropowerPlantsHydropowerplantsrangeinsizefromsmallandmicrosystems,whichareoperatedforindividualneedsortosellthepowertoutilities,tolargerprojectsthatproduceelectricityforutilities,supplyingmanyconsumerswithelectricity.

Microhydropowerplantshaveacapacityofupto100kilowatts.Smallhydropowerplantshaveacapacitybetween

ABriefHistoryofHydropowerHumanshavebeenusingwatertohelpthemperformworkforthousandsofyears.Waterwheelshavebeenemployedforgrindinggrainsintoflour,tosawwood,andtopowertextilemills.Thetechnologytouserunningwatertocreatehydroelectricityhasbeenaroundforoverahundredyears.Themodernhydropowerturbinewascreatedinthemiddleoftheeighteenthcenturyanddevelopedintodirectcurrenttechnology.Today,analternatingcurrentisinuseandcameaboutwhentheelectricgeneratorwascombinedwiththeturbine.ThefirsthydroelectricplantintheUnitedStateswasbuiltinAppleton,Wisconsinin1882.

Water’sneverendingcycle

100kilowattsand30megawatts.Largehydropowerplantshaveacapacityofmorethan30megawatts.Thesmallandmicrosystemscanproduceenoughelectricityforahome,farm,orevenasmallvillage.

Diagramofahydropowerplant

HydropowerTurbinesTherearetwomaintypesofhydropowerturbines:impulseandreaction.Thetypeofturbineselectedforaprojectisbasedontheheightofthestandingwater(the“head”)andtheflow(volume)ofthewaterataparticularsite.Itisalsodeterminedbyhowdeeptheturbinemustbeset,itsefficiency,anditscost.

Amicrohydropowerplant.

ImpulseTurbine

Animpulseturbinetypicallyusesthevelocityofwatertomovetherunnerand

dischargestoatmosphericpressure.Thewaterstreamthenhitseachbucketontherunner.Thewaterflowsoutofthebottomoftheturbineafterhittingtherunner.Theseturbinesaresuitableforhighhead,lowflowapplications.

AdvantagesofHydropower

Itisfueledbywater,makingitacleanenergysource.Itdoesnotpollutetheairsinceitdoesnotburnanyfossilfuels.Itisadomesticenergysource.Itreliesonthewatercycleandisarenewableenergysource.Itisusuallyavailableasneeded.Thewaterflowcanbecontrolledthroughtheturbinetoproduceenergyondemand.Theplantsprovidereservoirsforrecreation(fishing,swimming,boating),watersupply,andfoodcontrol.

DisadvantagesofHydropower

Itcannegativelyimpactfishpopulationsbyhamperingfishmigrationupstreampastdams,thoughtherearewaystoallowforpassagebothup-anddownstream.Itcanimpactthequalityandflowofwater,causinglowdissolvedoxygenlevelsthatcannegativelyimpacttheriverbankhabitats.Theplantscanbeimpactedbydrought,andiftheyarenotreceivingadequatewater,theycannotproduceelectricity.Theplantscompeteforlanduseandcancausehumans,plants,andanimalstolosetheirnaturalhabitat.

ReactionTurbine

Areactionturbinegeneratespowerbythecombinedactionofpressureandmovingwater.Therunnerisplacedinthewaterstream,whichflowsoverthebladesinsteadofstrikingeachoneseparately.Theseturbinesareusedforsiteswithlowerheadandhigherflows.

Diagramofahydroelectricmotor

Evenasmallwaterfallcanprovidealotofpower.

GeothermalEnergy

Geothermalenergy(theheatfromtheEarth)isaccessibleasanalternativesourceofheatandpower.Geothermalenergycanbeaccessedbydrillingwaterorsteamwellsusingaprocessmuchlikedrillingforoil.Thisresourceisenormousbutissadlyunderusedasanenergysource.Whenitisemployed,though,itprovestobeclean(emittinglittleornogreenhousegases),reliable,economical,anddomesticallyfound(geothermalenergycanbeharnessedfromalmostanywhereandthusmakescountrieslessdependentonforeignoil).

Wellsamileormoredeepcanbedrilledintoundergroundreservoirstotapsteamandveryhotwater.Thiscanthenbebroughttothesurfaceandusedinavarietyofways—suchastodriveturbinesandelectricitygenerators.IntheUnitedStates,mostgeothermalreservoirsarelocatedinthewesternstates,inAlaska,andinHawaii.Peopleinmorethan120locationsintheUnitedStatesareusinggeothermalenergyforspaceanddistrictheating.

Geothermalresourcescanrangefromshallowgroundwatertohotwaterfoundinrocksseveralmilesbelowthesurfaceoftheearth.Itcanevenbeharnessed,insomecases,frommagma(hotmoltenrockneartheearth’score).Geothermalreservoirsoflowtomoderatetemperature(roughly68to302ºF)canbeusedtoheathomes,office,andgreenhouses.Curiously,thedehydrationofonionsandgarliccomprisesthelargestindustrialuseofgeothermalenergyintheUnitedStates.

ThreeMainUsesofGeothermalEnergySometypesofgeothermalenergyusagedrawfromtheearth’stemperaturesclosertothesurfaceandothersrequire,asnotedabove,drillingmilesintotheearth.Thethreemainusesofgeothermalenergyare:1. DirectUseandDistrictHeatingSystems—Theseusehotwaterfrom

springsandreservoirsneartheearth’ssurface.2. ElectricityGeneration—Typicallyfoundinpowerplants,thistypeof

energyrequireshigh-temperaturewaterandsteam(generallybetween300and700ºF).Geothermalpowerplantsarebuiltwherereservoirsare

positionedonlyamileortwofromtheearth’ssurface.3. GeothermalHeatPumps—Theseusestablegroundorwatertemperatures

neartheearth’ssurfacetocontrolbuildingtemperaturesabovetheground.

Ageothermalpowerplantinaction

AdditionalResources

TheU.S.DepartmentofEnergy,inconjunctionwiththeGeo-HeatCenter,conductsresearch,providestechnicalsupport,anddistributesinformationonawiderangeofgeothermaldirect-useapplications.Someinformationthatisprovidedrevolvesaroundgreenhouseinformationalpackages,costcomparisonsofheatpumps,lowtemperatureresourceassessments,costanalysisforhomeowners,andinformationdirectedtoaquaculturedevelopers.

Thegreenhouseinformationalpackageprovidesinformationforpeoplewhoarelookingtodevelopgeothermalgreenhouses.Thispackageincludescropmarketpricesforvegetablesandflowers,operatingcosts,heatingsystemspecifications,greenhouseheatingequipmentselectionspreadsheets,andvendorinformation.

Groundwaterheatpumpshavealsobeenidentifiedasofferingsubstantialsavingsoverothertypesofpumpsystems.Informationalpacketsaboutheatpumpsystemsareprovidedtoanswerfrequentlyaskedquestionsconcerningtheapplicationandusageofgeothermalheatpumps.

TheGeo-HeatCenterexaminedthecostsassociatedwiththeinstallationofdistrictheatingsystemsinsingle-familyresidentialsectors.Theydiscoveredthatcost-savingareasincludedinstallationinunpavedareas,usingnon-insulatedreturnlines,andinstallationinareasthatareunencumberedbyexistingburiedutilitylines.

DirectUseGeothermalEnergySinceancienttimes,peoplehavebeendirectlyusinghotwaterasasourceofenergy.TheChinese,NativeAmericans,andRomansusedhotmineralspringsforbathing,cooking,andheatingpurposes.Currently,anumberofhotspringsarestillusedforbathingandmanypeoplebelievethesehot,mineral-richwaterspossessnaturalhealingpowers.

Ageothermalpowerplant

Youcancombinesolarandgeothermalenergytoproducemoreconsistentpowerinyourhome.

Besidesbathing,themostcommondirectuseofgeothermalenergyisforheatingbuildings.Thisisthroughdistrictheatingsystems—thesetypesofsystemsprovideheatforroughly95percentofthebuildingsinReykjavik,Iceland.Districtheatingsystemspipehotwaterneartheearth’ssurfacedirectlyintobuildingsinordertoprovideadequateheat.

Directuseofgeothermalresourcesisaproven,economic,andcleanenergyoption.Geothermalheatcanbepipeddirectlyintofacilitiesandusedtoheatbuildings,growgreenhouseplants,heatwaterforfishfarming,andevenpasteurizemilk.SomenorthernU.S.citiespipehotwaterunderroadsandsidewalkstomeltthesnow.

GeothermalHeatPumpsEventhoughtemperaturesabovethesurfaceoftheearthchangedailyandseasonally,ingeneral,temperaturesinthetop10feetoftheEarth’ssurfacestayfairlyconstantataround50to60ºF.Thismeansthat,inmostplaces,soiltemperaturesaretypicallywarmerthanairtemperaturesinthewinterandcoolerinthesummer.Geothermalheatpumps(GHPs)usethisconstanttemperaturetoheatandcoolbuildings.Thesepumpstransferheatfromtheground(orundergroundwatersources)intobuildingsduringthewinteranddothereverseprocessinthesummermonths.

Ahorizontalclosed-loopheatpumpsystem

Averticalclosed-loopheatpumpsystem

Geothermalheatpumps,accordingtotheU.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA),arethemostenergy-efficient,environmentallyclean,andcost-effectivesystemsformaintainingaconsistenttemperaturecontrol.Thesepumpsarebecomingmorepopular,eventhoughmosthomesstillusefurnacesandairconditioners.Sometimesreferredtoasearth-coupled,ground-source,orwater-sourceheatpumps,GHPsusetheconstanttemperatureoftheearthastheexchangemedium(usinggroundheatexchangers)insteadoftheoutdoorairtemperature.Inthisway,thesystemcanbequiteefficientoncoldwinternightsincomparisontoair-sourceheatpumps.

Geothermalheatpumpscanheat,cool,and,insomecases,evensupplyhotwatertoahouse.Thesepumpsarerelativelyquiet,long-lasting,needlittletonomaintenance,anddonotrelyonoutsidetemperaturestofunctioneffectively.Whilegeothermalsystemsareinitiallymoreexpensivetoinstall,thesecostsarequicklyreturnedinenergysavingsinaboutfiveto10years.Systemshavealife-spanofroughly25yearsforinsidecomponentsandmorethan50yearsforgroundloopsystems.Eachyear,about50,000geothermalheatpumpsareinstalledintheUnitedStates.

TypesofGeothermalHeatPumpSystemsTherearefourbasictypesofgroundloopheatpumpsystems:horizontal,vertical,pond/lake,andopen-loopsystems.Thefirstthreeareclosed-loopsystemswhilethefourthis,asitsnamesuggests,open-loop.Thetypeofsystemusedisgenerallydeterminedbasedontheclimate,soilconditions,landavailability,andlocalinstallationcostsofthesiteforthepump.Allfourtypesofgeothermalheatpumpsystemscanbeusedforbothresidentialandcommercialbuildingapplications.

HorizontalHeatPumpSystem

Thisclosed-loopinstallationisextremelycost-effectiveforresidentialheatpumpsandiswellsuitedfornewconstructionwhereadequatelandisavailableforthesystem.Horizontalheatpumpsystemsneed4-foottrenchestobeinstalled.Thesesystemsaretypicallylaidoutusingtwopipes—oneburied6feetandtheotherburied4feetbelowtheground—orbyplacingtwopipessidebysideat5feetundergroundina2-foot-widetrench.

VerticalHeatPumpSystem

Schoolsandlargercommercialbuildingsuseverticalheatpumpsystemsbecausetheyrequirelesslandtobeeffectivelyused.Thesesystemsarebestusedwherethesoilistooshallowfortrenching.Theyalsominimizeanydisturbancetoestablishedlandscaping.Toinstallaverticalsystem,holesthatareroughly4inchesindiameteraredrilledabout20feetapartand100to400feetdeep.TwopipesareinsertedintotheseholesandareconnectedatthebottomwithaU-bend,formingaloop.Theverticalloopsarethenconnectedwithahorizontalpipe,placedinthetrenches,andconnectedtotheheatpumpinthebuilding.

Pond/LakeHeatPumpSystem

Anotherclosed-loopsystemisthepond/lakeheatpumpsystem.Ifasitehasenoughwater—usuallyintheformofapondorevenalake—thissystemmaybethemostcost-effective.Thisheatpumpsystemworksbyrunningasupplylinepipeundergroundfromabuildingtothewatersource.Thepipingiscoiledintocirclesnolessthan8feetunderthesurface—thispreventsthewaterinthepipesfromfreezing.Thecoilsshouldbeplacedonlyinawatersourcethatmeetstheminimumvolume,depth,andqualitycriteria.

Open-LoopHeatPumpSystem

Anopen-loopsystemuseswellorsurfacebodywaterastheheatexchangefluidthatwillcirculatedirectlythroughthegeothermalheatpumpsystem.Oncethiswaterhascirculatedthroughthesystem,itisreturnedtothegroundthrougharechargewellorassurfacedischarge.Thesystemisreallyonlypracticalwherethereisasufficientsupplyofcleanwater.Localcodesandregulationsforpropergroundwaterdischargemustalsobemetinorderfortheheatpumpsystemtobeutilized.

SelectingandInstallingaGeothermalHeatPumpSysteminYourHomeTheheatingefficiencyofcommercialground-sourceandwater-sourceheatpumpsisindicatedbytheircoefficientofperformance(COP)—theratioofheatprovidedinBtuperBtuofenergyinput.Thecoolingefficiencyismeasuredbytheenergyefficiencyratio(EER)—theratioofheatremovedtotheelectricityrequired(inwatts)toruntheunit.ManygeothermalheatpumpsystemsareapprovedbytheU.S.DepartmentofEnergyasbeingenergyefficientproductsandso,ifyouarethinkingofpurchasingandinstallingthistypeofsystem,youmaywanttochecktoseeifthereisanyspecialfinancingorincentivesforpurchasingenergyefficientsystems.

Aclosed-looppond/lakeheatpumpsystem

Anopen-loopheatpumpsystem

EvaluatingYourSite

Beforeinstallingageothermalheatpump,considerthesitethatwillhousethesystem.Thepresenceofhotgeothermalfluidcontaininglowmineralandgascontent,shallowaquifersforproducingthefluid,spaceavailabilityonyourproperty,proximitytoexistingtransmissionlines,andavailabilityofmake-upwaterforevaporativecoolingareallfactorsthatwilldetermineifyoursiteisgoodforgeothermalelectricdevelopment.Asaruleofthumb,geothermalfluidtemperatureshouldbenolessthan300ºF.

InthewesternUnitedStates,Alaska,andHawaii,hydrothermalresources(reservoirsofsteamorhotwater)aremorereadilyavailablethantherestofthecountry.However,thisdoesnotmeanthatgeothermalheatcannotbeusedthroughoutthecountry.ShallowgroundtemperaturesarerelativelyconstantthroughouttheUnitedStatesandthismeansthatenergycanbetappedalmostanywhereinthecountrybyusinggeothermalheatpumpsanddirect-usesystems.

Todeterminethebesttypeofgroundloopsystemsforyoursite,youmustassessthegeological,hydrological,andspatialcharacteristicsofyourlandinordertochoosethebest,mosteffectiveheatpumpsystemtoheatandcoolyourhome:1. Geology—Thisincludesthesoilandrockcompositionandpropertieson

yoursite.Thesecanaffectthetransferratesofheatinyourparticularsystem.Ifyouhavesoilwithgoodheattransferproperties,yoursystemwillrequirelesspipingtoobtainagoodamountofheatfromthesoil.Furthermore,theamountofsoilthatisavailablealsocontributestowhichsystemyouwillchoose.Forexample,areasthathavehardrockorshallowsoilwillmostlikelybenefitfromaverticalheatpumpsysteminsteadofasystemrequiringlargeanddeeptrenches,suchasthehorizontalheatpumpsystem.

2. Hydrology—Thisreferstotheavailabilityofgroundorsurfacewater,whichwillaffectthetypeofsystemtobeinstalled.Factorssuchasdepth,volume,andwaterqualitywillhelpdetermineifsurfacewaterbodiescanbeusedasasourceofwaterforanopen-loopheatpumpsystemoriftheywouldworkbestwithapond/lakesystem.Beforeinstallinganopen-loopsystem,however,itisbesttodetermineyoursite’shydrologysopotential

problems(suchasaquiferdepletionorgroundwatercontamination)canbeavoided.

3. Availableland—Theacreageandlayoutofyourland,aswellasyourlandscapingandthelocationofundergroundutilities,alsoplayanimportantpartinthetypeofheatpumpsystemyouchoose.Ifyouarebuildinganewhome,horizontalgroundloopsareaneconomicalsystemtoinstall.Ifyouhaveanexistinghomeandwanttoconvertyourheatandcoolingtogeothermalenergy,verticalheatpumpsystemsarebesttominimizethedisturbancetoyourexistinglandscapingandyard.

InstallingtheHeatPumps

Geothermalheatpumpsystemsaresomewhatdifficulttoinstallonyourown—thoughitcancertainlybedone.Makesure,beforeyoubeginanydigging,tocontactyourlocalutilitycompanytomakesureyouwillnotbediggingintogaspipesorelectricalwires.

Thegroundheatexchangerinageothermalheatpumpsystemismadeupofclosed-oropen-looppipe—dependingonwhichtypeofsystemyou’vedeterminedisbestsuitedforyoursite.Sincemostsystemsemployedareclosed-loopsystems,highdensitypolyethylenepipeisusedandburiedhorizontallyat4to6feetdeeporverticallyat100to400feetdeep.Thesepipesarefilledwithanenvironmentallyfriendlyantifreeze/watersolutionthatactsasaheatexchanger.Youcanfindthisatyourlocalhomestoreorcontactacontractortoseewhereitisdistributed.Thissolutionworksinthewinterbyextractingheatfromtheearthandcarryingitintothebuilding.Inthesummertime,thesystemreverses,takingheatfromthebuildinganddepositingitintotheground.

Airdeliveryductworkwilldistributethehotorcoldairthroughoutthehouse’sductworkliketraditional,conventionalsystems.Anairhandler—aboxthatcontainstheindoorcoilandfan—shouldbeinstalledtomovethehouseairthroughtheheatpumpsystem.Theairhandlercontainsalargeblowerandafilter,justlikestandardairconditioningunits.

Averticalclosed-loopsystem

Cost-EfficiencyofGeothermalHeatPumpSystems

Byinstallingandusingageothermalheatpumpsystem,youwillsaveonthecostsofoperatingandmaintainingyourheatingandcoolingsystem.Whilethesesystemsaregenerallyabitpriciertoinstall,theyprovetobemoreefficientandthussaveyoumoneyonamonthlyandyearlybasis.Especiallyinthecolderwintermonths,geothermalheatpumpsystemscanreduceyourheatingcostsbyabouthalf.Annualenergysavingsbyusingageothermalheatpumpsystemrangefrom30to60percent.

BenefitsofUsingGeothermalEnergyItiscleanenergy.Geothermalenergydoesnotrequiretheburningoffossilfuels(coal,gas,oroil)inordertoproduceenergy.Geothermalfieldsproduceonlyabout⅙thofthecarbondioxidethatnaturalgas-fueledpowerplantsdo.Theyalsoproducelittletonosulfur-bearinggases,whichreducestheamountofacidrain.Itisavailableatanytimeofday,allyearround.Geothermalpowerishomegrown,whichreducesdependenceonforeignoil.Itisarenewablesourceofenergy.Geothermalenergyderives

itssourcefromanalmostunlimitedamountofheatgeneratedbytheearth.Andevenifenergyislimitedinanarea,thevolumetakenoutcanbereinjected,makingitasustainablesourceofenergy.Geothermalheatpumpsystemsuse25to50percentlesselectricitythanconventionalheatingandcoolingsystems.Theyreduceenergyconsumptionandemissionsbetween44and72percentandimprovehumiditycontrolbymaintainingabout50percentrelativehumidityindoors(GHPsareveryeffectiveforhumidpartsofthecountry).Heatpumpsystemscanbe“zoned”toallowdifferentpartsofyourhometobeheatedandcooledtodifferenttemperatureswithoutmuchaddedcostorextraspacerequired.Geothermalheatpumpsystemsaredurableandreliable.Undergroundpipingcanlastfor25to50yearsandtheheatpumpstendtolastatleast20years.Heatpumpsystemsreducenoisepollutionsincetheyhavenooutsidecondensingunit(likeairconditioners).

Alternate“Geothermal”CoolingSystem

Truegeothermalenergysystemscanbeveryexpensivetoinstallandyoumaynotbeabletouseoneinyourhomeatthistime.However,hereisafunalternativewaytousetheconceptsofgeothermalsystemstokeepyourhousecoolerinthesummerandyourairconditioningbillslower.Allyouneedareabasement,smallwindowfan,anddehumidifier.

Yourbasementisawonderfulexampleofhowthetoplayersofearthtendtoremainatastabletemperaturethroughouttheyear.Inthewinter,yourbasementmayfeelsomewhatwarm;inthesummer,it’sniceandrefreshinglycool.Thisisduetothetemperatureofthesoilpermeatingthroughthebasementwalls.Andthiscoolbasementaircanbeusedtoeffectivelyreducethetemperatureinyourhomebyuptofivedegreesduringthesummermonths.Herearethestepstoyouralternative“geothermal”coolingsystem:1. Runthedehumidifierinyourbasementduringthenight,

bringingthehumiditydowntoabout60percent.

2. Keepyourblindsandcurtainsclosedinthesunniestroomsinyourhome.

3. Inthemorning,whenthetemperatureinsidethehousereachesabout77ºF,openasmallwindowinyourbasement,justacrack,andopenoneoftheupstairswindows,placingasmallfaninitanddirectingtheroomairoutofthewindow.

4. Withallotherwindowsandoutsidedoorsclosed,thefanwillsuckthecoolbasementairthroughyourhomeandouttheopenwindow.Doingthisforaboutanhourwillbringdownthetemperatureinsideyourhome,buyingyouacoupleofhoursofreprievebeforeswitchingontheAC.

ThehotspringsatYellowstoneareanaturalexampleofgeothermalheating.

CompostingToilets

Toiletscomeinthreecommonvarieties:siphon-jetflushvalvetoilets(commoninmosthomes),pressurizedtanktoilets,andgravityflow.Thesetoilets,generallyspeaking,useuplargeamountsofwaterandthewasteisflushedintoasewersystemandthendumpedinavarietyoflocations.Compostingtoiletsrequirelittletonowater,whichprovidesasolutiontosanitationandenvironmentalproblemsinareasthatarerural,withoutsewers,andinthesuburbsthroughouttheworld.Althoughcompostingtoiletsarerareinprivatehomes—theyaregenerallyfoundinparkfacilitiesandsmallhighwayreststops—thesewaterlesstoiletscanbeutilizedbytheregularhomeowner.

ItisastonishingthatAmericansflushabout4.8billiongallonsofwaterdowntoiletseveryday,accordingtotheU.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency.JustreplacingallexistingU.S.toiletswith1.6-gallon-per-flush,ultralow-flow(ULF)modelswouldsaveabout5,500gallonsofwaterperpersonperyear!So,ifyouareunabletoinstallacompostingtoiletinyourhomeoronyourproperty,youmaychoosetoinstallULFmodelsinyourhometohelpconservewaterusage.

TheBasicsoftheCompostingToiletComposting(orbiological)toiletsystemscontainandprocessexcrement,toiletpaper,carbonadditive,and,attimes,foodwastes.Thesesystemsrelyonunsaturatedconditionswhereaerobicbacteriabreakdownwaste—unlikesepticsystems—muchlikeacompostheapforyourgardeningnecessities.Theresultingsoil-likematerial—humus—mustbeburiedorremoved.It’sagoodideatocheckstateandlocalregulationsregardingproperhandlingmethods.

Inmanypartsofthecountry,publichealthofficialsarerealizingthatthereisadefiniteneedforenvironmentallysoundhumanwastetreatmentandrecyclingmethods,andcomposttoiletsareaneasywaytoworktowardtheseneeds.Becausetheydon’trequireanywatertobeused,compostingtoiletsareidealforremoteareasandplacesthathavehighwatertables,shallowsoil,androughterrain.Thesesystemssavewaterandallowforvaluableplantnutrientstoberecycledintheprocess.

Compostingtoiletsarebeingusedmoreregularlyinparksaroundtheworld.

Acompostingtoilet

Thereareafewkeycomponentsforestablishingacompostingtoilet:CompostingreactorthatisconnectedtoamicroflushtoiletScreenedairinletandexhaustsystemtoremoveodorsandheat,plusCO2andotherdecompositionbyproductsMechanismtoprovideproperventilationthatwillhelpaerobicorganismsinthecompostheapProcesscontrols

Accessdoorfortheremovaloftheendproduct

Itisimportantthatthecompostingtoiletseparatesthesolidfromtheliquidwasteandproducesahumus-likematerialwithlessthan200MPNpergramoffecalcoliform.Thecompostchambercanbesolarorelectricallyheatedtomaintaintherighttemperatureforyear-rounduseandbacterialdecomposition.

MainObjectiveoftheCompostingToiletThesesystemsaredesignedtocontain,immobilize,anddestroypathogens.Thisreducestheriskofhumaninfectionandensuresthatthetoiletsdonotpollutetheenvironment.Ifdonecorrectly,thecompostedmaterialshouldbeabletobehandledwithlittletonoriskofharmingtheindividualworkingwithit.

Acompostingtoiletconsistsofawell-ventilatedcontainerthatbreedsagoodenvironmentforunsaturated,moisthumanexcrementthatcanbedecomposedundersanitaryconditions.Acompostingtoiletcanbelargeorsmall,dependingonthespaceanditsuse.Organicmatteristransformedintoahumus-likeproductthroughthenaturalbreakingdownfrombacteriaandfungi.Mostsystemslikethisusetheprocessofcontinuouscomposting,whichincludesasinglechamberwheretheexcrementisaddedtothetopandtheendproductistakenfromthebottom.

FactorsthatAffecttheRateofComposting

1. Microorganisms—Amixofbacteriaandfungineedtobepresentinorderfortheexcrementtoturnintocompostedmaterial.

2. Moisture—Thishelpsthemicroorganismstomakesimplercompoundsbeforetheyaremetabolized.Moistureshouldbekeptbetween40and70percent.

3. pH—ThebestpHforthecompostingtoiletmaterialshouldbebetween6.5and7.5.

4. Carbontonitrogenratio—Itisimportanttobalanceoutthenitrogenfoundinurinewithaddedcarboninyourcompostingtoilet.

5. Propercare—Managingyourcompostingtoiletwellwillhelp

keepitefficientandproductive.

AdvantagesofUsingaCompostingToiletCompostingtoiletscanbeusedpracticallyanywhereaflushtoiletcanbe.Theyaremostlikelytobeusedinhomesinruralareas,seasonalcabins,recreationareas,andotherplaceswhereflushtoiletsareeitherunnecessaryorimpractical.Theyaremorecost-effectivethanestablishingacentralsewagesystemandthereisnowaterwasted.Thesesystems—sincetheyaren’tusingcopiousamountsofwater—alsoreducethequantityofwastewaterthatisdisposedofonadailybasis.Thesetoiletscanalsobeusedtorecycleandcompostfoodwastes,thusreducingtheamountofhouseholdgarbagethatisdumpedeveryday.Finally,thesetoiletsystemsarebeneficialtotheenvironmentastheydivertnutrientandpathogen-containingeffluentfromthesoil,surfacewater,andthegroundwater.

DisadvantagesofUsingaCompostingToiletCompostingtoiletsareabigresponsibility;theownerofacompostingtoiletmustbecommittedtomaintainingthesystem.Removingthecompostcanbeunpleasantifthetoiletisnotproperlysetupandtheycouldenduphavingodorissues.

SuccessfulManagementoftheCompostingToiletCompostingtoiletsdonotrequirehighlytrainedpeopletodealwiththesewageasitisrelativelyharmlesstohandle.Butitisimportanttomaintainyourcompostingtoiletsoitcanbeeffectiveandsafe.Somecompostingtoiletsmayneedorganicbulkingagentsadded

Compostwillenrichthesoilinyourgardentohelpgrowhealthierplants.

toaidthecompostingprocess.Addinggrassclippings,sawdust,andleavestoyourcompostingtoiletreservoirwillhelpaidtheprocess.Theendproductshouldberemovedeverythreemonthsforsmallersystemsand,ifcompostedcorrectly,shouldnotsmellandshouldnotbetoxictohumansoranimals.Besuretodisposeofthewastematerialsinaccordancewithyourparticularstateandlocalregulations.

MakingYourOwnCompostingToiletBuildingyourowncompostingtoiletcanbequiteinexpensiveandtakesonlyashortamountoftimetoassemble.Inordertoconstructacompostingtoilet,youwillneedthefollowingmaterials:

Twoorthree5-gallonbucketswithlidsAstandardtoiletseat(ausedonewillworkjustfine)withlid3/4x3x18-inchplywoodsheetsBoardstobecutandusedforthesidesofthetoiletboxandforthelegsTwohingesScrewsSawandmeasuringtapeBagofsawdust,tobeusedforsoakingupexcessmoistureinthecompositingbucket

Tobegin,cutaholeinoneofthepiecesofplywoodsothatitfitsthesizeofthebucket.Then,attachthepiecesofplywoodtogetherusingthehinges.Buildaboxwiththeboardsandthenscrewinthesolidpieceofplywoodtothebox,allowingforthepartwiththeholetoremainonthetop.Attachlegstothebox,allowingthebuckettoliftjustslightlyabovetheholecutinthetoppieceofplywood.Then,attachthetoiletseattotheplywoodtop,makingsurethatitfitssecurelyovertherimofthebucket.Finally,stainorpainttheentirecompostingtoiletsoitwilllastlongerandmatchthedécorofyourbathroom.

Beforeusingyourhomemadecompostingtoilet,sprinkle1to2inchesofsawdustintothebottomofthebucket.Thiswillhelpabsorbextramoistureandwillalsoaddanecessarycarbonelementthatisusefulincomposting.Sprinklesawdustintothetoiletaftereachusetofacilitatethecompostingprocessandtominimizeodors.Whenthefirstbucketisfull,removeandcover(allowingthecompostingprocesstocontinue),insertanotherbucket,andcontinueuse.Whenbothbucketsarefull,removethemtoyourcompostingpileinyouryard.Makeasmallindentinthecenterofyourcompostingpileanddumpthenewcompostintothedepression,layingoldcompostandotherorganicmaterialsontopofthenewaddition.Ifusedproperly,yourcompostingtoiletwillbeodorlessandyourcompostwillberichandreadyforuseinyourgarden.

Thepretreatmentofgreywater

Greywater

Greywaterisjustwastewater.Greywater,however,doesnotincludetoiletwastewater,whichisknownasblackwater.Thesetwodifferentkindsofwatershouldnotbemixedtogetherforbasichealthreasons.Themaindifferencesbetweengreywaterandblackwaterare:

Greywatercontainslessnitrogenthanblackwater(andabouthalfofthenitrogenthatisfoundingreywaterisorganicnitrogenthatcanbefilteredoutandusedbyplants).Greywatercontainsfewerpathogensthanblackwaterandthusisnotaslikelytospreadorganismsthatcouldbepotentiallyharmfultohumans.Greywaterdecomposesfasterthanblackwaterandislesslikelytocausewaterpollutionbecauseofthisfactor.

Greywaterisnotnecessarilysewagetobeginwith,butifleftuntreatedforacoupleofdays,itwillbecomelikeblackwaterandthuswillbeunusable.Therefore,itisimportanttoknowhowbesttotreatandmanagegreywatersoitcanbesuccessfullyandsafelyreused.

WhatisGreywater?Simplyspeaking,greywateriswashwater—bath,dish,andlaundrywaterthatisfreefromtoiletwasteandgarbagedisposalremnants.Greywater,whenitismanagedproperly,canbequiteusefulforgrowingthingsinyourgardenoryard.Greywater,ineffect,isanexcellentsourceofnutrientsforplantswhenusedproperly.

GreywaterIrrigationSystemsThepracticeofirrigatingwithgreywateriscommoninareaswherethewatersupplyisshort.Tohaveeffectivegreywaterirrigationthatsuccessfullyutilizesthenutrientsinthegreywater,itisimportanttotakeprecautionsbeforeusingitinirrigation.

Planningagreywatersystemrequireseitheranassumptionthatthesystemisrightforyouandyourfamilyoranunderstandingthatthesystemisneededfor

thehouseindependentofwholivesinit.

Toassesswhetheryourhouseholdcouldbenefitfromagreywatersystem,itisimportanttotakeinventoryofallthesourcesofgreywaterinthehouse.Lookathowmanygallonsofwateryouuse,perperson,perday,whendoingthelaundry,runningthedishwasher,andtakingabathorshower,andthenaddupthesenumbers.Rememberthatthetypicalwashingmachineuses30gallonsofwaterpercycle,adishwasherusesbetween3and5gallonspercycle,andsimplywashingyourhandsandbrushingyourteethdailywastesabout1to5gallonsofwaterperday.Ifyouareabletorecycleandreuseallofthatwastedwater,youcaneffectivelyreducetheamountofwaterconsumptionyourfamilyhaseverydayandeveryyear.

Onceyou’vedecidedtouseyourgreywater,itisimportanttocheckwithyourlocalauthoritiestoseeifthereareanystateorlocalregulationsforgreywaterusageinyourarea.Onceyouhavethego-aheadtoproceed,youcanbeginreusingyourgreywatertothebenefitofyourgardenandhousehold.

Greywaterpretreatment

Aplantersoilbox

AerobicPretreatment

Thistypeofgreywatertreatmentissuitableforshower,hand-washing,andlaundrywater.Aerobicpretreatmentisastretchfiltertechniquethatremoveslargeparticlesandfiberstoprotectthepipesfromcloggingandtransfersthe

greywaterintoabiologicallyactive,aerobicsoilzoneenvironment.Heremicroorganismscansurviveandflourish.Stretchfiltersretainfibersandlargeparticlesandallowtherestofthematerialstotraveltothenextprocessingstage.Thefilterisgoodforsinksandshowersatpublicwaterfacilities.

AnaerobictoAerobicPretreatment

Ifyouhavefoodwasteenteringthewatersystemfromdishwashersandkitchensinks,thisisthebetteroptionfortreatingyourgreywater.Thissystemshouldhaveathree-stageseptictanktoseparatethesludgeandgreasefromthewater.Thiswastecanthenberemovedeasily.Theoutgoingwaterwillbeanaerobicandwillneedasandfiltertorestoretheaerobicconditionstothegreywater.Thefinaltreatmentleadsthepurifiedwatertobetreatedinaplanterbed.Thesystem,whilenotinexpensive,isquiteeffectiveandissimpletomaintain.Aplanforthissystemcanbeseenabove.

PlanterSoilBox

Since1975,soilboxeshavebeenusedtopurifygreywater.Whenusingasoilbox,however,itisvitalthattheplanterbedbewelldrainedtopreventwater-loggedzonesfromforming.Therefore,thebottomofthesoilboxshouldcontainalayerofpolyethylenepeagraveltoprovideforeffectivedrainage.Alayerofplasticmosquitonettingshouldbeplacedoverthegraveltopreventthelayerofcoarsesandfromfallingthrough.Atopthecoarsesandshouldbealayerofconcrete-mixsandandthetop2feetshouldconsistofhumus-richtopsoil.Claysoilsshouldnotbeusedinsoilboxesastheydonoteffectivelyallowwatertopassthroughanddrain.

Pipingcanusuallybefoundin5-footsections.

Pressureinfiltrationpipesshouldbedesignedtoallowfortheevendistributionofwaterinbothlevelanduneventerrain.Thesepipesareeasytocleanandshouldbeplacedonthesoilsurfaceafterplanting.Then,theyshould

becoveredbya2-to4-inchlayerofwoodchipmulch.Thepressureinfiltrationpipesconsistoftwoconcentricpipesthatexpandslightlyduetothewaterpressurewhenthesystemisturnedon.Thiscausesthewatertorunoutalongtheslotatthebottomofthesoilbox.Whenthewaterpressureisturnedoff,thiscausesthesleevetocloseandpreventsworms,insects,androotsfromenteringandcloggingthepipe.

Gravity/PressureLeachingChambers

Leachingchamberscanbesuccessfulinloadingandreceiving2.4gallonspersquarefootperdayofgreywaterfromathree-bedroomhome.UsinghalfofaPVCpipethatis6inchesindiameter,thisleachingchambercanbeplacedwithinatrenchona1-to2-inchmeshplasticnettingtopreventthewallsfromsinkingintothesoil.Nopre-filtrationisusedinthesechambers.Allthatisrequiredisadosingpumpchambertopumpeveryeighthours.Thetrenchshouldhaveaminimumsurfaceareaofabout100squarefeet—thiswillallowforaloadingrateofaround2to2½gallonspersquarefootperdayforanaverage-sizedhome.

GravityandAutomaticSwitch

Theillustrationbelowshowsanexampleofanautomaticswitchsystemfromashallowleachchambertoonethatisbelowthefrostline—animportantfeatureof

Aleachingchamber

anygreywatersysteminthenorthernUnitedStates.Ifashallowtrenchfreezesandbecomescloggedwithice,thewaterwillbackupandspilloverintothepipe

tothedeeper,below-the-frost-linetrench.Itisworthnotingthatgreywateristypicallywarmerthancombinedsewageandthattheshallowleachzonesthatareoperatinginyoursystemtendtostayfreeroficeforlongerperiodsoftimethaninplaceswithcombinedwastewater.

Anautomaticswitchsystem

About3feetofwaterisagoodmarginforthisautomaticswitchsystem.

Automaticswitchingusingpumppressureisdifferentthangravitypressureswitching.Inanautomaticswitchsystem,aloopmustbearrangedindoorswherethepressureneededfortheshallowinfiltrationisnormallylowerthanthepressurerequiredtoforcethewateruptothetopoftheloop.Thetopoftheloopmust,then,benohigherthantheshut-offheadofthepump.About3feetofwaterisagoodmarginforthissystem.Thesystemcanalsobedesignedtobeswitchedmanuallybytheopeningandclosingofthevalvesthatfeedthedifferentzonesandlevelsofthegreywaterbox.

Anactivecooling/passiveheatinggreywater-irrigatedgreenhouse

OptionsforUsingGreywaterinColdWeatherThroughoutNewEngland,thereareseveralgreywater-irrigatedgreenhousesthatfeatureacombinationofautomaticallyirrigatedandfertilizedgrowingbedsthatprovideeffectivegreywatertreatment.Sincethesegreenhousesarefoundincolder,northernstates,itisimportantthatthesesoilbedsbedeepertostoreheatfromboththesunandthegreywater.

Thegreenhouseshownhereprovidesenoughsaladgreensforafamilyoffourtosixpeoplethroughoutthelong,coldnortheasternwinters.Growingbroccoli,spinach,lettuce,mustardgreens,andsorrelinthesecolderclimategreywatersystemscanbequiteeffectiveandprofitable.Tofacilitatebetterdistributionofgreywaterinthesoilbed,apipe-loopsystemcanalsobesimplyconstructedtofeedthebedfrombothsides.

OutdoorPlantersTherearemanyvariationsofoutdoorraisedsoilbedsthatareeffectiveinreplacingthesoilneededforsuccessfulleachfieldtreatmentofgreywater.Housesonledgesorinverysandysoilscanbefittedwithmasonrysoilboxesthatservetobuildupthesite’ssoilprofile.Suchastrategyhasbeenusedinmoundsorevapo-transpirationbeds(anamederivedfromtheassumptionthatallofthewaterwillevaporatetotheatmosphereeveninwetandcoldclimates).

Inpartsofthecountrywhereconstructiondensitymakesitverydifficulttobuildalargemoundortolocateplantersfortreatingasignificantvolumeofgreywater,twoadjacentneighborscanagreetobuildpropertydividersandplant

hedgesintheirleachingarea.Thisalternativecombinesprivacy,landscapingaesthetics,andgoodenvironmentalprotection.Greywatergardensoffertheaddedbenefitofbeingabletogardenatahigherelevationandinaraisedgardenbed.

Outdoorplanterswillhavealesseffectivetreatmentduringthewinterseasonsandduringdeepfreezes.Yet,

Greywaterisespeciallyusefulinareasthatareverydry.

whenrelativelywarmgreywaterisinjectedintothesoil,increasedbiologicalactivityaswellaswarmingofthesoiltendstokeeptheinjectionareaunfrozenforlongerperiodsoftimethanthesurroundingarea.Raisedbedsorplanterscanalsobeidealforcompostbinsinthefall.Thedecomposingleavesandgrassesactasaninsulatoraswellasacompostingfuelsourcethatfurtherinsuresthatthesoilbeneathdoesnotgointoadeepfreeze.

ShallowSubsoilIrrigation

Thistypeofirrigation(2to6inchesbelowthesoillevel)ispreferabletosurfaceirrigationwhenthesefactorsareinplay:

Thewaterusedis“grey”(neithercleannorfreeofsalts)TheirrigationsystemislocatedinahighevaporationlocalewithwatershortagesItisdesiredtoproduceleaforgardenwastecompostquicklySelectiveirrigationisneeded(foraflowerborder,shrub,bush,tree,etc.)Youwanttoautomaticallyirrigateadrainedplanterindoorsoroutdoors

Aninjectorpipeforkinthesoilbed.Use1-inchpipinganddrill¼-inchholesoneachside.Coverwithcanvasandalayerofsoiltohidethepipearrangement.

PARTSIXCrafts

“Craftsmakeusfeelrooted,giveusasenseofbelonging,andconnectuswithourhistory.Ourancestorsusedtocreatethesecraftsoutofnecessity,andnowwedothemforfun,tomakemoneyandtoexpressourselves.”

—PhyllisGeorge

“Theartistmustcreateasparkbeforehecanmakeafireandbeforeartisborn,theartistmustbereadytobeconsumedbythefireofhisowncreation.”

—AugusteRodin

Manypeoplethinkofartsandcraftsassomethinginvolvingmarkersandconstructionpaperthatthekidsdoatsummercamp.Certainly,thecreativitythatchildrenexpresswithscissors,tape,coloredpencils,orclayisattheheartofcrafting,butthere’smoretoitthanthat.Mostcraftprojectsdoneforpleasurenowwereoncedoneoutofnecessity—makingcandles,soaps,orbaskets,forexample—andmanyarestillusefultoday.Beyondthat,makingthingswithyourhandscanbesoothing,stimulating,orevenenlightening,dependingontheprojectandyourframeofmind.Manypeoplefindknittingespeciallyrelaxing,andpottersoftendiscoverwithintheirartphilosophicalprinciplesofintentionality,change,flexibility,andacceptance.Inaddition,craftingcanbecomealucrativeandfulfillingbusiness;handmadeitemsaresought-aftergifts

andcanbesoldforsignificantlymorethantheirfactory-producedcounterparts.Inthesepagesyou’llfindanintroductiontoseveraldiverseformsofcrafting,frommakingsoapandcandlestopotteryandeventyingknots.Usethedirections,descriptions,andimagesasajumping-offpointforyourowncreativeendeavors,alteringtheprojectsasyou’reinspiredinordertocreateone-of-a-kindpiecestouse,giveaway,orsell...orjustbecausethey’refuntodo.

HandmadeCandles

Beforethedaysofelectricity,candleswereanecessityineveryhome.Nowtheyareenjoyedprimarilyfortheuniquewaythattheycreateambience,or,forcandlesmadewithessentialoils,fortheiraromaticproperties.Turningoffthelightsforafewhoursandenjoyingtheeveningbycandlelightcansavemoneyonyourelectricbill,too,andisapleasantreminderofdaysgoneby.

Whenmakingcandlesoutofhotwax,it’sagoodideatokeepsomebakingsodanearby.Ifwaxlightsonfire,itreactssimilarlytoagreasefire,whichisonlyaggravatedbywater.Douseawaxfirewithbakingsoda,anditwillextinguishquickly.Ratherthanpouringleftoverwaxdownthedrain(whichwillclogyourdrainandisbadfortheenvironment),dumpitintoajarandsetitaside.Ifyoucontinuetomakecandles,eventuallyyourleftoverswillbecomeauniquelayeredjarcandle.

RolledBeeswaxCandleThisisthesimplesttypeofcandleyoucanmakeandonethatisgreattodowithchildren.Beeswaxcandlesarecheap,eco-friendly,non-allergenic,dripless,andnon-toxic,andtheyburncleanlyandbeautifully.Andyoucanmakeabeeswaxcandleinabout20minutes!So,ifyouarepressedfortimeandwanttomakeanicehomemadegift—oryou’djustliketohavesweet-smellingcandlesinyourhome—makingbeeswaxcandlesisthewaytogo.

Materials

Sheetsofbeeswax,anycoloryouwant(youcanfindthisatyourlocalartsandcraftsstoreorevenfromabeekeeperoratafarmers’market)Wick(youcanpurchasecandlewicksatyourlocalartsandcraftsstore)Supplies

Scissors(tocutthewickandexcessbeeswax)Hairdryer(optional)

Directions1. Takeonesheetofbeeswaxandfolditinhalf.Cutalongthefoldededgeso

youhavetwoseparatepieces.2. Cutyourwicktobeabout2incheslongerthanthelengthofthebeeswax

sheet.

Beeswaxcandlesareeasytomake,non-allergenic,anddripless.

Purchasebeeswaxinsheetsfromcraftsstoresorgatherthemfromyourownhives.

3. Laythewickontheedgeofthebeeswaxsheet,closesttoyou.Makesurethewickhangsoffofeachendofthesheet.

4. Startrollingthebeeswaxoverthewick,makingsureitistuckedtightlyaroundthewick.Thetighteryoubeginrollingthebeeswax,themoresturdyyourcandlewillbeandthebetteritwillburn.

5. Carefullyrollupthewickinthebeeswax(asyouwouldrollmodelingclay).Stopabout2inchesfromtheothersideandmakesuretheendsaresmoothandstraight.Applyslightpressureasyourolltokeepthewaxtightlybound.

6. Whenyoureachtheend,youmustsealoffyourcandle.Todoso,startinthemiddleoftheedgeandgentlypressitintothecandle,lettingyourbodyheatmeltthewaxintotherolledcandle.

7. Trimthewickonthebottom(youmayalsowanttocutthebottomslightlysoitwillstandupstraight)andthencutthewicktoabout½inchatthetop.

Note:Ifyouarehavingtroubleusingthebeeswaxandwanttofacilitatetheadheringprocess,youcanuseahairdryertosoftenthewaxandtohelpyourollit.Startattheendwiththewickand,movingthehairdryeroverthewax,heatitup.Keeprollinguntilyoureachasectionthatisnotaswarm,heatthatup,andcontinueallthewaytotheend.

TaperCandlesTapercandlesareperfectforcandlesticks,andtheycanbemadeinavarietyofsizesandcolors.

Materials

Wick(besuretofindaspoolofwickthatismadespecificallyfortapercandles)Wax(paraffinisidealformakingtapercandles)Candlefragrancesanddyes(optional)

Supplies

Pencilorchopstick(towindthewickaroundtofacilitatedippinganddrying)Weight(suchasafishinglure,bolt,orwasher)Dippingcontainer(thisshouldbetallandskinny.Youcanfindthesecontainersatyourlocalartsandcraftsstore,oryoucansubstituteaspaghettipot)Stove

Largepotforboilingwater

Smalltrivetorrack

Newspaper(topreventspills)

Glassorcandlethermometer

Dryingrack

Directions1. Cutthewicktothedesiredlengthofyourcandle,leavingabout5additional

inchesthatwillbetiedontothepencilorchopstickfordippinganddryingpurposes.It’salsoagoodideatoputaweightonthedippingendofthewick(afishinglure,bolt,orheavymetalwasher)tohelpwiththefirstfewdipsintothewax.

2. Readyyourdippingcontainer.Putthewax(preferablyinsmallerchunkstospeedupthemeltingprocess)intothecontainerandsetaside.

3. Inalargepot,starttoboilwater.Beforeputtingthedippingcontainerfullofwaxintothelargerpot,placeasmalltrivet,rack,orotherelevatingdeviceintothebottomofthelargerpot.Thiswillkeepthedippingcontainerfromtouchingthebottomofthelargerpotandwillpreventthewaxfromburningandpossiblycombusting.

4. Putthedippingcontainerintothepotandstarttomeltthewax,keepingathermometerinthewaxatalltimes.Thewaxshouldbeheatedandmeltedbetween150°Fand165°F.Stirfrequentlytokeepthechunksofparaffinfromburningandtoensureallthewaxisthoroughlymelted.(Ifyouwanttoaddfragranceordye,dosowhenthewaxiscompletelymeltedandstiruntiltheadditivesaredissolved.)

5. Onceyourwaxiscompletelymelted,it’stimetostartthedippingprocess.Removingthecontainerfromthestove,takeyourwickthat’stiedontoastickanddipitintothewax,leavingitthereforafewminutes.Continuetolowerthewickinandoutofthedippingcontainer,andbytheeighthorninthdip,cutofftheweightfromthebottomofthewick—thecandleshouldbeheavyenoughnowtodipwellonitsown.

6. Tospeedupthecoolingprocess—andtohelpthewaxcontinuetoadhereandbuilduponthewick—blowonthehotwaxeachtimeyouliftthecandleoutofthedippingpot.

7. Whenthecandleisatthedesiredlengthandthickness,youmaywanttolayitdownonaverysmoothsurface(suchasacountertop)andgentlyrollitintoshape.

8. Onadryingrack(whichcanbemadefromaboxlongenoughsothecandlesdonottouchthebottomorfromanotherdevice),carefullyhangyourtapercandletodryforagood24hours.

9. Oncethecandleiscompletelyhardened,trimthewicktojustabovethewax.

JarredSoyCandlesSoycandlesareenvironmentallyfriendlyandeasycandlestomake.Youcan

findmostoftheingredientsandmaterialsneededtomakesoycandlesatyourlocalartsandcraftsstore—oreveninyourownkitchen!

Materials

1lbsoywax(eitherinbarsorflakes)1ounceessentialoil(forfragrance)

Naturaldye(tryusingdriedandpowderedbeetsforred,turmericforyellow,orblueberriesforblue)Supplies

Pantoheatwax(adoubleboilerisbest)Spoon

Glassthermometer

Candlewick(youcanfindthisatyourlocalartsandcraftsstore)Metalwashers

Pencilsorchopsticks

Heatproofcuptopouryourmeltedwaxintothejar(s)Jartoholdthecandle(jellyjarsorotherglassjarsworkwell)

Directions1. Putthewaxinapanoradoubleboilerandheatitslowlyovermedium

heat.Heatthewaxto130°Fto140°Foruntilit’scompletelymelted.2. Removethewaxfromtheheat.Addtheessentialoilanddye(optional)and

stirintothemeltedwaxuntilcompletelydissolved.3. Allowthewaxtocoolslightly,untilitbecomescloudy.4. Whilethewaxiscooling,prepareyourwickintheglasscontainer.Itisbest

tohaveawickwithametaldiskontheend—thiswillhelpstabilizeitwhilethecandleishardening.Ifyourwickdoesnotalreadyhaveametaldiskattheend,youcaneasilyattachathinmetalwashertotheendofthewick,tyingaknotuntilthewickcannolongerpassthroughthewasher.Positionthewickintheglasscontainerand,usingapencilorchopstick,wraptheexcesswickaroundthemiddleandthen,layingthepencilorchopstickontherimofthecontainer,positionthewicksoitfallsinthecenter.

5. Usingaheatproofcuporthecontainerfromthedoubleboiler,carefullypourthecloudywaxintotheglasscontainer,beingcarefulnottodisturbthewickfromthecenter.

6. Allowthecandletodryforatleast24hoursbeforecuttingofftheexcesswickandusing.

Jellyjarsworkwellforpouredcandles.

MakingYourOwnSoap

Makingyourownsoapcanbeaveryrewardingprocess.Itdoes,however,requireagoodamountoftime,patience,andcaution,becauseyou’llbeusingsomecausticandpotentiallydangerousingredients—themainonebeinglye(sodiumhydroxide).Itisimportant,wheneveryouaremakingsoap,thatyouarecarefultoavoidcomingintodirectcontactwiththelye.Weargoggles,rubbergloves,andlongsleeves,andworkinawell-ventilatedarea.Besure,aswell,thatyouneverbreatheinthefumesproducedbythelyeandwatermixture.

Soapismadeupofthreemainingredients:water,lye,andfatsoroils.Whilelardandtallowwereonceusedexclusivelyformakingsoaps,itisperfectlyacceptabletouseacombinationofpureoilsforthe“fat”neededtomakesoap.Fortheseingredientstobecomesoap,theymustgothroughaprocesscalledsaponification,inwhichthemixturebecomescompletelyblendedandthechemicalreactionsbetweenthelyeandtheoils,overtime,turnthemixtureintoahardenedbarofusablesoap.

Onceyou’vebecomecomfortablewiththebasicsoap-makingprocess,youcanexperimentwithaddingdifferentcoloreddyes,essentialoils,andotheringredientstomakeapersonalizedandinterestingbarofsoap—perfectforyourownuseorforgivingasagift.

BasicRecipeforCold-PressedSoapIngredients

6.9ounceslye(sodiumhydroxide)

2cupsdistilledwater,cold(fromtherefrigeratoristhebest)2cupscanolaoil

2cupscoconutoil

2cupspalmoil

Supplies

Goggles,gloves,andmasktowearwhilemakingthesoapMoldforthesoap(acakeorbreadloafpanwillworkjustfine;youcanalsofindflexibleplasticmoldsatyourlocalartsandcraftsstore)PlasticwraporwaxpapertolinethemoldsGlassbowltomixthelyeandwater

Woodenspoonformixing

2thermometers(oneforthelyeandwatermixtureandonefortheoilmixture)StainlesssteelorcastironpotforheatingoilsandmixinginlyemixtureHandheldstickblender(optional)

Youcanpouryoursoapintomolds,usestamps,orcarvethefinishedbarstomakethemunique.

Directions1. Putonthegogglesandglovesandmakesureyouareworkinginawell-

ventilatedroom.2. Readyyourmold(s)byliningwithplasticwraporwaxpaper.Setthem

aside.3. Addthelyetothecold,distilledwaterinaglassbowl(neveraddthewater

tothelye)andstircontinuallyforatleastaminute,oruntilthelyeiscompletelydissolved.Placeonethermometerintotheglassbowlandallowthemixturetocooltoaround110°F(thechemicalreactionofthelyemixingwiththewaterwillcauseittoheatupquicklyatfirst).

4. Whilethelyeiscooling,combinetheoilsinapotonmediumheatandstirwelluntiltheyaremeltedtogether.Placeathermometerintothepotandallowthemixturetocoolto110°F.

5. Carefullypourthelyemixtureintotheoilmixture(makesureyoupourthelyesolutioninasmall,steadystream),stirringcontinuouslysothatthelyeandoilsmixproperly.Continuestirring,eitherbyhand(whichcantakeaverylongtime)orwithahandheldstickblender,untilthemixturetraces(hastheconsistencyofthinpudding).Thismaytakeanywherefrom30to60minutesormore,sojustbepatient.Itiswellworththetimeinvestedtomakesureyourmixturetraces.Ifitdoesn’ttracealltheway,itwillnotsaponifycorrectlyandyoursoapwillberuined.

6. Onceyourmixturehastraced,pourcarefullyintothemold(s)andletsitforafewhours.Then,whenthemixtureisstillsoftbutcongealedenoughnottomeltbackintoitself,cutthesoapwithatableknifeintobars.Letsitforafewdays,thentakethebarsoutofthemold(s)andplaceonbrownpaper(grocerybagsareperfect)inadarkarea.Allowthebarstocureforanother4weeksorsobeforeusing.

Ifyouwantyoursoaptobecolored,addspecialsoap-coloringdyes(youcanfindtheseatthelocalartsandcraftsstore)afterthemixturehastraced,stirringthemin.Ortrymakingyourowndyesusingherbs,flowers,orspices.

Tomakeayummy-smellingbarofsoap,addafewdropsofyourfavoriteessentialoils(suchaslavender,lemon,orrose)afterthetracingofthemixtureandstirin.YoucanalsoaddaloeandvitaminEatthispointtomakeyoursoapsofterandmoremoisturizing.

Toaddtextureandexfoliatingpropertiestoyoursoap,youcanstirsomeoatsintothetracedmixture,alongwithsomealmondessentialoiloradabofhoney.Thiswillnotonlygiveyoursoapanice,pumice-likequalitybutitwillalso

smellwonderful.Tryaddingbitsoflavender,rosepetals,orcitruspeeltoyoursoapforvariety.

Tomakesoapindifferentshapes,pouryourmixtureintomoldsinsteadofmakingthemintobars.Forroundsoaps,youcantakeafewbarsofsoapyou’vejustmade,placethemintoaresealableplasticbag,andwarmthembyputtingthebagintohotwater(120°F)for30minutes.Then,cutthebarsupandrollthemintoballs.Thesesoapsshouldsetinaboutanhourorso.

NaturalDyesforSoaporCandles

Light/DarkBrown Cinnamon,groundcloves,allspice,nutmeg,coffee

Yellow Turmeric,saffron,calendulapetals

Green Liquidchlrophyll,alfalfa,cucum-ber,sage,nettles

Red Annattoextract,beets,grape-skinextract

Blue Redcabbage

Purple Alkanetroot

PotteryBasics

Potteryisenjoyabletomakebecauseofitsflexibilityandsimplicityasameansofartexpression,itsutility,anditstimelessness.

Clayisthebasicingredientformakingpottery.Clayisdecomposedrockcontainingwater(bothinliquidandchemicalforms).Waterinitsliquidformcanbeseparatedfromtheclaybyheatingthemasstoaboilingpoint—aprocessthatrestorestheclaytoitsoriginalconditiononcedried.Thewaterintheclaythatisfoundinchemicalformscanalsoberemovedbyignition—aprocesscommonlyreferredtoas“firing.”Afterbeingfired,claycannotberestoredtoanystateofplasticity—thisiswhatweterm“pottery.”Someclayrequiresgreaterheatinordertobefired,andtheseareknownas“hardclays.”Thesetypesofclaymustbesubjectedtoa“hard-firing”process.However,inthemakingofsimplepottery,softclayisgenerallyusedandisfiredinanover-glaze(softglaze)kiln.

Potteryclayscaneitherbefoundincertainsoilsorboughtfromcraftstores.Ifyouhaveclaysoilavailableonyourproperty,theprocessofseparatingtheclayfromtheothersoilmaterialsissimple.Puttheearthenclayintoalargebucketofwatertowashthesoilaway.Anyrocksorotherheavymatterwillsinktothebottomofthebucket.Themilkyfluidthatremains—whichisessentiallywatermixedwithclay—maythenbedrawnoffandallowedtosettleinaseparatecontainer,theclearwatereventuallycollectingonthetop.Removetheexcesswaterbyusingasiphon.Repeatingofthisprocesswillrefinetheclayandmakeitreadyforuse.

Youcanalsopurchaseclayatyourlocalcraftstore.Usually,claysoldinthesestoreswillbeinadryform(agrayishoryellowishpowder),soyouwillneedtoprepareitbeforeusingityourpottery.Toprepareitforuse,youmustmixthepowderwithwater.Iftherearedirectionsonyourclaypacket,thenfollowthosecloselytomakeyourclay.Ingeneral,though,youcanmakeyourclaybymixingequalpartsofclaypowderandwaterinabowlandallowingthemixturetosoakfor10to12hours.Afterithassoaked,kneadthemixturethoroughlytodispersethewaterevenlythroughouttheclayandpopanyairbubbles.Airbubbles,ifleft

intheclay,couldbedetrimentaltoyourpotteryoncekilned,becausethebubbleswouldgeneratesteamandpossiblycrackyourcreation.However,becarefulnottokneadyourclaymixturetoomuch,

Apottercarefullyformsabowlwhichwilleventuallybeglazedandfiredinakiln.

Makingpotterytakespatienceandpractice,buttheprocesscanbeveryenjoyable.

oryoumayincreasethechanceofairbubblesbecomingtrappedinthemixture.

If,afterkneading,youfindthattheclayistoowettoworkwith(testthewetnessoftheclayonyourhandsandifittoslipsaroundyourpalmveryeasily,itisprobablytoowet),theexcesswatercanberemovedbysqueezingorblottingoutwithadrytowelordryboard.

Themaintoolsneededformakingpotteryaresimplyyourfingers.Therearewoodentoolsthatcanbeusedforaddingfinerdetailordecoration,buttypically,allyoureallyneedareyourowntwohands.Alooptool(apieceoffine,curvedwire)mayalsobeusedforscrapingoffexcessclaywhereitistoothick.Anothertoolhasraggededgesandthiscanbeusedtohelpregulatethecontourofthepottery.Rememberthathomemadepotterywillnotalwaysbesymmetrical,andthatiswhatmakesitsospecial.

Sticksandothertoolscanbeusedtohelpyouformanddecorateyourpottery.

BasicVaseorUrnTrymakingthissimplevaseorurntogetusedtoworkingwithclay.1. Takealumpofclay.Theclayshouldbeaboutthesizeofasmallorange

andshouldbeelasticfeeling.Then,begintomoldthebaseofyourobject—

let’ssayitiseitherabowloravase.2. Continuemoldingyourbase.Bynow,you’llhavearatherheavyandthick

model,hollowedtolookalittlelikeabird’snest.Now,usingthisbaseassupport,startaddingpiecesofclayinaspiralshape.Presstheclaytogetherfirmlywithyourfingers.Makesurethatyourmodelhasauniformthicknessallaround.

3. Continuemoldingyourclayandmakingitgrow.Asyouworkwiththeclay,yourhandswillbecomemoreaccustomedtoitstextureandthewayitmolds,andyouwillhavelessdifficultymakingitdowhatyouwant.Asyoustarttoelongateandlengthenthemodel,remembertokeepthewallsofthepiecesubstantialandnottoothin—itiseasiertoremoveextrathicknessthanitistoaddit.

4. Don’tbecomefrustratedifyourfirstmodelfails.Evenifyouarebeingextracarefultomakeyourbowlorvasesturdy,thereisalwaystheinstancewhenanearlycompletevasewillfallover.Thisusuallyhappenswhenonesideofthestructurebecomestoothinortheclayistoowet.Tokeepthisfromhappening,itissometimeshelpfultokeeponehandinsidethestructureandtheotheroutside.Ifyouarebuildingavase,youcanextractonefingeratatimeasyoureachcloserandclosertothetopofthemodel.

5. Theclayshouldbemoistthroughouttheentiremoldingprocess.Ifyouneedtostopmoldingforanextendedperiodoftime,covertheitemwithamoistclothtokeepitfromdryingout.

6. Whenyourmodelhasreachedthesizeyouwant,youmayturnitupsidedownandsmoothandrefinethecontoursoftheobject.Youcanalsomakethebasemuchmoredetailedandshapedtoamorepleasingdesign.

7. Allowyourmodeltoairdry.

EmbellishingYourClayModelsYoumayeventuallywanttomakesomethingthatrequiresahandleoraspout,suchasacuporteapot.Addinghandlesandspoutscanbetricky,butonlyifyoudon’tremembersomesimplerules.Spoutscanbemodeledaroundastraworanyothermaterialthatisstiffenoughtosupporttheclayandlightenoughtoburnoutinthefiring.Inthedesigningofspoutsandhandles,itisstillimportanttokeepthemsolidandthick.Also,keepingthemclosertothebodyofyourmodelismorepractical,ashandlesandspoutsthatareelongated

arehardertokeepfirmandcanalsobreakoffeasily.Althoughmoretime-consuminganddifficulttomanage,handlesandspoutscanaddaniceaesthetictoyourfinishedpottery.

Thesimplestwaytodecorateyourpotteryisbymakinglineincisions.Lineincisiondesignsarebestmadewithwooden,finger-shapedtools.Itiscompletelyuptoyouastohowdeepthelinesareandintowhatpatterntheyaremade.

Wheel-workingandFiringPotteryIfyouwanttotakeyourpottery-makingonestepfurther,youcanexperimentwithusingapotters’wheelandalsoglazingandfiringyourmodeltocreatebeautifulpottery.Lookonlineoratyourlocalcraftstoreforpotters’wheels.Firingcanleaveyourpotterylookingtwodifferentways,dependingonwhetheryoudecidetoleavetheclaynatural(soitmaintainsadullandporouslook)ortogiveitacolorglaze.

Coloredglazescomeintheformofpowderandaregenerallymetallicoxides,suchasironoxides,cobaltoxide,chromiumoxide,copperoxide,andcoppercarbonate.Thecolorsthesecompoundsbecomewillvarydependingontheatmosphereandtemperatureofthekiln.Glazesoftencomeintheformofpowderandneedtobecombinedwithwatertobeappliedtotheclay.Onlyapplyglazetodriedpottery,becauseitwon’tadherewelltowetclay.Useabrush,sponge,orputtyknifetoapplytheglaze.Yourpotteryisthenreadytobefired.

Therearevariousdifferentkindsofkilnsinwhichtofireyourpottery.Anover-glazekilnissufficientforallprocessesdiscussedhere,andyoucanprobablyfindakilninyoursurroundingarea(checkonlineandinyourtelephonebookforplacesthathavekilnsopentothepublic).Forschoolsthathavepotteryclasses,over-glazekilnsmaybeinstalledthere.Itisimportant,wheneveryouareusingakiln,thatyouarewithaskilledpotterymakerwhoknowshowtoproperlyoperateakiln.

Afterthepotteryhasbeencoloredandfired,asimpledesignmaybemadeonthepotterybyscrapingoffthesurfacecolorsoastoexposetheoriginalorcreamy-whitetintoftheclay.

Unglazedpotterymaybeworkedwithafterfiringbyrubbingfloorwaxontheoutersurface.Thisfillsuptheporesandgivesamoreuniformqualitytothewholepiece.

Potteryofferssomanyopportunitiesforpersonalexperimentationandenjoyment;therearenosetrulesastohowtomakeapieceofpottery.Keepajournalaboutthedifferentthingsyoutrywhilemakingpotterysoyoucanrememberwhatworksbestandwhatshouldbeavoidedinthefuture.Notethekindofclayyouusedanditsconsistency,thetypesofcolorsthathaveworkedwell,andthetemperatureandpositioningwithinthekiln,ifyouusefiring.Aboveall,enjoymakinguniquepiecesofpottery!

MakingJars,Candlesticks,andBowlsMakingpotteryathomeissimpleandeasy,andisagreatwayforyoutomakepersonalized,uniquegiftsforfamilyandfriends.Claycanbepurchasedatlocalartsandcraftsstores.Claymustalwaysbekneadedbeforeyoumodelwithitbecauseitcontainsairthat,ifleftintheclay,wouldformairbubblesinyourpotteryandspoilit.Workoutthisairbykneadingitthesamewaythatyoukneadbread.Alsoguardagainstmakingtheclaytoomoist,becausethatcausesthepotterytosag,andsagging,ofcourse,spoilstheshape.

Tomakeyourownpottery,youneedmodelingclay,aboardonwhichyoucanwork,apietinonwhichtobuild,aknife,ashortstick(onesideshouldbepointed),andaruler.

Keepspoutsandhandlesthicksotheywillnotcrackorbreakoff.Useastickordoweltocreatelineincisionslikethese.

Usingdifferentglazeswillgiveyourpotteryvariancesinodorandtexture.

Tostartajar,putahandfulofclayontheboard,patitoutwithyourhanduntilitisaninchthick,andsmoothoffthesurface.Then,takeacoffeecup,invertituponthebase,and,withyourstick,trimtheclayoutsidetherim.

Tobuildupthewalls,putahandfulofclayontheboardanduseaknifetosmoothitoutintoalongpiece,¼inchthick.Withtheknifeandaruler,trimoffoneedgeofthepieceandcutanumberofstrips¾inchwide.Takeonestrip,standitontopofthebase,andrubitsedgeintothebaseonbothsidesofthestrip.Takeanotherstripandaddittothetopofthefirstone,andcontinuebuildinginthisway,placingonestriponanother,joiningeachtotheonebeneathit,andsmoothingoverthejointsasyoubuild.Keepdoingthisuntilthewallsareashighasyouwantthemtobe.Remembertokeeponehandinsidethe

jarwhileyoubuild,forextrasupport.Fillunevenplaceswithbitsofclayandsmoothoutroughspotswithyourfingers,havingmoistenedyourfingerswithwaterfirst.Whenyouarefinished,youmayalsoadddecorations,orornaments,toyourjar.

Candlestick

Makingapotterycandlestickrequiresaroundbase½inchthickand4inchesindiameter.Afterpreparingthebase,putalumpofclayinthecenter,workitintothebase,placeanotherlumpontop,workitintothepiece,andcontinueinthiswayuntilthecandlestickhasbeenbuiltashighasyouwantit.Then,forceacandleintothemoistclay,twistingitarounduntilithasmadeasocketdeepenoughtoplaceacandleinto.

Acardboard“templet”,withoneedgetrimmedtothepropershape,willmakeiteasytokeepthewallsofthecandlesticksymmetricalandtheprojectingcaponthetopequalonallsides.Runtheedgeofthetempletaroundthewallsasyouwork,anditwillshow

youexactlywhereandhowmuchtofillout,trim,andstraightentheclay.

Ifyouwanttomakeacandlestickwithahandle,makeabasejustasdescribedearlier.Thencutstripsofclayandbuildupthewallasifbuildingajar,leavingacenterholejustlargeenoughtoholdacandle.Whenthedesiredheightforthewallhasbeenreached,cutastripofclay½inchwideand½inchthick,andlayitaroundthetopofthewallwithaprojectionof¼inchoverthewall.Smooththispieceontop,inside,andoutsidewithyourmodelingstickandfingers.Forthehandle,prepareastrip1inchwideand3/8inchthick,andjoinoneendtothe

topbandandtheotherendtothebase.Useasmalllumpofclayforfillingaroundwhereyoujointhepiece,andsmoothoffthepieceonallsides.

Whenthecandlestickisfinished,runaroundstickthesamesizeasthecandledownintothehole,andletitstayputuntiltheclayisdry,tokeepthecandlestickstraight.

Bowlsarequiteeasytomake.Startingwithabase,laystripsofclayaroundthebase,buildinguponeachstripasyoudidwhenmakingajar.Oncethebowlreachesitsdesiredheightandwidth,allowittodry.

GlazingandFiringMostpotterythatyoubuyisglazedandthenfiredinapotterykiln,butfiringisnotnecessarytomakebeautiful,sturdypottery.Theclaywilldryhardenough,naturally,tokeepitsshape,andtheonlythingyoumustprovideforiswaterproofing(ifthepotterywillbeholdingliquids).Todothis,youcantakebathtubenamelandapplyittotheinside(andoutside,ifdesired)ofthepotterytosealoffanycracksandkeeptheitemfromleaking.

Ifyoudowanttotryglazingandfiringyourownpottery,youwillneedakiln.Belowareinstructionsformakingyourown.

Potterymaybeornamentedbyscratchingadesignonitwiththeendofamodelingstick.Youcandoasimple,straight-linedesignbyusingarulerto

guidethestickindrawingthelines.

SawdustKiln

Thissmall,homemadekilncanbeusedtobakeandfiremostsmallpotteryprojects.Itwillonlygetuptoabout1200degreesFahrenheit,whichisnothotenoughtofireporcelainorstonewear.However,itwillsufficeforclaypinchpotsandotherdecorativepieces.

Youwillneed:Sawdust20–30redororangebricksChickenwireSheetmetalNewspaperandkindling1. Chooseaspotoutdoorsthatisprotectedfromstrongwinds.Clear

awayanydriedbranchesorotherflammablesfromtheimmediatearea.Aconcretepatioorpavedareamakesanidealbase,butyoucanalsoplacebricksorstonesontheground.

2. Stackbricksinasquareshape,buildingeachwallupatleastfourbrickshigh.Fillthekilnwithsawdust.

3. Placethechickenwireontopofthebricksandaddanotherlayerortwoofbricks.Carefullyplaceyourpotterynthecenterofthemesh,spacingthepiecesatleast½inchapart.Coverthepotterywithsawdust.

4. Addanotherpieceofchickenwire,addbricksandpottery,andcoverwithsawdust.Repeatuntilyourkilnisthedesiredheight.

5. Lightthetoplayerofsawdustonfire,usingkindlingandnewspaperifneeded.Coverwiththesheetmetal,usinganotherlayerofbrickstoholditinplace.

6. Oncethekilnstopssmoking,leaveitaloneuntilitcompletelycoolsdown.Thencarefullyremovethesheetmetallid.

PermanentHomemadePotteryKiln

Asyoucontinuetocreatepottery,youmayfindthatyouenjoytheartenoughthatyouwouldliketocontinuethiscraftforyearstocome.Inthatcase,andifyouhaveenoughspaceinyouryard,youmaythinkaboutconstructingapermanentkilnforallofyourpotteryneeds.Thiskilnrequiressomeintenseconstruction,buthavingyourownwood-burningpotterykilnwillmakefiring

yourcreationseasierandmoreeffective.

Theessentialsofthiskilnare:afirebox,anoven,andachimney.Thekilnworksbyallowingthefiretopassupfromthefireboxthroughtheovenfloor,betweenthebricks(spacedabout1½inchesapart),andoutthroughthechimneyatthetopoftheoven.

TheConstructionoftheKiln1.Beginbylayingoutaspaceforthefoundationofthekiln.Thisshouldbeonsolid,dryground.Itisadvisabletomakeanexcavationafewinchesbelowthesurfaceandfillitinwithcindersorbrokenbrick.Theplaceyouchooseforyourkilnshouldalsoallowwatertorunoffandnotcollectunderneath.

2.Buildthewallsofthekilnthreebricksdeeponeachofthesidesandtheback.Leavethefrontofthekilnopenforthefiremouths.

3.Halfwaybetweenthetwosidewalls,buildathin,centralsupport,madeofthreecoursesofbrickontheedge.Thiswillleaveanarrowledgewherethegratesofthefireboxescanrest.Buildtheotheredgeofeachgrateintothesidewall.

Thetopillustrationsshowsplanandfrontviewofthekilnfoundationupto

theovenfloor.Thewallsarethreebricksthickoneachsideandthefrontisleftopen.Thebottomillustrationshowsthebricksthatrestontheside

wallsandonthecentralsupport.Theseshouldbemadeoffirebricks,sincethey’llbesubjectedtothemostextremeheat.

Thesizeofthekilnwillbedependentontheamountofbricksyoulay.Laybricksendwisetomakeastrongerwall.

4.Makethemortarofcommonclay(oryoucanbuyitifyoudesire).Mixtheclaywithwaterintoamortar.Youcanaddsomeregularsandtogivethemortarbetterworkingqualities,andthiswillalsohelppreventshrinkage.

5.Spreadthemortaroverthecinderfoundationandstarttolaythebricks.Inbuildingthewallsandcentralsupport,makethejointsbetweenthebricksastightandthinaspossible.Tapthebricksintoplacesotherewillbenosettlingofthewalllateron.

6.Buildthewallsandcentralsupportuptothepointwheretheovenfloorwillbe.Tomaketheovenfloor,arrangethebricksontheiredgesabout1½inchesapartfromthefronttothebackofthekiln.Thesebricksshouldrestonthesidewallsandcentralsupport.Sincethisovenfloorisgoingtobesubjectedtohighheat,usefirebricks.Alsobesuretoprojectthebricksoutinthefrontfortheovendoortositon.

7.Continuetobuildthesideandbackwallsupninemorebricks.Then,youcanstarttotaperthebricksintoachimneyformation.Laythenexttwolevelsofbricks(onthesidewallsonly)intowardthecenterofthekilnabout1½inchesorso.Thespacebetweenthewallsatthetopshouldnotbemorethan9inches.Bridgetheopeningatthetopacrossthefrontandbackofthekiln,leavinganopeninginthecenterjustlargeenoughforthechimney(about8or9inchessquare).Youcandothisbyusinglargepiecesofterracottafluelining(purchasedatanyhardwareorhomecenterstore).

ofterracottafluelining(purchasedatanyhardwareorhomecenterstore).Thesizeoftheflueliningshouldbeabout2feetx8inchesx6inches.

8.Carefullycutlinesintheflueliningfromendtoend,untilthesidefallsaway.Cutthisintwoandusethetwohalvesforclosinginthetopofthekiln.Putthesebricksinplacewithplentyofmortarandfinishouttherestofthebrickingoverthewallswithotherpiecesoffluelining,makingthemlevel.

9.Buildtwomorelevelsofbrickallaround,leavingthechimneyopening9inchesby9inches.

10.Nowbuildthechimneystraightupwithasinglelayerofbricks(ortwobrickstoeachlayer,ifyoudesire).Theinsidediameterofthechimneyshouldnotbelessthan7inchesby7inches.Whencomplete,thechimneyshouldbeabout3feethigh.

Crosssectionofthefinishedkiln.Thespacebetweenthewallsatthetopshouldnotbemorethannineinches.

CutlinesintheflueliningfromendtoendatABandCD.ThencutintwoatEFandusethetwohalvesforclosinginthetopofthekiln.

11.Youcanalsobuildthechimney1foothighandthenletonebrickoneachsideprojectintothechimneycavityabout2inches.Then,fitordinarystovepipewithasquareendtorestontheseprojectionsinsidethechimney.

stovepipewithasquareendtorestontheseprojectionsinsidethechimney.Thisisalightermethodthanbuildingbrickallthewayup.

12.Installgratestoproduceabetterandclearedfire.Youcanfindgratesatyourlocalhardwarestoreoruseoldstovegrates.Buildthesegratesintothewallsofthefireboxandcentralsupport.Leavethefrontendoftheovenopen.

14.Placepotteryintheoven.Brickupthefrontoftheovenwithoutanymortarandfillinthejointswithwetsand.

15.Thekilnwillnowneedtobeheatedwithwood.Youshouldbeginwithaverysimplefirelastingaboutanhourortwo.Thisisextremelyimportant,astheflamecomesintocontactwiththerawclay,which,unlessitisheatedverygradually,couldcrackandsplitapart.Afterthoroughlywarmingthekiln,increasetheheatmorerapidly.Afterthefiringiswellunderway(threeorsohourslater),closethedoorsofthefireboxeswithpiecesofsheetironorbrickspiledupinfront.Onlyallowairinthroughthegrates.Onlyremovethetemporarydoorstoaddfueltothefire.

Knitting

TheartofknittingwassupposedlyinventedbytheSpanishnobilityasameansofrelaxationfornoblewomeninthecountry.TheScottishalsoclaimtohavedevelopedknitting,andKingHenryVIIwasthefirsttowearknittedstockingsinEngland.QueenElizabethalsoworeknittedsilkstockingsmadebyMistressMontegue.

Wheneverandwhereverknittingwasfirst“discovered,”itisuseful,relaxing,andcanbedonewhileenjoyingagoodconversationwithafriend.

KnittingBasics

Stitches

Knittingcanbedoneinrowsofplainorpurlstitchesorbyincorporatingavarietyofstitchesandknittingtechniquesinoneproject.However,thesimplerstitchesarebetterwhenfirststartingtoknit.Justbesurenottopullthethreadtootightorkeepittooloose—asyoucontinuetoknit,youwilllearntheproperamountoftensiontoapplytoyourstringsoyoucreateaperfect,knitteditem.

ToolsNeededforKnitting1. Gauge—Thismeasurestheknittingneedles.Mostneedlesalreadyhave

theirgaugelistedonthem,butifyourneedlesdonot,youshouldfindthismeasuringtoolatyourlocalartsandcraftsstore.

2. Knittingneedles—Thesearemadeofsteel,wood,orplasticandareusedtoknityourmaterialtogether.

3. Knittingshields—Althoughthesearenotanecessarytoolforknitting,youmayfindthatyouwantthesesothematerialdoesnotslipoffofyourneedle.

4. Materialtobeknitted—Beginnersshouldusethickeryarnintheirknitteditems.Whenyouhavebecomemoreproficientinknitting,youcanexperimentwithdifferenttypesofthreadsandmaterialstocreateyourvariousknitteditems.

KnittingTerminology

Tobringthethreadforward—Thismeanstopassthethreadbetweentheneedlestowardtheknitter’sbody.

Tocastoff—Youdothisbyknittingtwostitches,passingthefirstoverthesecond,andproceedinginthismanneruntilthelaststitch,whichissecuredbypassingthethreadthroughit.

Tocastontheloopsorstitches—Takethematerialinyourrighthandandtwistitaroundthelittlefinger,bringingitunderthenexttwofingers,andpassingitoverthepointerfinger.Then,taketheendofthematerialinyourlefthand(holdingtheneedlewithyourright),wrapitaroundthelittlefinger,andthenbringitoverthethumbandaroundthesecondandthirdfingers.Bydoingso,youwillhaveformedaloop.Now,bringtheneedleunderthelowerthreadofthematerialandabovethematerialthatisovertheright-handpointerfingerundertheneedle.Thethreadinthelefthandshouldbepulledtightly,completingthisstep.Youcanrepeatthisprocessasmanytimesasneededuntilyou’vecasttheamountofstitchesyouwant.

Tocastover—Thismeanstobringthematerialaroundtheneedle(bringingitforward).

Tofastenon—Thisreferstofasteningtheendofthematerialwhenit’sneededduringtheprocessofknitting.Thebestwaytofastenonistoplacethetwoendsinoppositedirectionsandknitafewstitcheswithboth.

Knittingstitch—Inthisstitch,theneedlemustbeputthroughthecast-onstitchandthematerialshouldbeturnedover.Thiswillbetakenupandundertheloop(orstitch)andthenletoff.Thisisalsoknownasaplainstitchandwillbecontinueduntilanentireroundiscomplete.

Aloopstitch—Thisismadebypassingthethreadbeforetheneedle.

Narrowing—Thisistodecreasethenumberofstitchesbyknittingtwotogether,soyouonlyformoneloop.

Purlstitch—Thisisalsoknownasaseam,ribbed,orturnstitch.Itisformedbyknittingwiththematerialbeforetheneedleandinsteadofbringingtheneedleovertheupperthread,thematerialisbroughtunderit.Thisistheoppositeofaknittingstitch.

Raising—Thisistoincreasethenumberofstitchesandismadebyknittingonestitchintheusualwayandthenomittingtoslipouttheleft-handneedle.Then,thematerialispassedforward,andasecondstitchisformedbypullingtheneedleunderthestitch.Thematerialmustbeputbacktoitsnormalplacewhentheextrastitchiscompleted.

Torib—Toalternatelyknitplainandpurledstitches(threeplainthenthreepurl,etc.).

Around—Thisisallofthestitchesontwo,three,ormoreneedles.

Arow—Thisreferstothestitchesfromoneendoftheneedletotheother.

Toseam—Toknitapurlstitcheveryalternaterow.

Aslipstitch—Thisismadebypassingthethreadfromoneneedletoanotherwithoutknitting.

Toturn—Tochangethetypeofstitch.

Welts—Thesearealternatingplainandribbedstitchesandareusedforanythingthatyoudon’twanttotwistorcurlup.

HowtoKnit1. Tocaston,holdthetwoneedleslooselyinyourhands.Passaloopoverthe

left-handneedleneartheendoftheyarnandholdtheright-handneedle

loosely.Puttheright-handneedleintotheloop,passingitfromlefttorightandkeepingtheright-handneedleundertheleftneedle.Passthestringoverthisneedle—betweenitandtheleft-handneedle—andpulltheloopuptowardtheright.Now,bringtherightneedleupandpassthestitchonittotheleftneedlebyputtingtheleftneedlethroughtheleftsideoftheloop,keepingtherightneedleintheloop.Itisreadytobeginthenextstitch.Repeat.

2. Knittingstitch:Afteryouhavemadethecorrectnumberofstitches,holdtheneedlethathasthestitchesonitinyourlefthandandpasstherightneedleintothefirststitchfromlefttoright.Puttheyarnaroundbetweenthetwoneedles,pulltheloopthroughtheotherloopontheleftneedle,andslipthatloopofftheleftneedle.Repeat.

3. Purlingstitch:Keeptheyarninthefrontoftheworkandputtherightneedleintoastitchfromrighttoleft,passingitupwardthroughthefrontloopofthestitch.Therightneedleshouldberestingontheleft.Passtheyarnaroundthefrontoftheneedleandbringitbackbetweenthetwoneedles.Pulltherightneedleslightlyback,soastosecuretheloopontherightneedleandthendrawofftheloopontheleftneedle.Repeat.Note:Thisisbasicallytheknittingstitch,onlybackwards.

4. Slippingastitch:Thisisdonebypassingastitchfromoneneedletoanotherwithoutknittingitatthebeginningofarow.Thisshouldalwaysbeendonewhenusingtwoneedlesatthebeginningofeachrow,sotherowsremaineven.

5. Casting(binding)off:Knittwostitches,passingthefirststitchoverthesecond,andthenknitathirdstitch,passingthesecondoverthethird.Continueinthiswayuntilallthestitchesareofftheneedle.

TwoSimpleKnittingPatterns1.PatentKnitting,orBriocheKnitting

Castonanynumberofstitchesdivisiblebythree.

Yarnforward,slipone,knittwotogether.Workeveryrowinthesameway.

2.Cane-workPattern

Castonanynumberofstitchesdivisiblebyfour.

GeneralTipforBeginningKnitters

Holdtheneedleslooselyinyourhandsandclosetothepoints.Tokniteasilyandquickly,yourhandsshouldneithermovetoomuchnorshouldyoumakelargegestureswiththeneedles.

Holdtheneedleslooselyinyourhandswiththelooseyarnwrappedaroundyourpointerfinger.

Sliptherightneedleintothetoploopontheleftneedle,keepingtheleftneedleabovetherightneedle.Todoapurlstitch,therightneedlewouldgoontopof

therightneedle.

Wraptheloosestrandofyarnoverandbehindtherightneedle.Forapurlstitch,wraptheyarnbehindfirstandthenovertheneedle.Sliptheloopoffof

theleftneedletofinishthestitch.

FirstRow:makeone,knitone,makeone,knitthree.Repeat.

SecondRow:purl.

ThirdRow:knitthree,makeone,slipone,knittwotogether,passtheslip-stitchoverthetwoknittedtogether,makeone.Repeat.

FourthRow:purl.

FifthRow:makeone,slipone,knittwotogether,passtheslip-stitchover,makeone,knitthree.Repeat.

SixthRow:purl.

SeventhRow:repeatthethirdrow.

EighthRow:purl.

NinthRow:makeone,slipone,knittwotogether,passtheslip-stitchover,makeone,knitthree.Repeat.

TenthRow:purl.

Repeatfromthethirdrowuntiltheitemiscomplete.

SimpleScarf

Materials

Mid-weightor4-plyyarnofanycolor(useatleastonefullbundleofyarn)Knittingneedles(size8to10.5arebestforknittingscarves)

Alternatingrowsofknitandpurlstitches.

Directions1. Decidehowwideyouwantyourscarftobe(26to35stitchesarethe

standardwidthforascarf).2. Firstrow:knit26to36stitches3. Secondrow:knit26to35stitches(ifyouwantsomethingalittlemore

challenging,purlthisrowinstead)4. Continueknitting(orknittingandpurlingalternately)untilyoureachthe

desiredlength(60inchesisagoodlengthforascarf).5. Attheend,cast(bind)offthestitches.

Materials

Yarnofamedium-heavyweight,anycolorofyourchoosingKnittingneedles(dependingontheheadsizeforthehat,useNo.6orNo.8needles)Directions1.Caston72stitches.2.Firstrow:knit72stitches.3.Secondrow:purl72stitches.

Thishatshowsthe“knitonerow,purlonerow”pattern.Youcanalsofollowthispatternforsixoreightrowsandthenswitchtojustknittingtogiveyourhatadifferentiatedbandaroundthebottom.Ifdesired,useroundneedles(twoknittingneedlesthatareattachedbyaplasticorrubbercord)

toavoidhavingtosewaseamattheend.

4.Continueinthisfashionuntilyourhatisabout9inchestall.5.Tobegintocast(bind)offyourhat,followthispattern:

a. Knitfivestitches,knittwotogether,andcontinuetotheendoftherow.

b. Purlthenextrow.c. Knitfourstitches,knittwotogether,andcontinuetotheendofthe

row.d. Purlthenextrow.e. Knitthreestitches,knittwotogether,andcontinuetotheendofthe

f. Purlthenextrow.g. Knittwostitches,knittwotogether,andcontinuetotheendofthe

row.h. Purlthenextrow.i. Kniteverytwostitchestogether.

7.Taketheexcessyarn,pullitthroughthelaststitches,andcutoffsoonlyaboutaninchandahalfremains.Sewaseam,puttheremainingyarnthroughtheloops,andfoldyourhatinsideout.

FingerlessMittens

Fingerlessmittensarewonderfultouseifyourhandsarecoldbutyoustillneedtohavecompleteaccesstothings,suchastypingonacomputerormakingameal.Theymakewonderfulgiftsforfriendsandfamilymembers.

Materials

150yardsofworsted-weightyarnorwool/yarnblendDouble-pointedknittingneedles,No.8

Directions1. Tomakethecuff,caston28stitches,makingsurethesestitchesareeven.

Then,begintoknitintheround.Donottwistthestitches.Usetheyarntailtokeeptrackoftheroundends.Knitthreerounds.Switchingtothetwistedribpattern,knitonestitchthroughthebackloopinordertotwistit.Purlone,andrepeatthispatternuntilthecuffmeasuresroughly2½inches.

2. Usingastockingstitch,beginthehandandthumbportionofthemitten.3. Firstrow:knitone,purlone,makeone(increasethestitch),knitone,make

one,purlone,knituntiltheendoftheround.4. Secondrow:knitone,purlone,knituntilyoureachthenextpurlstitchin

therowabove,purlone,knituntiltheendoftheround.5. Thirdrow:knitone,purlone,makeone,knituntilthenextpurl,makeone,

purlone,knituntiltheendoftheround.6. Repeatthesecondandthirdrowsuntilyouhaveninestitchesbetweenthe

purls.Thegloveshouldnowmeasureabout5½inchesfromtheedgeofthecast-offpoint.

7. Placetwopurlandninethumbgorestitchesonapieceofscrapyarn.Castoffthreestitchesandknitfourroundsofstockingstitch.Changetotwistedribstitchandmakesixrounds.Bindthisoffveryloosely.

Youcaneasilymodifythepatterndescribedheretoincludetheseindividualfingeropeningsandthefinger“hood.”Simplyfollowthestepstomakethethumbhole(steps8–10)foreachoftheadditionalfingeropenings.Forthe“hood,”followthedirectionsformakingahat(onlymakeitmuchsmaller)

andsewitontothemittenabovetheknuckles.

8. Tomakethethumb,put11stitchesonholdforthethumbontoanextraknittingneedle.Pickupthreestitchesatthebaseofthethumbandmake14stitches.

9. Knitoneroundofonly12stitches.10. Usingthetwistedribstitch,makesixmoreroundsandbindoffloosely.11. Tofinishup,weaveintheyarnendsand,ifnecessary,sewclosedanyholes

atthesidesofthethumbbase.

KnittedSquareBlanket

Materials

Thickyarn,anycoloryoulike(ifyouwantamulticoloredblanket,feelfreetousedifferent-coloredyarnforeachindividualsquare)Knittingneedles,No.6

Directions1. Beginbymakingsmallersquaresthatwillbesewntogethertoformalarger

blanket.2. Castonanynumberofstitchesdivisiblebythree.Forasquareof6inches,

you’llneed45stitches.3. Firstrow:Slipone,knittwo.Turntheyarnaroundtheneedleandbringit

againinfront.Then,slipone,knittwotogether.Purlthelasttwostitches.4. Secondrow:Turntheyarnaroundtheneedle,bringingittothefront.Slip

one,knittwotogether.Knitthelasttwostitchesintherow.5. Continuethepatterninstep4(alternatingpurledandknittedlasttwo

stitches)untilyoureachtheendandcastoffyoursquare.6. Continuemakingasmanysquaresasyouwanttogetthedesiredsizeof

yourblanket.7. Whenyouhaveallyourknittedsquares,takeaknittingneedleandsew

eachsquaretogether.

TyingKnots

Knowinghowtotiedifferenttypesofknotsisausefulskilltohave,especiallyifyouareinvolvedinboating,rockclimbing,fishing,orotheroutdooractivities.

Strongknotsaretypicallythosethatareneatinappearanceandarenotbulky.Ifaknotistiedproperly,itwillalmostneverloosenandwillstillbeeasytountiewhennecessary.

Thebestwaytolearnhowtotieknotseffectivelyistositdownandpracticewithapieceofcordorrope.Practice,inthiscase,definitelymakestyingknotsmuchfasterandeasier.Listedbelowareafewcommonknotsthatareusefultoknow:

Bowlineknot:Fastenoneendofthelinetosomeobject.Aftertheloopismade,holditinpositionwithyourlefthandandpasstheendofthelineupthroughtheloop,behindandoverthelineabove,andthroughthelooponceagain.Pullittightlyandtheknotisnowcomplete.

Clovehitch:Thisknotisparticularlyusefulifyouneedthelengthoftherunningendtobeadjustable.Halter:Ifyouneedtocreateahaltertoleadahorseorpony,trythisknot.

Sheepshankknot:Thisisusedforshorteningropes.Gatheruptheamounttobeshortenedandthenmakeahalfhitcharoundeachofthebends.Slipknot:Slipknotsareadjustable,sothatyoucantightenthemaroundanobjectafterthey’retied.

Timberhitch:Ifyouneedtosecurearopetoatree,thisistheknottouse.Itiseasytountie,too.Twohalfhitches:Usethisknottosecurearopetoapole,boatmooring,washer,tire,orsimilarobject.

QualitiesofaGoodKnot1. Itcanbetiedquickly.2. Itwillholdtightly.3. Itcanbeuntiedeasily.

Square/reefknot:Thisisthemostcommonknotfortyingtworopestogether.

ThreePartsofaRope1. Thestandingpart:thisisthelong,unusedpartofthe

rope.2. Thebight:thisistheloopformedwhenevertheropeis

turnedback.3. Theend:thisisthepartusedinleading.

PARTSEVENWell-Being

“Healthisastateofcompleteharmonyofthebody,mind,andspirit.Whenoneisfreefromphysicaldisabilitiesandmentaldistractions,thegatesofthesoulopen.”

—B.K.S.Iyengar

Onsomelevel,weallknowwhatweneedforoptimumhealth.Ourbodiesarebuilttogiveusclues,fromsimpleones—ifwe’retired,weprobablyneedrest—toonesthatrequirealittlemoreattentiontodiscern,suchasaheadacheorstomachache,whichcanstemfromawiderangeofissues.Manyofusconsistentlyignoretheclues,maskingexhaustionwithcaffeine,orpoppinganaspirineverytimeapainbeginstosurfacewithoutevenconsideringthecause.Well-beingbeginswithtakingthetimetolistentoourselves,beinghonestaboutwhatneedshealingorimprovement,andnurturingthedesiretoreachahealthierlevelofbeing.Oncethedesireforhealthisstrong,youwillfindamyriadofchannelsforachievingit.Thissectionofferssuggestionsforfindingwell-beingthroughnaturalmeans,fromherbalmedicinetonaturalspaproducts.Therearetimeswhenthebestthingtodoistogostraighttoadoctor,whetheradoctorofWesternmedicine,ahomeopath,oranothertypeofmedicalpractitioner.Butpartofleadingaself-sufficientlifeislearningtorecognizeandmeetyourownneeds,evenintheareasofhealthandsafety.Fromthere,youcanbegintohelpthosearoundyou,too.Sostartpayingattentiontoyourphysical,mental,andspiritualstate,andfindoutwhatyoucandotobethebestversionofwhoyoualreadyare.

HerbalMedicine

Anherbisaplantorplantpartusedforitsscent,flavor,ortherapeuticproperties.Forcenturiesherbshavebeenusedinvariousformsfortheirhealthbenefits.Manyarenowsoldastablets,capsules,powders,teas,extracts,andfreshordriedplants.However,somehavesideeffectsandmayinteractwithotherdrugsyouaretaking.

Touseanherbalproductassafelyaspossible:Consultyourdoctorfirst.Donottakeabiggerdosethanthelabelrecommends.Takeitundertheguidanceofatrainedmedicalprofessional.Beespeciallycautiousifyouarepregnantornursing.

Herbalsupplementsaresoldinmanyforms:asfreshordriedproducts;liquidorsolidextracts;andtablets,capsules,powders,andteabags.Forexample,freshgingerrootisoftenfoundintheproducesectionoffoodstores;driedgingerrootissoldpackagedinteabags,capsules,ortablets;andliquidpreparationsmadefromgingerrootarealsosold.Aparticulargroupofchemicalsorasinglechemicalmaybeisolatedfromabotanicalandsoldasadietarysupplement,usuallyintabletorcapsuleform.Commonpreparationsincludeteas,decoctions,tinctures,andextracts:Atea,alsoknownasaninfusion,ismadebyaddingboilingwatertofreshordriedbotanicalsandsteepingthem.Theteamaybedrunkeitherhotorcold.

Someroots,bark,andberriesrequiremoreforcefultreatmenttoextracttheirdesiredingredients.Theyaresimmeredinboilingwaterforlongerperiodsthanteas,makingadecoction,whichalsomaybedrunkhotorcold.

Atinctureismadebysoakingabotanicalinasolutionofalcoholandwater.Tincturesaresoldasliquidsandareusedforconcentratingandpreservingabotanical.Theyaremadeindifferentstrengthsthatareexpressedasbotanical-to-extractratios(i.e.,ratiosoftheweightofthedriedbotanicaltothevolumeorweightofthefinishedproduct).

Anextractismadebysoakingthebotanicalinaliquidthatremovesspecific

typesofchemicals.Theliquidcanbeusedasisorevaporatedtomakeadryextractforuseincapsulesortablets.

Herbscanbeutilizedmedicinallyintheformofteas,tincture,extracts,orasanadditiontosoaps,lotions,orsalves.

MakeYourOwnHerbalTincture

Tinctureshelptoconcentrateandpreservethehealthbenefitsofyourherbs.Touse,mix1teaspoonoftincturewithjuice,tea,orwateranddrinknomorethanthreetimesaday.1. Pickthefreshherbs,removinganydirty,wilted,ordamagedparts.Donot

wash.Besureyouknowwhetheritisthestems,leaves,roots,orflowersthathavethehealthbenefits,anduseonlythoseparts.

2. Coarselychoptheplantparts.Flowerscanbeleftwhole.3. Cleananddryasmallglassjarwithanairtightlidandputtheherbsinside.

Fillthejarwith100-proofvodkaorwarmcidervinegaruntilplantpartsarefullyimmersed.Screwthelidonsecurelyandlabelthejar.

4. Storefor6to8weeks,gentlyshakingafewtimesaweek.5. Strainouttheherbsandstoretheliquidtinctureinaclean,drybottle.Be

suretolabelthejarwiththeingredients,anddateandstoreitinasafeplaceawayfromchildren’sreach.

Addseveraldropsofyourtincturetoteaorjuicetoreceivethehealingbenefitswithoutthestrongflavor.

CommonHerbalRemediesHereisalistofcommonherbsthatcanbeusedtocureoralleviatethesymptomsofconditionsrangingfromcancertoacnetothecommoncold.Ifyouaretakinganyothermedicationsorsupplements,checkwithyourdoctorbeforetryinganyherbs.Aswithanymedication,everybodyisuniqueandcertainherbscanhaveadversesideeffectsforcertainpeople,sopayattentiontoyourbodyandceasetakinganyherbsthatmakeyoufeelworseinanyway.It’sagoodideatotryoneherbatatimeperconditionandtokeepajournaldocumentingwhatyoutakewhenandhowyoufeel.Thiswayyou’llbeabletotellmoreeasilywhateffectstheherbsarehaving.

AloeVera

Uses:Thecleargelinaloeisusedtopicallytotreatosteoarthritis,burns,andsunburn.Thegreenpartcanbemadeintoajuiceordriedandtakenorallytotreatavarietyofconditions,suchasdiabetes,asthma,epilepsy,andosteoarthritis.

Cautions:Usingaloeveraonsurgicalwoundsmayinhibittheirhealing.Iftakenorally,aloeveracanproduceabdominalcrampsanddiarrhea,whichcandecreasetheabsorptionofmanydrugs.

Ifyouhavediabetesandtakeglucose-loweringmedication,youshouldbecarefuloftakingaloeorally,asstudiessuggestthataloemaydecreasebloodglucoselevels.

Aloeveracanbeusedtopicallytotreatandsootheavarietyofskinirritations.

Bilberriesareacloserelativeofblueberriesandcanbeeatenwholeormadeintoanextract.

Chamomileflowerscanbeusedtomakearelaxingtea.

Echinaceaisbeautifulaswellasusefulmedicinally.Itgrowswellinmoderatelydrysoil.

Astragalus

Uses:AstragaluswastraditionallyusedinChinesemedicineincombinationwithotherherbstohelpboosttheimmunesystem.ItisstillusedwidelyinChinaforchronichepatitisandasanadditionalcancertherapy.Astragalusiscommonlyusedtoboosttheimmunesystemtohelpcoldsandupperrespiratoryinfectionsandhasalsobeenusedtofightheartdisease.Theastragalusplantrootisusedinsoups,teas,extracts,andcapsulesandisgenerallyusedwithotherherbs,likeginseng,angelica,andlicorice.

Cautions:Astragalusmayinteractwithmedicationsthatsuppresstheimmunesystem(suchasthosetakenbycancerpatientsororgantransplantrecipients).

Bilberry

Uses:Bilberryfruitisusedtotreatdiarrhea,menstrualcramps,eyeproblems,varicoseveins,andcirculatoryproblems.Theleafofabilberryisusedtotreatdiabetes.It’sclaimedthatbilberryfruitalsohelpsimprovenightvision,butthisisnotclinicallyproven.Thebilberryfruitcanbeeatenormadeintoanextract.Likewise,itsleavescanbeusedinteaormadeintoanextract.

Cautions:Thoughbilberryfruitisconsideredsafe,highdosesoftheleaforleafextractmayhavepossibletoxicsideeffects.

Chamomile

Uses:Chamomilehasacalmingeffectandisoftenusedtocounteractsleeplessnessandanxiety,aswellasdiarrheaandgastrointestinalconditions.Topically,chamomileisusedinthetreatmentofskinconditionsandformouthulcers(particularlyduetocancertreatment).Thechamomileplanthasfloweringtops,whichareusedtomaketeas,extracts,capsules,andtablets.Itcanalsobeappliedasaskincreamorointmentorevenbeusedasamouthrinse.

Cautions:Somepeoplehavedevelopedrareallergicreactionsfromeatingorcomingintocontactwithchamomile.Thesereactionsincludeskinrashes,swellingofthethroat,shortnessofbreath,andanaphylaxis.Peopleallergictorelatedplants,suchasdaisies,ragweed,ormarigolds,shouldbecarefulwhencomingintocontactwithchamomile.

Cranberry

Uses:Cranberryfruitandleavesareusedinhealingmanyconditions,includingwounds,urinarydisorders,diarrhea,diabetes,andstomachandliverproblems.Cranberriesareoftenusedintreatingurinarytractinfectionsandstomachulcers.TheymayalsobeusefulinpreventingdentalplaqueandinpreventingE.colibacteriafromadheringtocellsalongtheurinarytractwall.Cranberryfruitcanbeeatenstraight;madeintojuice;orusedintheformofextracts,tea,ortabletsandtakenasadietarysupplement.

Cautions:Drinkingcopiousamountsofcranberryjuicecancauseanupsetstomachanddiarrhea.

Dandelion

Uses:Dandelions,throughouthistory,havebeenmostcommonlyusedtotreatliverandkidneydiseasesandspleenproblems.Dandelionsaresometimesusedinliverandkidneytonics,asadiuretic,andforsimpledigestiveissues.Thedandelion’sleavesandroots(andsometimestheentireplant)areusedinteas,capsules,andextracts.Theleavesareusedinsaladsorarecooked,andtheflowersareusedtomakewine.

Cautions:Whileusingdandelionsistypicallysafe,thereareafewinstancesofupsetstomachanddiarrheacausedbytheplant,aswellasallergicreactions.Ifyourgallbladderisinflamedorinfected,youshouldavoidusingdandelionproducts.

Echinacea

Uses:Traditionally,echinaceahasbeenusedtoboosttheimmunesystemtohelppreventcolds,flu,andvariousinfections.Echinaceacanalsobeusedforwounds,acne,andboils.Therootsandexposedplantareused,eitherfreshordried,forteas,juice,extracts,orinpreparationsforexternaluse.

Cautions:Echinacea,takenorally,generallydoesnotcauseanyproblems.Somepeopledohaveallergicreactions(rashes,increasedasthma,anaphylaxis),buttypicallyonlygastrointestinalproblemsareexperienced.Ifyouareallergictoanyplantsinthedaisyfamily,itmaybebesttosteerclearofechinacea.

EveningPrimroseOil

Uses:Sincethe1930s,eveningprimroseoilhasbeenusedtofighteczemaandrecently,ithasbeenusedforotherinflammatoryconditions.Eveningprimroseoilisalsousedinthetreatmentofbreastpainduringthemenstrualcycle,symptomsofmenopause,andpremenstrualissues.Itmayalsorelievepainassociatedwithrheumatoidarthritis.

Theoilisextractedfromtheeveningprimroseseeds.You’llfinditincapsuleformatmanyhealthfoodstores.

Cautions:Theremaybesomemildsideeffects,suchasgastrointestinalupsetorheadache.

FlaxseedandFlaxseedOil

Uses:Flaxseedistypicallyusedasalaxativeandtoalleviatehotflashes.Flaxseedoilisusedfortreatingarthritispain.Bothherbsareusedtofighthighcholesterolandcanbebeneficialforthosewithheartdisease.Flaxseed,ineitheritswholeorcrushedform,maybemixedwithwaterorjuiceandingested.Itisalsoavailableasapowder.Flaxseedoilcanbetakenineitheraliquidorcapsuleform.

Cautions:Itisessentialtotakeflaxseedwithlotsofwater,orconstipationcouldworsen.Further,flaxseedfibermaydecreasethebody’sabilitytoabsorbotheroralmedicationsandsoshouldnotbetakentogether.

Garlic

Uses:Garlicistypicallyusedasadietarysupplementforthosewithhighcholesterol,heartdisease,andhighbloodpressure.Itmayhelpdecreasethe

hardeningofthearteriesandisalsousedinthepreventionofstomachandcoloncancer.Itisalsousedtopicallyororallytohealsomeinfections,includingearinfections.Garlicclovesmaybeeateneitherraworcooked,ortheymaybedriedorpowderedandusedincapsules.Oilandotherextractscanbeobtainedfromgarliccloves.

Cautions:Somecommonsideeffectsofgarlicarebreathandbodyodor,heartburn,upsetstomach,andallergicreactions.Garliccanalsothinbloodandsoshouldnotbeusedbeforesurgeriesordentalwork,especiallyifyouhaveableedingdisorder.ItalsohasanadverseeffectondrugsusedtofightHIV.

GarlicgrowsbestinsoilthatispH6.5to7.0.

Ginger

Uses:GingeriscommonlyusedinAsianmedicinestotreatstomachaches,nausea,anddiarrhea.ManyU.S.dietarysupplementscontaininggingerareusedtohelpfightcoldandfluandcanbeusedtorelievepost-surgerynauseaornausearelatedtopregnancy.Ithasalsobeenusedforarthritisandotherjointandmusclepain.Gingerrootcanbefoundfreshordried,intablets,capsules,extracts,andteas.

Cautions:Sideeffectsarerarebutcanincludegas,bloating,heartburn,and,forsomepeople,nausea.

Ginkgo

Uses:Traditionally,extractfromginkgoleaveshasbeenusedinthetreatmentofillnessessuchasasthma,bronchitis,fatigue,andtinnitus.Peopleusegingkoleafextractinthehopesthatitwillhelpimprovetheirmemory(especiallyinthetreatmentofAlzheimer’sdiseaseanddementia).Itisalsotakentotreatsexualdysfunction,multiplesclerosis,andotherhealthissues.Ginkgoleafextractsaremadeintotablets,capsules,orteas.Sometimestheextractscanalsobefoundinskincareproducts.

Cautions:Somecommonsideeffectsareheadache,nausea,gastrointestinalupset,diarrhea,dizziness,orskinirritations.Ginkgomayalsoincreasebleedingrisks,sothosehavingsurgeryorwithbleedingdisordersshouldconsultadoctorbeforeusinganyginkgoproducts.Uncookedginkgoseedsaretoxicandcancauseseizures.

Ginkgoleavescanbemadeintoanextractandingestedforawiderangeofhealthbenefits.

Ginseng(Asian)

Uses:Ginsengisusedtohelpboosttheimmunesystemandcontributetothe

overallhealthofanindividual.Ithasbeenusedtraditionallyandcurrentlyforimprovingthosewhoarerecoveringfromillnesses,increasingstaminaandmentalandphysicalperformance,treatingerectiledysfunctionandsymptomsofmenopause,andloweringbloodglucoselevelsandbloodpressure.Insomestudies,ginsenghasbeenproventolowerbloodglucoselevelsandboostimmunesystems.Theginsengrootisdriedandmadeintotablets,capsules,extracts,andteas.Itcanalsobemadeintocreamsforexternaluse.

Cautions:Limitingginsengintaketothreemonthsatatimewillmostlikelyreduceanypotentialsideeffects.Themostcommonsideeffectsareheadachesandsleepissues,alongwithsomeallergicreactions.Ifyouhavediabetesandaretakingblood-sugarloweringmedications,itisadvisablenottouseginseng,asittoolowersbloodsugar.

GrapeSeedExtract

Uses:Grapeseedextractisusedfortreatingheartandbloodvesselconditions,suchashighbloodpressure,highcholesterol,andlowcirculation.Itisalsousedforthosestrugglingwithcomplicationsfromdiabetes,suchasnerveandeyedamage.Grapeseedextractisalsousedintreatingvisionproblems,reducingswellingaftersurgery,andcancerprevention.Extractedfromgrapeseeds,itisreadilyavailableintabletsandcapsules.

Cautions:Commonsideeffectsofprolongedgrapeseedoiluseareheadaches;dry,itchyscalp;dizziness;andnausea.

GreenTea

Uses:Greenteaanditsextractshavebeenusedinpreventingandtreatingbreast,stomach,andskincancers,aswellasimprovingmentalalertness,aidingweightloss,loweringcholesterol,andpreventingthesunfromdamagingtheskin.Greenteaistypicallybrewedanddrunk.Extractscanbetakenincapsuleformandsometimesgreenteacanbefoundinskincareproducts.

Cautions:Whilegreenteaisgenerallysafeformostadults,therehavebeenafewreportsofliverproblemsoccurringinthosewhotakegreenteaextracts.Thus,theseextractsshouldalwaysbetakenwithfoodandshouldnotbetakenatallbythosewithliverdisorders.Greenteaalsocontainscaffeineandcancauseinsomnia,anxiety,irritability,nausea,diarrhea,orfrequenturination.

Lavender

Uses:Lavender,inthepast,hasbeenusedasanantisepticandtohelpwithmentalhealthissues.Nowitismorecommonlytakenforanxiety,restlessness,insomnia,anddepression,andcanalsobeusedtofightheadaches,upsetstomach,andhairloss.

Lavenderhasasoothing,relaxingaroma.Itcanalsobeingestedintheformofteaorextracts,oreveninbakedgoods.

Mostcommonlyusedinaromatherapy,lavenderessentialoilcanalsobedilutedwithotheroilsandrubbedontheskin.Whendried,lavenderflowerscanbemadeintoteasorliquidextractsandingested.

Cautions:Lavenderoilappliedtotheskinmaycausesomeirritationandispoisonousifingested.Lavenderteamaycauseheadache,appetitechange,andconstipation.Ifusedwithsedatives,itmayincreasedrowsiness.

LicoriceRoot

Uses:Traditionally,licoricerootisusedasadietarysupplementforthetreatmentofstomachulcers,bronchitis,andsorethroat.Itisalsousedtohelpcureinfectionscausedbyviruses.Whenlicoricerootispeeled,itcanbedriedandmadeintopowder.Itisavailableincapsules,tablets,andextracts.

Cautions:Iftakeninlargedoses,licoricerootcancausehighbloodpressure,

waterretention,andlowpotassiumlevels,leadingtoheartconditions.Takenwithdiuretics,itcouldcausethebody’spotassiumlevelstofalltodangerouslylowlevels.Ifyouhaveheartdiseaseorhighbloodpressure,youshouldpracticecautionwhentakinglicoriceroot.Largedosesoflicoricerootmaycausepretermlaborinpregnantwomen.

MilkThistle

Uses:Milkthistleisusedasaprotectivemeasureforliverproblemsandinthetreatmentoflivercirrhosis,chronichepatitis,andgallbladderdiseases.Itisalsousedtolowercholesterol,reduceinsulinresistanceinthosewithtype2diabetes,andreducethegrowthofcancerouscellsinthebreast,cervix,orprostate.Milkthistleseedsareusedtomakecapsules,extracts,andstrongteas.

Milkthistlegrowsinawiderangeofsoiltypesandwillthriveinsunnyorpartlyshadyareas.

Cautions:Occasionally,milkthistlemaycausediarrhea,upsetstomach,orbloating.Itmayalsocauseallergicreactions,especiallyinthosewithallergiestothedaisyfamily.

Mistletoe

Uses:Forhundredsofyears,mistletoehasbeenusedtotreatseizuresandheadaches.InEurope,mistletoeisusedtotreatcancerandtoboosttheimmunesystem.Theshootsandberriesofmistletoeareusedinoralextracts.InEurope,theseextractsareprescriptiondrugs,availableonlybyinjection.

Cautions:Eatingrawandunprocessedmistletoemaycausevomiting,seizures,aslowingoftheheartrate,andevendeath.Americanmistletoecannotbeusedformedicalpurposes.Injectedmistletoeextractcanirritatetheskinand

producelow-gradefeversorflu-likesymptoms.Thereisalsoaslightriskforsevereallergicreactionsthatcouldcausebreathingdifficulty.

PeppermintOil

Uses:Usually,peppermintoilisusedtotreatnausea,indigestion,andcoldsymptomsanditcanalsobeusedtoallayheadaches,muscleandnervepain,andirritablebowelsyndrome.Peppermintessentialoilcanbetakenorallyinsmalldoses.Itcanalsobedilutedwithotheroilsandappliedtotheskin.

Cautions:Commonsideeffectsincludeallergicreactionsandheartburn,thoughpeppermintoilisrelativelysafeinsmalldoses.

RedClover

Uses:Redcloverhasbeenusedfortreatingcancer,whoopingcough,asthma,andindigestion.Itisalsousedtoallaymenopausalsymptoms,breastpain,highcholesterol,osteoporosis,andenlargedprostate.Theredcloverflowerisusedinpreparingextractsintabletsandcapsulesaswellasteas.

Cautions:Noserioussideeffectshavebeenreported,thoughitisunclearifitissafeforusebypregnantwomen,womenwhoarebreastfeeding,orwomenwithbreastorotherhormonalcancer.Theestrogeninredclovermayalsoincreaseawoman’schanceofcontractingcancerintheuterus.

Uses:Soyproductsaretypicallyusedfortreatinghighcholesterol,menopausalsymptoms,osteoporosis,problemswithmemory,breastandprostatecancer,andhighbloodpressure.Availableindietarysupplements,soycanbefoundintabletorcapsuleform.Soybeansmaybecookedandeaten,ormadeintotofu,soymilk,andotherfoods.

Cautions:Usingsoysupplementsoreatingsoyproductscancreateminorstomachandbowelproblems,andinrarecases,allergicreactionscausingbreathingdifficultiesandrashes.Whilethereisnoconclusiveevidencelinkingsoywithincreasedriskofbreastcancer,womenwhohaveorareatriskofgettingbreastcancershouldconsultadoctoraboutusingsoyproducts.

St.John’sWort

Uses:St.John’sworthasbeenusedforhundredsofyearstotreatmentalillnessandnervepain.Ithasalsobeenusedasasedative;inmalariatreatment;andasabalmforwounds,burns,andinsectbites.Itiscommonlyusedtotreatdepression,anxiety,andsleepdisorders.Theflowersareused,inextractform,forteaandcapsules.

Cautions:ApossiblesideeffectofusingSt.John’swortisincreasedlightsensitivity.Othercommonsideeffectsareanxiety,drymouth,dizziness,gastrointestinalsymptoms,fatigue,headache,andsexualdysfunction.St.John’swortalsointeractswithdrugsandmayinterferewiththewaythebodybreaksdownthosedrugs.Itmayaffectantidepressants,birthcontrolpills,cyclosporine,digoxin,indinavirandotherHIVdrugs,irinotecanandothercancerdrugs,andanticoagulants.

Ifyouaretakingantidepressants,becarefulifalsotakingSt.John’swort,asitmayincreasethelikelihoodofnausea,anxiety,headache,andconfusion.

Turmeric

Uses:TraditionallyusedinChinesemedicine,turmericwassupposedtoaiddigestionandliverfunctionandtorelievearthritispain.Itwasalsotakentoregulatethemenstrualcycle.Applieddirectlytotheskin,itwasusedtotreateczemaandwounds.Now,turmericisusedinthetreatmentofheartburn,stomachulcers,andgallstones.Turmericisalsousedtoreduceinflammationandinthepreventionandtreatmentofcertaincancers.

Theundergroundstemsoftheturmericplantaredriedandtakenorallyincapsules,teas,orliquidextracts.Itcanalsobemadeintoapastetobeusedontheskin.

Cautions:Consideredsafeformostadults,long-termuseofturmericmaycauseindigestion.Thosewithgallbladderproblemsshouldavoidturmeric,however,asitmayworsenthecondition.

MakeSt.John’swortflowersintoteaanddrinktoboostyourmoodandeasetension.

Valerian

Uses:Formanyyears,valerianhasbeenusedforsleepdisordersandtotreatanxiety.Valerianhasalsobeenusedtoalleviateheadaches,depression,irregularheartbeat,andtrembling.Therootsandundergroundstemsofthevalerianplantareusuallymadeintosupplementsincapsule,tablet,orliquidextractform.Itcanalsosometimesbemadeintoteas.

Cautions:Valerianistypicallysafetouseforshortperiodsoftime(nomorethansixweeks)butthereisnoproofaboutitslong-termeffectiveness.Somecommonsideeffectsofvalerianuseareheadaches,dizziness,upsetstomach,andgrogginessthemorningafteruse.

HomemadeHerbalTeasHerbalteascanbeverytastyanddeliverbetween50and90percentofthemedicinalqualitiesoftheherbsused.Teasyoumakeyourselfwillbemorepotentandflavorfulthanthoseyoucanbuyatthestore,andmuchlessexpensive.Tryexperimentingwithdifferentherbalcombinations,butbecarefultoavoidanyplantsyoucannotconfidentlyidentifyasedible,oranyplantssprayedwithpesticides.Ifusingdriedherbs,youcanstoreyourteamixesinsealedcontainersformonths.Besuretolabeleachcontainerwiththenameofthetea.

Use1to2teaspoonsofdriedherbspercupofhotwateror3teaspoonsoffreshherbsperpintofwater.Steeptheherbsforabout10minutesandthenstrain.Thefollowingplantscanallbesafelyusedinteas:

FlowersAlliums,beebalm,carnations,echinacea(rootsandflowers),hibiscus,

hollyhocks,honeysuckle(avoidthepoisonousberries),lavender,marshmallow(usetheroots),redclover,nasturtiums,roses(flowersorhips),violets.

Basil,chamomileflowers,chives,dill,eucalyptus,gingerroot,lemonbalm,lemongrass,marjoram,mint,oregano,parsley,peppermint,lindenleaves,mint,rosemary,sage,thyme,valerianroot,verbena.

BushesandTrees

Birchleaves,blackberryleaves,citrusblossoms,elderberryflowers,gardenia,pineneedles,raspberryleaves.

Chickweed,chicory,dandelions,goldenrod,stingingnettle.

TeafortheCommonCold

Combinethefollowingherbsinanyproportionyoulike.Boilfor10minutes,strain,andaddhoneytotaste.

Marshmallowroot(easesbodyaches,reducesinflammation)Peppermint(reducescongestion,easesheadaches,soothesstomach)Echinacearootsandflowers(booststheimmunesystem)Thyme(reduceschestandnasalcongestion,increasescirculation)Cinnamon(reducesinflammationandfightsinfection)Rosehips,finelychopped(fullofvitaminC,whichbooststheimmunesystemandenergizes)Gingerroot,peeledandfinelychopped(warmsfromtheinsideout)Lavender,crushed(easesmigraines)Lemonpeel,finelygrated(fullofvitaminC)

Herbalteasarealsodeliciousservedcoldinthesummermonths.

CalmingTea

Combinethefollowingcalmingherbs,usingabout¼asmuchvalerianastheotherherbs(valeriancanbeverypotent).Boilfor10minutes,strain,andaddhoneytotaste.

Lemonbalmleaves

Chamomileflowers

Valerianroot,crushed

Gingerroot,peeledandfinelychopped

FertilityTea

Drinkonecupoffertilityteaadaytohelpbalanceyourhormonesandtogetnutrientsthatcanaidinbecomingpregnant.Combinetheherbsinequalproportion,boilfor10minutes,strain,andaddhoneytotaste.

Redcloverblossoms(nourishestheuterus,promotesestrogen,richinmagnesiumandcalcium)Nettleleaves(richincalcium,potassium,phosphorous,iron,andsulfur)

Redcloverblossomspromoteestrogenandnourishtheuterus.

Redraspberryleaves(aidsthefertilizedegginattachingtotheuterinelining,richinminerals,helpstotonemusclesinthepelvicregion)Peppermint(aidsinabsorptionofredraspberryleafnutrients)

CleansingTea

Theherbsinthisteawillimproveyourdigestion,helpyourbodyinitsnaturaldetoxificationprocess,andgiveyoumoreenergy.Combinetheherbsinanyproportion(goeasyonthecayenne),boilfor10minutes,strain,andaddhoneyifdesired.

Peppermintleaves

Dandelionroot

Wholeallspiceberries

Gingerroot,peeledandfinelychoppedLicoriceroot,crushed

Cayennepepper

NaturalCosmetics

HomemadeLipGloss

Youonlyneedafewingredientstomakeyourownlipgloss,thoughonceyouunderstandthebasicrecipeyoucanbegintoexperimentbyaddingdifferentessentialoils,aloes,andfoodproductstocreateyourown,uniquetypeofgloss.

Homemadelipglosscontainerscanbeanysmallglassjarortin,oryoucanreuseanoldlipglosscontainer(justmakesurealltheoldglossisoutofthecontainer).Tosterilizethecontainer,washwithsoapandhotwater,dunkthecontainerinajarofrubbingalcohol,rinseclean,andthenallowthecontainertocompletelydrybeforepouringinyourmeltedgloss.Allowtheglossmixturetocoolcompletelybeforeusing(youcanspeed

upthisprocessbyplacingthecontainerofglossintotherefrigeratorforafewhours).

HoneyLipGloss

Ingredients

1tspbeeswax(youcanfindthisatacraftstoreoratyourlocalfarmers’market)½tsphoney

2tspalmondoil(optional)

VitaminEoilfromacapsule(optional)

Directions1. Meltthebeeswaxandhoneyinaheat-proofjarinthemicrowaveorusea

doubleboilermethod.2. Whenthewaxandhoneyarejustmelted,removefromtheheatsourceand

whiskinthealmondoilandvitaminEoil,ifyousodesire.ToremovethevitaminEoilfromthecapsule,simplypricktheendofthecapsulewithasafetypinandsqueezeitout.

3. Pourthemixtureintothecontainersandallowtocoolfullybeforeusing.

Note:Ifyouwanttoaddacitrusflavoringtothislipgloss,youcanaddafewdropsoflemonorlimeessentialoilduringthewhiskingstage.

“Make-up”LipBalm

Ifyouhaveleftovermake-up(suchasblush,lipstick,orshimmeringeyeshadow),don’tletitgotowaste.Youcanuseitinthis“recycled”lipbalm.

Ingredients

Petroleumjelly

Blush,mineraleyeshadowwithshimmer,lipstick(onlyuseoneortwooftheseforyourbalm)Essentialoilforflavoring(optional)Directions1. Mixtogetherthepetroleumjellyandeithertheblush(addalittleatatime

untilthedesiredcolorisattained),eyeshadow,orthelastremnantsofanylipstick.Addessentialoilandmixthoroughly.

2. Scoopthemixtureintocontainersandputintherefrigeratortoharden.

Note:Youcanalsoexperimentbymeltingthejellywithsomebeeswaxandthenaddingintheleftovermakeup.Thepossibilitiesareendless.

HomemadeBathProducts

LavenderBathSalt

Pourseveraltablespoonsofthisintoyourbathasitfillsforanextra-soothing,relaxing,andcleansingexperience.Youcanalsoaddpowderedmilkorfinelygroundold-fashionedoatmealtomakeyourskinespeciallysoft.Tossinafewlavenderbudsifyouhavethem.

Ingredients

2cupscoarseseasalt

½cupEpsomsalts

½cupbakingsoda

4to6dropslavenderessentialoil

Redandbluefoodcoloring,ifdesired(usemoreredthanbluetoachievealavendercolor)Mixallingredientsthoroughlyandstoreinaglassjarorotherairtightcontainer.

Citrusscrub

CitrusScrub

Usethisinvigoratingscrubtowakeupyoursensesinthemorning.ThevitaminCinorangesservesasanastringent,makingitespeciallygoodforoilyskin.

Ingredients

½orangeorgrapefruit

3tbspcornmeal

2tbspEpsomsaltsorcoarseseasalt

Squeezecitrusjuiceandpulpintoabowlandaddcornmealandsaltstoformapaste.Rubgentlyoverentirebodyandthenrinse.

HealingBathSoak

Thisbathsoakwillrelaxtiredmuscles,helptocalmnerves,andleaveskinsoftandfragrant.Youmayalsowishtoaddblackberry,raspberry,orvioletleaves.Driedorfreshherbscanbeused.

2tbspcomfreyleaves

1tbsplavender

1tbspeveningprimroseflowers1tsporangepeel,thinlyslicedorgrated2tbspoatmeal

Combineherbsandtieupinasmallmuslinorcheeseclothsack.Leaveunderfaucetasthetubfillswithhotwater.Ifdesired,emptyherbsintothebathwateroncethetubisfull.

RosemaryPeppermintFootScrub

Usethisfootrubtoremovecalluses,softenskin,andleaveyourfeetfeelingandsmellingwonderful.

Ingredients

1cupcoarseseasalt

¼cupsweetalmondoroliveoil2to3dropspeppermintessentialoil1to2dropsrosemaryessentialoil2sprigsfreshrosemary,crushed,or½tspdriedrosemary

Combineallingredientsandmassageintofeetandankles.Rinsewithwarmwaterandfollowwithamoisturizer.

MintyCucumberFacialMask

1tbsppowderedmilk

1tspplainyogurt(wholemilkyogurtisbest)1tsphoney

1tspfreshmintleaves

½cucumber,peeled

Blendingredientsthoroughly,usingafoodprocessororblenderifavailable.Applytoface,avoidingeyes.Leaveonfor10to15minutes,thenrinse.

After-SunComfreyLotion

Comfreyrootsoothesskinandminimizesinflammation.Applythislotiontosunburnedskinforimmediatereliefandfasterhealing.

Ingredients

3tbspfreshcomfreyroot

1cupwater

1tbspbeeswax,unrefined

¾cupsweetalmondoilorlightcookingoil¼cupcocoabutter

4vitaminEcapsules

¼cupaloeveragel

1tspboraxpowder

12to16dropsessentialoil(peppermint,lavender,orsandalwoodareallgoodchoices)

Directions1. Placethecomfreyrootandwaterinasmallpotandbringtoaboil,

simmeringforabout30minutes.Strain,retainingthewater.Discardtheroot.

2. Inadoubleboiler,combinebeeswax,oil,andcocoabutter,stirringoverlowheatuntilmelted.Removefromheat.PiercethevitaminEcapsulesandaddtheoilfrominside,stirringtocombine.

3. Inaseparatesaucepan,combinethecomfreywater,aloeveragel,andboraxpowder,stirringoverlowheatuntiltheboraxisfullydissolved.Allowtocool.

4. Oncebothmixturesarecooledtoroomtemperature,pourthebeeswaxandoilmixtureinathinstreamintothecomfreywatermixture,whiskingvigorouslytocombine(oruseafoodprocessor).Addtheessentialoilsandcontinuemixinguntilthoroughlycombined.

5. Coverandstoreinacool,darkplace.

Shampoo

Cleaningyourhaircanbeassimpleasmakingabakingsodaandwaterpaste,scrubbingitintoyourhair,andrinsingwell.However,ifyouenjoythefeelofasudsy,soapy,scentedshampoo,trythisrecipe.Youcansubstitutehomemadesoapflakesforthecastilesoap,ifdesired.

Ingredients

4ouncesliquidcastilesoap3tbspfreshordriedherbsofyourchoice,boiledfor30minutesin2cupswaterandstrainedPourthesoapandherbalwaterintoajar,cover,andshakeuntilwellcombined.

HairConditioner

Thisconditionerwilladdsoftnessandvolumetoyourhair.Avocado,bananas,andeggyolksarealsogreathairconditioners.Applyconditioner,allowtositinhairaminimumoffiveminutes(longerforadeeperconditioning),andthenrinsewell.Youmaywishtoshampooasecondtimeafterusingthisconditioner.

Ingredients

1cupoliveoil

1tsplemonjuice

1tspcidervinegar

2tsphoney

6to10dropsessentialoils,ifdesired

Whiskallingredientstogetherorblendinafoodprocessor.Storeinanairtightcontainer.

HerbsforYourHair

Herbsfordryhair

Burdockroot,comfrey,elderflowers,lavender,marshmallow,parsley,sage,stingingnettle

Herbsforolayhair

Calendula,horsetail,lemonjuice,lemonbalm,mints,rosemary,witchhazel,yarrow

Herbstocombatdandruff

Burdockroot,garlic,onion,parsley,rosemary,stingingnettle,thyme

Herbsforbodyandloster

Calendula,catnip,horsetail,licorice,limeflowers,nasturtium,parsley,rosemary,sage,stingingnettle,watercress

Herbsforshine

Horsetail,parsley,nettle,rosemary,sage,calendula

Herbsforhargrowth

Aloe,arnica,birch,burdock,catmint,chamomile,licorice,marigold,nettles,parsley,sage,stingingnettle

Herbsforcoloring

Brown:henna(reddishbrown),walnuthulls,sageBlonde:calendula,chamomile,lemon,saffron,turmeric,rhubarbroot

Papayaisofenusedinfacecreamsforitsanti-aginganti-acneproperties.

FruitsandVegetablesforYourSkinThesefruitsandvegetablescanbeapplieddirectlytoyourfaceorblendedtogethertomakeamask.Leaveonskinfor20to30minutesandthenrinsethoroughlywithcleanwater.

BeneficialforOilySkin

Beneficial forDryNormalSkin

Beneficial forDrySkin

Lemons, Peaches,papayas,tomatoes, Carrots,iceberg

Lemons,grapes,limes,strawberries,grapefruits,apples

Peaches,papayas,tomatoes,apricots,bananas,persimmons,bellpeppers,cucumbers,kiwi,pumpkins,watermelons

Carrots,iceberglettuce,honeydewmelons,avocados,cantaloupes

TropicalFaceCleanser

ThevitaminCinkiwihasenzymaticandcleansingproperties,andtheapricotoilservesasamoisturizer.Thegroundalmondsactasanexfolianttoremovedeadskincells.Yogurthascleansingandmoisturizingproperties.

¾cupavocado,banana,apricot,peach,strawberry,orpapaya(orsomeofeach)2tbspplainyogurt(wholemilkisbest)1tbspapricotoil(almondoilalsoworkswell)1tbsphoney

1tspfinelygroundalmonds

Puréeallingredientstogether.Massageintofaceandneckandrinsethoroughlywithcoolwater.Storeexcessinrefrigeratorforonetotwodays.

FirstAid

It’simpossibletopredictwhenanaccidentwilloccur,butthemoreyoueducateyourselfaheadoftime,thebetteryou’llbeabletohelpshouldtheneedarise.Thefirststepinanemergencysituationshouldalwaysbetocallforhelp,buttherearemanythingsyoucandotohelpthevictimwhileyou’rewaitingforassistancetoarrive.Themostimportantproceduresaredescribedinthissection.

Drowning1. Assoonasthepatientisinasafeplace,loosentheclothing,ifany.2. Emptythelungsofwaterbylayingthebodybreastdownandliftingitby

themiddle,withtheheadhangingdown.Holdforafewsecondsuntilthewaterdrainsout.

3. Turnthepatientonhisbreast,facedownward.4. Giveartificialrespiration:Pressthelowerribsdownandforwardtoward

thehead,thenrelease.Repeatabouttwelvetimestotheminute.5. Applywarmthandfrictiontoextremities,rubbingtowardtheheart.6. Don’tgiveup!Personshavebeensavedafterhoursofsteadyeffort,and

afterbeingunderwaterformorethantwentyminutes.7. Whennaturalbreathingisreestablished,putthepatientintoawarmbed,

withhot-waterbottles,warmdrinks,freshair,andquiet.

Sunstroke1. Movethepatienttoacoolplace,orsetupastructurearoundthepatientto

produceshade.2. Loosenorremoveanyclothingaroundtheneckandupperbody.3. Applycoldwateroricetotheheadandbody,orwrapthepatientincold,

dampcloths.4. Encouragethepatienttodrinklotsofwater.

BurnsandScalds

1. Covertheburnwithathinpasteofbakingsoda,starch,flour,petroleumjelly,oliveoil,linseedoil,castoroil,cream,orcoldcream.

2. Covertheburnfirstwiththepaste,thenwithasoftragsoakedinthepaste.3. Shockalwaysaccompaniessevereburns,andmustbetreated.

Asimplehandbandagecanbemadefromanysquareclothorhandkerchief.

Keepabuoynearbywheneverspendingtimeinornearthewater.

ShockorNervousCollapse

Apersonsufferingfromshockhasapaleface,coldskin,feeblebreathing,andarapid,feeblepulse,andwillappearlistlessorhalf-dead.1. Placethepatientonhisbackwithheadlow.2. Givestimulants,suchashotteaorcoffee.3. Coverthepatientwithblankets.4. Rubthelimbsandplacehot-waterbottlesaroundthebody.

CutsandWounds1. Aftermakingsurethatnodirtorforeignsubstanceisinthewound,applya

tightbandagetostopthebleeding.2. Raisethewoundabovethehearttoslowthebleeding.3. Ifthebloodcomesoutinspurts,itmeansanarteryhasbeencut.Forthis,

applyatourniquet:Makeabigknotinahandkerchief,tieitaroundthelimb,withtheknotjustabovethewound,andtwistituntiltheflowisstopped.

HemorrhageorInternalBleedingInternalbleedingusuallycomesfromthelungsorstomach.Iffromthelungs,thebloodisbrightredandfrothy,andiscoughedup;iffromthestomach,itisdark,andisvomited.1. Helpthepatienttoliedown,withheadlowerthanbody.2. Encouragethepatienttoswallowsmallpiecesofice,andapplyicebags,

snow,orcoldwatertotheplacewherethebleedingiscomingfrom.3. Hotapplicationsmaybeappliedtothehands,arms,feet,andlegs,but

avoidstimulants,unlessthepatientisveryweak.

HowtoMakeaTourniquet

Thetourniquetisanapplianceusedtocheckseverebleeding.Itconsistsofabandagetwistedmoreorlesslightlyaroundtheaffectedpart.Thebandage—acloth,strap,belt,necktie,neckerchiefortowel—shouldbelongenoughtogoaroundthearmorlegaffected.Itcanthenbetwistedbyinsertingthehand,andthebloodstopped.

Ifastickisused,thereisdangeroftwistingtootightly.Thetourniquetshouldnotbeusedifbleedingcanbestoppedwithoutit.Whenuseditshouldbecarefullyloosenedevery15to20minutestoavoidpermanentdamagetotissues.

Fainting

Faintingiscausedbyalackofbloodsupplytothebrainandiscuredbygettingthehearttocorrectthelack.1. Havethepersonliedownwiththeheadlowerthanthebody.2. Loosentheclothing.Givefreshair.Rubthelimbs.Use

smellingsalts.3. Donotletthepersongetupuntilfullyrecovered.

SnakeBite1. Putatightcordorbandagearoundthelimbbetweenthewoundandthe

heart.Thisshouldbelooseenoughtoslipafingerunderit.2. Keepthewoundlowerthantheheart.Trytokeepthepatientcalm,asthe

fastertheheartbeats,thefasterthevenomwillspread.3. Ifyoucannotgettoadoctorquickly,suckthewoundmanytimeswithyour

mouthoruseapoisonsuctionkit,ifavailable.

InsectStings1. Washwithoil,weakammonia,orverysaltywater,orpaintwithiodine.2. Apasteofbakingsodaandwateralsosoothesstings.

Poison1. First,getthevictimawayfromthepoison.Ifthepoisonisinsolidform,

suchaspills,removeitfromthevictim’smouthusingacleanclothwrappedaroundyourfinger.Don’ttrythiswithinfantsbecauseitcould

forcethepoisonfurtherdowntheirthroat.2. Ifthepoisoniscorrosivetotheskin,removetheclothingfromtheaffected

areaandflushwithwaterfor30minutes.3. Ifthepoisonisincontactwiththeeyes,flushthevictim’seyesfora

minimumof15minuteswithcleanwater.

Forelbow,arm,orwristinjuries,asimpleslingcanbemadeoutofapieceofclothorclothing.

HowtoPutOutBurningClothing1. Ifyourclothingshouldcatchfire,donotrunforhelp,asthiswillfanthe

flames.2. Liedownandrollupastightlyaspossibleinanovercoat,blanket,rug,or

anywoolenarticle—orliedownandrolloverslowly,atthesametimebeatingthefirewithyourhands.Smotherthefirewithacoat,blanket,orrug.Rememberthatwoolenmaterialismuchlessflammablethancotton.

IceRescue1. Alwayshavearopenearbyifyou’reworkingorplayingonice.Thisway,if

someonefallsthrough,youcantieoneendtoyourselfandonetoatreeorothersecureanchoronshorebeforeyouattempttorescuetheperson.

2. Youcouldalsothrowoneendtothevictimifhisheadisabovewater.3. Donotattempttowalkouttovictim.Pushouttohimorcrawloutonalong

boardorrailortreetrunk.4. Thepersoninthewatershouldnevertrytocrawluponthebrokenice,but

shouldtrymerelytosupporthimselfandwaitforhelp,ifitisathand.

BrokenBone

Acompoundfractureisonethatbreaksthroughtheflesh.

Asimplefractureisoneinwhichtheboneisbrokenbutdoesnotbreaktheskin.Inacompoundfracture,theboneisbrokenandtheskinandtissuearepuncturedortorn.Asimplefracturemaybeconvertedintoacompoundfracturebycarelesshandling,asabrokenboneusuallyhassharp,saw-toothedges,andjustalittletwistmaypushitthroughtheskin.1. Donotmovethepatientwithoutsupportingbrokenmemberbysplints.2. Inacompoundfracture,bleedingmustbechecked—bybandageover

compress,ifpossible,orbytourniquetinextremecases.Thensplintsmaybeapplied.

3. Whereskinisbroken,infectionisthegreatdanger,soexercisecarethatcompressordressingissterileandclean.

DislocationAdislocationisaninjurywheretheheadofabonehasslippedoutofitssocketatajoint.1. Donotattempttoreplacethejoint.Eventhumbandfingerdislocationsare

moreseriousthanusuallyrealized.2. Coverthejointwithclothswrungoutinveryhotorverycoldwater.Forthe

shoulder—applypaddingandmakeaslingforthearm.3. Seekmedicalassistance.

Therearemanywaystocarrysomeonewithaninjury.Ifneckorspineinjuryissuspected,donotattempttomovethevictimifyoucangethelptocometothevictiminstead.Ifthevictimmustbemoved,theheadandneckmustfirstbe

carefullystabilized.

FirstAidChecklistToadministereffectivefirstaid,itisimportanttomaintainadequatesuppliesineachfirstaidkit.Afirstaidkitshouldinclude:

Adhesivebandages:Theseareavailableinalargerangeofsizesforminorcuts,abrasions,andpuncturewounds.Butterflyclosures:Theseholdwoundedgesfirmlytogether.Rolledgauze:Theseallowfreedomofmovementandarerecommendedforsecuringawounddressingand/orpads.Theseareespeciallygoodforhard-to-bandagewounds.Nonsticksterilepads:Thesearesoft,super-absorbentpadsthatprovideagoodenvironmentforwoundhealing.Thesearerecommendedforbleedinganddrainingwounds,burns,orinfections.Firstaidtapes:Varioustypesoftapesshouldbeincludedineachkit.Theseincludeadhesive,whichiswaterproofandextrastrongfortimeswhenrigid

strappingisneeded;clear,whichstretcheswiththebody’smovementandisgoodforvisiblewounds;cloth,recommendedformostfirstaidtapingneeds,includingtapingheavydressings(lessirritatingthanadhesive);andpaper,whichisrecommendedforsensitiveskinandisusedforlightandfrequentlychangeddressings.Itemsthatcanalsobeincludedineachkitaretweezers,firstaidcream,thermometer,ananalgesicorequivalent,andanicepack.

Witchhazelbarkcanbebrewedandusedtosootheirritatedskinoreyes.

Nature’sFirstAid

Antisepticorwound-wash:Ahandfulofsaltinaquartofhotwater.

Balmforwounds:Balsamfir.Thegumcanbeusedashealingsalve,usuallyspreadonapieceoflinenandlaidoverthewoundforadressing.

Coughremedy:Slipperyelmorblackcherryinnerbarkboiled,apoundtothegallon,boileddowntoapint,andgivenateaspoonfuleveryhour.

Linseedcanbeusedthesameway;addhoneyifdesired.Orboildownthesapofthesweetbirchtreeanddrinkitonitsownormixedwiththeotherremedies.

Diuretic:Adecoctionoftheinnerbarkofelderisapowerfuldiuretic.

Inflammationoftheeyesorskin:Washwithastrongteamadeofthebarkofwitchhazel.

Lungbalm:Infusionofblackcherrybarkandrootisapowerfultonicforlungsandbowels.Goodalsoasaskinwashforsores.Poisonivy:Washeveryhourortwowithhotsoapywater,thenwithhotsaltwater.

agaveaggregateculturegardeningaloeveraAlpinegoatsAlternativeSolarHeatingPanelAnglo-NubiangoatsAngoragoatsannualsAnotherBrickSmokehouseapplejuiceapples

AppleButterAppleJellyApplePieFillingcanningCrabAppleJellydryingfreezingPearAppleJamRefrigeratedAppleSpread

applesauceapricots

ApricotJamcanningdryingfreezing

arboretumsascorbicacidasparagus

companionplantingfreezingharvestingwild

astragalusaxilsBackyardCompostingHeapbananasBandage,HandBarrelCoopBarrelPlantHolder

barrelsBarrelCoopBarrelPlantHolderBarrelSmokehouseSimpleRainBarrel

BasicCold-PressedSoapBasicVase/UrnBathSalt,Lavenderbeans

BakedBeanscanningfreezinggreenharvestinglimaPickledThree-BeanSaladplantingSuccotash

beechtreesbeef.Seemeatbeefstock(broth)beekeeping.Seealsobees

Beehivedescribedhiveshoneycollection

Beerbees.Seealsobeekeeping;beeswaxbeeswax

BeeswaxCandle,RolledMakingBeeswax

beetsberries.Seespecificberriesberry

jamscanningdryingwildedible

bilberriesbirdhouses

BirdArkBirdhousedescribedLogCabinBirdhouseTempleBirdhouse

birdsblackberries

BlackberryJellycanningwild

BlackCayugaducksblanchersblanchingblueberries

BlueberryPieFillingBlueberry,SpiceJamcanning

boiling-watercannersbotulismBourbonRedturkeysBowlineKnotBowls(pottery)BoxCoopbractsBreadandButterPicklesBrickSmokehouse,AnotherBridge,VerySimplebridges

FootbridgeSmallStreamBridgeVerySimpleBridge

broccoliBrokenBoneBronzeturkeysbrusselssprouts

freezingharvestingplanting

burdocksBurningClothing,PuttingOutBurns/ScaldsButterbutterfliescabbage

freezingharvestingPiccalilliplantingseedlings

cactiCalmingTeacandles,handmade

describedJarredSoyCandlesRolledBeeswaxCandleTaperCandles

Candlestick(pottery)cannerscanning.Seealsospecificfoodlistings

colorretention

describedequipmentfoodacidityfoodfreshnessfruithigh-altitudehotpackingjarspiefillingsprocessingtimesrawpackingspecialdietsspoiledfoodsyrupstestingjarsealsvegetables

cantaloupecarrots

canningfreezingharvestingplanting

CarryingtheInjuredcattailscauliflowercelerychamomilechanterellescheese

CheddarCheeseCheesePressCottageCheesedescribedDomiatiCheeseFetaCheesefreezinggoatcheesesMozzarellaQuesoBlancoRicottaYogurtCheese

CheesePresscherries

canningCherryPieFillingdrying

CherryPieFillingchicken

bacteriafromstock(broth)

ChickenFeedChickenRoost,Foldingchickens.Seealsoeggs

BarrelCoopBoxCoopbreedsChickenFeedchicksDrinkingFountainfeedingFoldingChickenRoosthousingPortableCoopPracticalHenhouseSimplestPoultryHouseTwo-RoomHenhousewintercareYoungPoultryCoops

chicoryChileSalsa(HotTomato–PepperSauce)citricacidcitruspeelCitrusScrubclaysoilCleansingTeaClearJelCloveHitchcoldhardyplantsCold-PressedSoap,BasicRecipecollardsColoredRouensduckscomfreyrootCommonColdTeacompanionplantingcompostcomposting

BackyardCompostingHeapbinscoldcompostingcompostheapsdescribedmaterialsslowcompostingVermicompostingPile

compostingtoiletsCompostingToiletdescribed

ConditionerHairCookingOven,SolarCooperativeExtensionServices

coops,poultryBarrelCoopBoxCoopPortableCoopYoungPoultryCoops

coralfungicorn

canningcompanionplantingfreezingharvestingSuccotash

cosmetics,naturalAfter-SunComfreyLotionCitrusScrubfruitsforyourskinHairConditionerHealingBathSoakHoneyLipGlossLavenderBathSalt“Make-up”LipBalmMintyCucumberFacialMaskRosemaryPeppermintFootScrubShampooTropicalFaceCleanservegetablesforyourskin

CotswoldsheepCottageCheeseCoughRemedyCrabAppleJellycrafts.SeealsospecificcraftlistingscranberriesCucumberFacialMask,Mintycucumbers.Seealsopicklescultivarscurrants,blackcurtainsCuts/WoundsDomiatiCheesedandelions

DandelionWineuses

daylightdeciduousplantsdecoctionsdehydrators,food

typesWoodstoveFoodDehydrator

dillpickles.SeepicklesDislocationInjuries

diureticsDogKennel,StandardDrinkingFountain(chicken)Drowningrescuedryingfoodducksdyes,naturalearthwormsEasilyOpenedGateechinaceaeggplanteggs.Seealsochickenselderberriesendiveenergy.Seealsogeothermalenergy;hydropower;solarenergy;windenergyEnglishHurdlePortableFenceenzymeserosionpreventioneveningprimroseoilexhausting(canning)extractseyewashFaceCleanser,TropicalFacialMask,MintyCucumberFaintingfarmanimals.Seealsospecificanimalsfarmers’marketsfences.Seealsogates

EnglishHurdlePortableFenceportableScotchHurdleFenceWireFencesWoodenFences

FertilityTeafertilizers

applicationcommercialcompostandlawnclippingsorganicsoilconditionand

FestiveMincemeatPieFillingFetaCheesefigsFingerlessMittens,Knittedfirstaid

BrokenBones

BurningClothingBurns/ScaldsCarryingtheInjuredCuts/WoundsDislocationDrowningRescueFaintingHandBandageHemorrhageIceRescueInsectStingsInternalBleedingkitchecklistnaturalfirstaidPoisoningShock/NervousCollapseSnakeBiteSunstrokeTourniquet

fish/seafoodflaxseed/flaxseedoilfloodsflowers.Seealsogardening

annualsbedpreparationcontainergardensflowergardeningperennialsplantingshadesiteselectionwatering

FoldingChickenRoostfood.Seealsocanning;dryingfood

acidicfoodsfreezinglocallygrownlow-acidfoodsspoilage

FootbridgeFootScrub,RosemaryPeppermintFountain,Drinking(chicken)freezingfoodfruit.Seealsocanning;specificfruit

listingsfreezingwildedible

FruitLeatherfruitpureesfruitspreads

describedLemonCurdLimeCurdPeach-PineappleSpreadRefrigeratedAppleSpreadRefrigeratedGrapeSpread

gardening.Seealsofertilizers,flowers;insects;plants;soil;vegetables

bedpreparationcontainercovercropsdescribedharvestmulchorganicpestsplantingplantselectionraisedbedrooftopseedlingssiteselectionsoillesstenderbulbs/tubersterracestoolstransplantingvinedryingwateringweedswildlifein

garlicgates.Seealsofences

describedEasilyOpenedGateSimpleGate

gelatingeothermalenergygeranium,sweetgingerginkgoginsenggoats

breedsdiseasesalfeedingmilkmilking

grapefruitgrapes

canningdrying

GrapeJellygrapejuiceGrape-PlumJellyRefrigeratedGrapeSpreadgrapeseedextractgrapevine,wildgrassclippings

compostingasfertilizer

grassesgreenhousesgreenteagreywatergroundcoversHairConditionerHalterKnotHandBandageharvestingHat,Knittedhazelnutsheadspace(canning)HealingBathSoakhealth.Seewell-beingHeatCollectorheatprocessingHemorrhageHenhouse,PracticalHenhouse,Two-Roomherbaceousplantsherbalmedicine.Seealsocosmetics,

natural;specificherbnamesCalmingTeaCleansingTeaCommonColdTeadescribedFertilityTeaforhair

HealingBathSoakHerbalTinctureherbs.Seealsoherbalmedicine;

specificherbnamescontainergardeningdescribeddryinghydroponicgardeningaspestrepellentsplanting

honey.Seebeekeeping

HoneyLipGlossHorseradishSauce,PickledhotpackprocedureHotTomato–PepperSauce(ChileSalsa)hybridplantshydroponicgardeningHydroponicsSystemhydropowerIceCreamIceRescueinflorescenceinfusionInjured,Carryinginsects

attractinginorganicgardenspestmanagementStings

integratedpestmanagement(IPM)InternalBleedingirrigationsystems

greywaterIrrigationSystems,installingOutdoorPlanterswaterconservationand

jams.SeealsofruitspreadsApricotJamBerryJamsBlueberry-SpiceJamPeachJamPear-AppleJamWithpectinwithoutpectin

Jars(pottery)jellies

AppleJellyBlackberryJellyCrabAppleJellyGrapeJellyGrape-PlumJellywithpectinwithoutpectinPlumJellyStrawberry-RhubarbJelly

jerkiesjuniperkaleKetchup,Tomatokilns,

PermanentHomemadePottery

KilnSawdustKiln

knittingdescribedFingerlessMittensHatSimpleScarfSquareBlanket

knottying

LaManchagoatslavender

describedLavenderBathSalt

lawns.Seealsograssclippingsleathers

MixedVegetableLeatherPumpkinLeatherTomatoLeather

leaves,compostingwithIeeksLeicestersheepLemonCurdlettuce

freezingharvestinghydroponicgardeningplanting

licoricerootlight

daylightplantrequirements

LimeCurdlime(garden)LipBalm,“Make-up,”LipGloss,HoneyllamasloamsoilLogCabinBirdhouseLotion,After-SunComfreylotus“Make-up”LipBalmmanuremarigoldsMarinatedJerkyMarinatedPeppersmarshmarigoldsmeat

canning

freezingjerkiessmokingstock(broth)

Medium-sizedToolShedandWorkshopmelonsMerinosheepmicroclimatesmicroorganismsmilkmilking,goatsmilkthistleMincemeatPieFilling,FestiveMintyCucumberFacialMaskmistletoeMittens,KnittedFingerlessMixedVegetableLeatherMixedVegetablesmohairmold,infoodmorelsMozzarellaCheesemulberriesmulchMuscovyducksmushroomsmustardmycotoxinsNarragansettturkeysnativeplantsnaturalcosmetics.Seecosmetics,naturalnaturalfirstaidnectarines

canningdryingfreezing

nettlesnewspaper,asmulchnitrogennuts

hazelnutswalnutswildedible

oakoats,asgreenmanureokraonions

harvestingpestsandplanting

wildopen-kettlecanningorangesorganicfood,benefitsorganicgardeningorganicmatterinsoilOutdoorPlanters(irrigation)Oven,SolarCookingOxforddownsheeppalmettopalmpaniclespasteurizationpeaches

canningdryingfreezing

PeachJamPeach-PineappleSpreadpears

BakedPearscanningdryingfreezingPear-AppleJam

peascanningfreezingharvestingplanting

pectinpensPeppermintFootScrub,Rosemarypeppermintoilpeppers

ChileSalsa(HotTomato-PepperSauce)freezingharvestingMarinatedPeppersPiccalilliplanting

perennialsPermanentHomemadePotteryKilnpersimmonspH

canninganddefinedsoil

phosphorusphotovoltaicenergy

PiccalilliPickledHorseradishSaucePickledThree-BeanSaladpickles

BreadandButterPicklesDillPicklesDillPickles,QuickFresh-PackPickleRelishSweetPickles,QuickSweetPickles,Reduced-SodiumSliced

piefillingsPineappleSpread,Peachpinesplantainsplanting,companionplants.Seealsoflowers;gardening;

herbs;vegetablesdiseasesfordryconditionsenvironmentalconditionsforintegratedpestmanagement(IPM)nutrientsofseedlingsshadeterminologywaterrequirements

PlantStand,Rusticplantstandsplums

canningdryingGrape-PlumJelly

PlumJellyPlymouthRockchickensPoisoningPoisonIvyReliefpokeweedspork.SeemeatPortableCooppotassiumpotatoes

potteryBasicVase/UrnBowls

CandlestickdescribedembellishmentfiringJarsPermanentHomemadePotteryKilnSawdustKilnwheel-work

poultry.Seealsochicken,chickens;ducks;turkeys

canningfreezingjerkiesPracticalHenhouseSimplestPoultryHouseSlaughteringPoultrystock(broth)YoungPoultryCoops

pressurecannerspricklypearcactiprunespruningpuffballs(mushrooms)PumpingWindmillpumpkins

canningharvestingplantingPumpkinLeather

pygmygoatsQuesoBlancoQuickFresh-PackDillPicklesQuickSweetPicklesradishesRainBarrel,SimpleRaisedBedsraisedgardenbedsraspberriesrawpack(coldpack)procedureredcloverReducedSodiumSlicedSweetPicklesreeds,cattailRefrigeratedAppleSpreadRefrigeratedGrapeSpreadreindeermossrhubarb

canningStrawberry-RhubarbJelly

RicottaCheese

rooftopgardensRootCellarRootHouseRosemaryPeppermintFootScrubroses,wildRusticPlantStandrutabagasrye,asgreenmanureSaanengoatssalt,canning(pickling)sandysoilsassafrassauces,freezingSauerkrautSawdustKilnScotchHurdleFenceshadeplantsshaggymanemushroomsShampoosheds.SeetoolshedssheepSheepshankKnotShropshiresheepshrubssidedishes

BakedBeansMarinatedPeppersMixedVegetablesPiccalilliSauerkraut

SuccotashSimpleGateSimpleScarf,KnittedSimplestPoultryHouseSlipKnotSmall,RusticToolShedSmallStreamBridgesmokehouses

AnotherBrickSmokehousefrombarrelsStandardSmokehouse

SnakeBitesoaps

CitrusScrubSoap,BasicCold-PressedTropicalFaceCleanser

soilenrichmentofforgardenspHdetermination

testingtillingtypeswaterretention

solarenergyAlternativeSolarHeatingPanelcollectorsdaylightingdescribedHeatCollectorheatingsystemregulationshybridsystemsPassiveSolarSpaceHeaterSolarCookingOvensolargreenhousesSolarPanelssolarthermalenergySolarWaterHeater

soups,canningSouthdownsheepSoyCandles,JarredSpaceHeater,PassiveSolarSpaghettiSaucewithoutMeatspatterdockspecialdiets

canningforReduced-SodiumSlicedSweetPicklesreduced-sugarfruitspreads

spinachspreads,fruit.SeefruitspreadssproutsSquareBlanket,KnittedSquare/ReefKnotsquash

St.John’swortstablesStandardDogKennelStandardSmokehousestrawberries

Strawberry-RhubarbJellywildedible

SuccotashsucculentsSunstrokesweetpickles.Seepickles

sweetpotatoesSwisschardsyrupsTaperCandlestaxonomy,definedteas

definedgreenteaHomemadeHerbalTeas

temperature,plantrequirementsTempleBirdhouseterracegardeningthistleThree-BeanSalad,PickledTimberHitchtincturesToggenburggoatstoilets

compostingCompostingToilet

tomatoescanningChileSalsa(HotTomato–PepperSauce)crushedtomatoesharvestinghydroponicgardeningPiccalilliplantingSpaghettiSaucewithoutMeat

TomatoJuiceTomatoKetchupTomatoLeathertomatosaucetoolsheds

Medium-sizedToolShedandWorkshopSmall,RusticToolShed

TourniquettreesTropicalFaceCleanserturmericturkey,stock(broth)turkeysturnipsTwoHalfHitchKnotsTwo-RoomHenhousevacuum(canning)valerianVase/Urn,Basic

vegetables.Seealsocanning;specificvegetablelistings

companionplantingcontainergardensfreezinggardeningharvestMixedVegetableLeatherMixedVegetablesraisedbedsrootrootcellarsshade/partialshadewildedible

VermicompostingPileVerySimpleBridgevinedryingvinesvioletswalnutswater.Seealsohydroponicgardening;

irrigationconservationforgardensforplantssoiltypeand

watercresswaterculturegardeningwaterheaters

describedSolarWaterHeater

waterlilieswatermelonsweedsWhiteAylesburyducksWhiteHollandturkeysWhitePekinduckswildflowerswindenergy

describedhybridsystemsPumpingWindmillstand-alonesystems

WindmillPumping

WindMotorwindturbines

zoningrestrictionswindowboxesWine,Dandelion

WireFencesWoodenFencesWoodenWindowBoxWoodstoveFoodDehydratorwoodyplantswool.Seealsollamas;mohairWorkshop,Medium-sizedToolShedandwoundsWoundWashesWyandottechickensYogurtYogurtCheeseYoungPoultryCoops

1 Ifsuperfinesugarisnotavailable,rungranulatedsugarthroughagrinderorfoodprocessorfor1minute,letsettle,anduseinplaceofsuperfinesugar.Donotusepowderedsugar.

2 Bottledlemonjuiceisusedtostandardizeacidity.Freshlemonjuicecanvaryinacidityandisnotrecommended.

3 Ifadoubleboilerisnotavailable,asubstitutecanbemadewithalargebowlorsaucepanthatcanfitpartwaydownintoasaucepanofasmallerdiameter.Ifthebottompanhasalargerdiameter,thetopbowlorpanshouldhaveahandleorhandlesthatcanrestontherimofthelowerpan.curdthroughameshstrainerintoaglassorstainlesssteelbowl;discardcollectedzest.

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