the discrimination system: race and public policy barbara reskin department of sociology university...
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The Discrimination System:
Race and Public Policy
Barbara ReskinDepartment of SociologyUniversity of Washington, Seattle
January 3, 2004
Heuristic Model of System Analysis
Subsystem A
Subsystem D
Subsystem C
Subsystem B
Neighborhood Segregation
School Segregation
Disparities in Access to Higher Education
Racial Stigma
Labor Market Disparities
Disparities in Economic Status
Disparities in Test Performance
Disparities in Criminal Justice
• Detroit 85• New York 82 • Milwaukee 82• Chicago 81• Newark 80• Cleveland 77• Miami 74• Indianapolis 71• Kansas City 69• Los Angeles 66• Atlanta 65• South Africa under apartheid: 92.5
Indices of Black-White Segregation, 2000
Mortgage-Market Discrimination
Neighborhood Segregation
Disparate Economic Resources
Housing Market Discrimination
Neighborhood Segregation Subsystem
Opposition to Black Neighbors
Location of Public Housing
Zoning Decisions
Housing Market Discrimination
• 13% of black testers posing as house buyers were offered assistance in mortgage lending, compared with 24% of white testers.
• Hispanics who asked about unadvertised units were 8 percentage points more likely to be steered toward relatively low-income neighborhoods than their Anglo counterparts
• Blacks were quoted higher rents than whites for the same unit.
The Economist, June 1998
Neighborhood Segregation
School Segregation
Racial stigma
Job segregation
Property values; community power
Achievement test scores
Effects of Neighborhood Segregation
Exposure to crime; arrest
Transportation and other public services
Neighborhood Segregation
School Segregation
Disparities in Access to Higher Education
Racial Stigma
Labor Market Disparities
Disparities in Economic Status
Disparities in Test Performance
Disparities in Criminal Justice
Trends in School Segregation: Percentage of Students of Color in
Predominantly-Minority Elementary and Secondary Schools
1968 1969 1980 1999
Blacks 77% 62% 70%
Hispanics 55% 75%
In predominantly-white suburban schools, advanced placement courses are universal.
In poor and minority neighborhoods, only 43 percent of high schools offer AP classes
AP Classes by Race
National Center for Educational Statistics 2000
Number of Students per 1000 Who Took AP Exams, by Race, 1984-1997
1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 19970
40
20
60
80
100
120
140
In an experiment in which teachers gave performance feedback to students whom they could not see, the teachers gave less positive feedback after correct responses, briefer feedback for mistakes, and less coaching to students whom they believed to be black than they did for student whom they thought were white.
R. Ferguson 1998:294.
Unequal Treatment in the Classroom
Neighborhood Segregation
School Segregation
Disparities in Access to Higher Education
Racial Stigma
Labor Market Disparities
Disparities in Economic Status
Disparities in Test Performance
Disparities in Criminal Justice
If just one white in seven treats African Americans unfairly because of their race, there would be one actively discriminating white for every black person in America.
Fischer et al. 1996:183.
The Likelihood of Encountering Discrimination When You’re
Outnumbered
According to an experiment on the performance of white and black varsity athletes, when the experimenters told the athletes that miniature golf tested athletic ability, the black athletes outscored the whites; when they told the athletes that miniature golf tested athletic intelligence, the white athletes outscored the blacks.
Stone et al. 1999
Stereotype Threat
College Attendance by Race (1990s)
White 45 36 36
Black 36 43 30
Hispanic 35 57 22
% HS grads in college
% college students @ community colleges
% students @ colleges with mean SATs > 1000
Jacobs 1996
Percentage of Students Earning BAs at Schools with at Least Half
Minority Students (1993)
Black
Asian
Hispanic
32
7
34
Race Percentage
Neighborhood Segregation
School Segregation
Disparities in Access to Higher Education
Racial Stigma
Labor Market Disparities
Disparities in Economic Status
Disparities in Test Performance
Disparities in Criminal Justice
Family Economics and College Admission
Academic Criteria What Money Can Buy
Class rank, GPA Tutoring
Standardized test scores Prep class up to $1K$60 per shot
Personal essay Professional editor
Recommendations Professional editorFamily social ties
Family Economics and College Admission
Nonacademic Criteria What Money Can Buy Musical, athletic “talent” Private lessons,
equipment“Character” (volunteers) No part-time jobExtracurricular activities No part-time jobInteresting experiences Unpaid internships
Travel abroad Campus interview Travel expensesIn-state tuition $3000-$10,000Donations to institution 6-figure donations Legacy status Family members alumni
Neighborhood Segregation
School Segregation
Disparities in Access to Higher Education
Racial Stigma
Labor Market Disparities
Disparities in Economic Status
Disparities in Test Performance
Disparities in Criminal Justice
Hiring Discrimination
• In more than 2,000 audits, employers discriminated against minorities between 20 and 25 percent of the time
• Employers favored whites in invitations to interview, job offers, compensation, job assignments, and information about unadvertised opportunities
Fix, Galster, & Struyk; Kenney & Wissoker, 1994.
Hiring Discrimination
Faxed applications from “applicants” with names like Kristin, Meredith, Brad and Jay to employers that had advertised for entry-level jobs were 50 percent more likely to be called by employers than applications signed by people with names like Lakisha, Tamika, Rasheed, and Darnell.
Bertrand and Mullainathan 2002
Unemployment by Race and Sex, 2002
Adult Adult Teens Men Women
White 14.1 5.0 4.2 Black 28.2 10.0 8.9
Current Population Survey, 2003
Labor Force Participation by Sex and Race (in percent)
Teens Men Women
White 47 60 77
Black 29 64 72
Current Population Survey, 2003
Indices of Occupational Segregation with Same-Sex European-Ancestry Whites
African Americans 30-35
Mexican Americans 32-40
Southeast Asians 44-45
Occupational Segregation
Non-Hispanic white 41,400 30,890
African American 32,257 27,351
Hispanic 26,493 22,192
U.S. Bureau of the Census 2003
2002 Median Earnings by Race and Sex for Full-Time Year-Round Workers
Men Women
Numbers (in 1000s) of Black and White Males Incarcerated in Federal
and State Prisons and Jails
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1985 1990 1995 2000
Black Males
White Males
Neighborhood Segregation
School Segregation
Disparities in Access to Higher Education
Racial Stigma
Labor Market Disparities
Disparities in Economic Status
Disparities in Test Performance
Disparities in Criminal Justice
Hiring Discrimination
Milwaukee employers preferred white applicants to matched black applicants, and applicants without prison records to applicants with records. But they preferred white applicants with a prison record to matched black applicants who had no prison record.
Pager, American Journal of Sociology 2003
Neighborhood Segregation
School Segregation
Disparities in Access to Higher Education
Racial Stigma
Labor Market Disparities
Disparities in Economic Status
Disparities in Test Performance
Disparities in Criminal Justice
Middle-class blacks . . . earn seventy cents for every dollar earned by middle-class whites, but they possess only fifteen cents for every dollar of wealth held by middle-class whites.
Black Wealth/White Wealth , Melvin Oliver and Thomas M. Shapiro
Disparities in Wealth
Black-White School Segregation in the South: Percentage of Black Students in
Majority-White Schools, 1958-1998
0
10
20
30
40
1954 1960 1964 1967 1968 1970 1972 1976 1980 1986 1988 1991 1994 1996 1999 2002
Source: Orfield, 2003.
77,444 cases filed
EEOC dropped 68,000 charges
8248 cases resolved through
conciliation
431 filed in court
EEOC: no cause8,248
2040 resolved for complainant
< 100 settled for
complainant
ca. 338 dismissed
< 100 go to trial
< 50 win at trial
EEOC CHARGE HANDLING PROCESS
Neighborhood Segregation
School Segregation
Higher Education
Racial Stigma
Labor Markets
Economic Standing and Social Status
Discrimination laws,
affirmative actionFair Housing
Acts
Minimum wage
laws, pay
discrimination
Busing
Affirm
ative
action Brown v. Bd. of Educ.
Remedies for Discrimination Subsystems
Public assistance
CETA, JTPA
Section 8 Housing
Criminal Justice
Automatic Sentencing
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