tennessee naturalist program living wa… · • a guide to common freshwater invertebrates of...

TennesseeNaturalistProgram

Rivers,Wetlands,andWatershedsTennessee’sLivingWaters

EnhancedStudyGuide

7/2019

TennesseeNaturalistProgramwww.tnnaturalist.org

InspiringthedesiretolearnandshareTennessee’snature

These study guides are designed to reflect and reinforce the Tennessee Naturalist Program’scoursecurriculumoutline,developedandapprovedbytheTNPBoardofDirectors, forusebyTNP instructors to plan andorganize classroomdiscussion andfieldwork components andbystudentsasameaningfulresourcetoreviewandenhanceclassinstrucOon.

ThisguidewascompiledspecificallyfortheTennesseeNaturalistProgramandreviewedbyexpertsinthesedisciplines.Itmaycontaincopyrightedworkfromotherauthorsandpublishers,usedherebypermission.

NopartofthisdocumentmaybereproducedorsharedwithoutconsentoftheTennesseeNaturalistProgramandappropriatecopyrightholders.

Tennessee’sLivingWatersRivers,Wetlands,andWatersheds

Objec8vesLearnthemajorwatershedsinTennessee,thetypesofassociatedaquaOcsystems,theirproperOesanddistribuOon.DefineandunderstandthefuncOonofwetlands.ExaminethebasicbiologyofaquaOcandwetlandorganisms,theirhabitatpreferences,ecologicalroles,adaptaOons,andidenOficaOon,includingthemajorgroupsoffish,mussels,andotherinvertebrates.ConsideringconservaOonthreatsandissuesfacingaquaOcsystemsandwetlands,discussorganismsasbioindicators,managementprinciplesandmethods,andmonitoring.

TimeMinimum4hours–2inclass,2infield

SuggestedMaterials(*recommendedbutnotrequired,**TNPflashdrive)• PondLife(GoldenGuide),GeorgeReid*• QuickGuidetoMajorGroupsofFreshwaterInvertebrates,J.ReeseVoshell,Jr.*• AGuidetoCommonFreshwaterInvertebratesofNorthAmerica,J.ReeseVoshell,Jr.• GuidetoAquaGcInsects&Crustaceans,IzaakWaltonLeagueofAmerica,Stackpole

Books• Tennessee’sLivingWatersEnhancedStudyGuide,TNP**

ExpectedOutcomesStudentswillgainabasicunderstandingof1. majorwatershedsinTennessee2. typesofaquaOcsystems,theirproperOes,funcOon,anddistribuOon(streams,rivers,ponds,

lakes/reservoirs,groundwater,wetlands)3. funcOonsoftheseaquaOcsystems4. basicbiologyofaquaOcorganisms--fish,mussels,otherinvertebrates5. lifehistories,habitats,ecologicalroles,adaptaOons,andidenOficaOonoforganismtypes6. importanceofriparianhabitat7. aquaOcorganismsasbioindicators8. pressuresonaquaOcsystems--polluOon,dams,invasivespecies,development9. monitoringaquaOcsystemsforwaterquality,rarespecies

Tennessee’sLivingWatersCurriculumOutline

I. WatershedsinTennessee A. Definewatershed 1. fivemajorwatersheds a. largerivers b. lakes,reservoirs,dams B. Freshwatersystems 1. lenOc--ponds,lakes,andreservoirs a. zones--lieoral,limneOc,profundal,benthic b. associatedcommuniOes 2. wetlands a. definiOonandtypes b.idenOfyingwetlandsanddevelopmentissues 3. groundwaterandaquifers 4. loOc--branches,creeks,streams,rivers a. streamorder b. streammorphologyandconOnuum c. associatedcommuniOes C. Riparianhabitat D. FuncOonsofaquaOcsystems II. FaunaofAquaOcSystems A. Fauna--basicbiology,naturalhistory,ecologicalroles,adaptaOons,idenOficaOon,

habitatpreferences,rarespecies 1. fish--majorgroupcharacterisOcs 2. crustaceans--crayfishandshrimp 3. mollusks--snails,clams,andmussels 4. amphibians,turtles,andsnakes 5. aquaOcinvertebrates a. foodsources--leaves,algae,otherorganisms b. trophiclevel--grazer,collector,filterer,predator c. habitats d. tolerancevariaOon--EPTcount,bioindicators,oxygen,temperature,turbidity e. idenOficaOonofcommonspecies--stonefly,mayfly,caddisfly,dragonfly,

damselfly,dobsonfly,cranefly,alderfly,midges,beetles,truebugs,worms,etc. f. lifecycles--completeandincompletemetamorphosis

III. ConservaOonandManagement A. Threatsandissues 1. dams 2. polluOon 3. development 4. invasivespecies a. animals b. plants B. Managementprinciples,tools,methods 1. monitoring a. waterquality b. rarespecies i. surveys ii. reintroducOons 2. miOgaOon 3. habitatrestoraOon

IV.Resources A. PublicaOons B. OrganizaOons C. Internet

AppendixA:StreamInsectsandCrustaceans,IsaacWaltonLeagueofAmerica

I. Watersheds in TennesseeAwatershedisanareaoflandboundedbyridgeswithinwhichallwaterrunoffandstreamsflowintoacommonbodyofwater,suchasalakeorriver.ThequalityofthewaterwithinthewatershedandthehealthofaquaOcspeciesaredependentonsurroundingcondiOons.PolluOon(agricultural,industrial,ormunicipalsourcesandrunoff),erosion,orexposurefromlandscapealteraOonsthatremoveassociatedplantsposeseriousthreats. TherearefivemajorwatershedsinTennessee.DrainagesfortheMississippiRiver,theTennesseeRiver,andtheCumberlandRivercoverthevastmajorityofthestate.TwosmallpocketsdrainintootherwatershedslocatedprimarilyoutsideTennessee’sborders.TheBarrenRiverwatershedcoversasliverofMiddleTennesseeinSumner,Macon,andClaycounOesontheKentuckyborder.ItdrainsintotheOhioRiver.ConasaugaRiverwatersheddrainsintoMobileBasin,anditsnorthernmostOpreachesintoextremesoutheasternTennesseeinBradleyandPolkcounOes.

FiveMajorWatershedsinTennessee

�TennesseeWildlifeResourcesAgency

Thesewatershedsdrainapproximately60,000milesofriversandstreams,andeachwatershedfeaturessomeofitsownspeciesuniquetothestate.TheTennesseeandCumberlandriversaresimilarsystems,yeteachsOllhasitsdifferencesanduniquespecies. WestTennessee--ThemajorityofthewesternthirdofthestatedrainsintotheMississippiRiver,includingtheWolf,Hatchie,ForkedDeer,andObionrivers.ReelfootLakeneartheMississippiwasformedduringaseriesofmassiveearthquakesalongtheNewMadridFaultin1811and1812,aswereothersmallerdepressionlakesalongtheriver’sfloodplain.ThewatersheddividebetweentheMississippiandTennesseeriverssitswithintheWestTennesseeUplands.TheBigSandyRiverdrainsintotheTennessee.KentuckyLakeandPickwickLakearelargereservoirsonthelowerTennessee,buttherearemanysmallonesscaeeredthroughoutthestate’swesternsecOon,includingaclusterinandaroundNatchezTraceStatePark.

MiddleTennessee--ThemiddleporOonofthestateissplitbetweentheCumberlandandTennesseerivers.ThesouthwesternhalfincludestheDuck,BuffaloandElkriversdrainingintotheTennessee.Harpeth,Stones,andCaneyForkriversdrainintotheCumberlandinthenortheasternhalf.CenterHill,Cheatham,CordellHull,J.PercyPriest,Normandy,OldHickory,TimsFord,andWoodsarelargereservoirsinMiddleTennessee. EastTennessee--TheTennesseeRiverdrainsthevastmajorityofEastTennessee,withObey,Clear,andNewriversdrainingintotheCumberland.Thereareasignificantnumberofriversinthestate’seasternthird:Obed,Emory,Powell,Clinch,Holston,Watauga,Doe,Nolichucky,FrenchBroad,Pigeon,LieleTennessee,Sequatchie,Hiwassee,andOcoee.DamimpoundmentscreatednumerousreservoirsincludingCherokee,Chickamauga,DaleHollow,Douglas,Ft.Loudon,MeltonHill,Nickajack,Norris,SouthHolston,Tellico,Watauga,andWaesBar.

TennesseeReservoirsandLakes

AnaturallakeisasOllbodyofwatersurroundedbylandandformedinadepression,typicallywithinthecentralporOonofthedrainagearea.Lakeshaveamoreroundedbowl-shapeoutlineandareusuallydeepestinthecenter.ReservoirsarecreatedwithinflowingriversystemsthroughconstrucOonofdams.Thedeepestpartofareservoirisbehindthedam.Watersbackupintothedammedriver’sfloodplainanditstributaries,submergingareaspreviouslyabovewater.ThisfloodingofthetributariescreatesthecharacterisOcdendriOcshapeoflongbranchesradiaOngfromthemainreservoirbodyandresultsinmanymoremilesofshoreline. TennesseeWildlifeResourcesAgencymanagesfisheriesfor32largereservoirimpoundmentsofnearlyhalfamillionacresplusnaturalReelfootLake’s10,000acres.Morethan1,000lakes,includingtheselargereservoirs,havebeenidenOfiedbyU.S.GeologicalSurveyinthestate.Sizesrangefrom108,200-acreKentuckyLaketo13-acreGoldeneye,oneoffourbodiesofwaterknownasWilliamsportLakes.ThefollowingWebsiteliststhelargest250lakes--hep://web.eecs.utk.edu/~dunigan/landforms/lakes.php.TWRAcitesmorethan195,000privately-ownedsmalllakesandpondsinTennessee,coveringnearly100,000acres.Thevastmajorityoflakesinthestateareman-made.

Aqua8cHabitats Freshwatersystemsareclassifiedintwotypesbasedonwaterdepthandflow.LoOcsystemsfeaturetheflowingwaterofstreamsandrivers.LenOcsystemsinvolvestandingwater,suchasponds,lakes,swamps,ormarshes.Wetlandsandgroundwateraquifersareintegralcomponentsinbothsystems.

Len8cSystems--PondsandLakes Inlandbodiesofstandingwater,suchaslakesandponds,arelenOcsystems.Pondsaresmallandshallow,andmaycontainplantsrootedacrossmuchoftheboeom.Watertemperaturesinpondsvarymorereadilywithchangesinairtemperature.Lakesarelarger,becomingdeepertowardthemiddleoralongtheriverchannelinimpoundments.Indeeperwater,horizontalzonesarecreatedbasedonwatertemperatureandlightpenetraOon. LifeinlakesandpondsdependsonlightpenetraOonofthewater,whichisaffectedbywaterdepth,clarity,andplantgrowth.Temperaturesvarywithseasonanddepth.Oxygenmaybelimited.ThesethreefactorsinfluencethepresenceanddistribuOonofspeciesinsOll-watersystems.LenOcsystemsmayhavefourzones:lieoral,limneOc,profundal,andbenthic. Thelieoralzoneistheareaofshallowwateralongtheshorelinewherelightpenetratestotheboeomallowingrootedplantstogrow.LifeinthiszoneisparOcularlyrichandabundant,supplyingmuchofthelenOcsystem’sorganicmaeer.Plantsplayanimportantroleinthiszone. Emergentslikecaeailsandsedgesarerootedinthemostshallowareas.Theirlowerstemsaresubmergedbutthemajorityoftheplantanditsleavesriseabovethewater’ssurface.FloaOngplantslikelotusandwaterlilies,arerootedindeeperwaterwithfoliagefloaOngonorjustabovethesurface.Somespeciesofrootedplantsremainsubmergedandothersfloatfree,neverrooOnginsoilandabsorbingneededmineralsfromthewater. VegetaOoninthelieoralzonesupportsdiversepopulaOonsoffishes,insects,mollusks,microorganisms,andmanyotheranimals.ThebodyshapeoffishesfacilitatestheirmovementthroughaquaOcvegetaOon. ThelimneOczoneisthehorizontallayerofopenwaterwithgreaterlightpenetraOonwherephytoplankton(photosynthesizingmicroscopicplants,suchasalgae),zooplankton(invertebratessuspendedanddriminginthewater),andnekton(free-swimmingorganismslikefishesorbeetlelarvae)aredominant. TheprofundalzoneliesbelowthelimneOczonebeyondthedepthofeffecOvesunlight.OrganicmaeerthatsimsfromthelimneOczoneaboveprovidesfoodenergyhere.TemperatureandoxygenlevelsarelimiOngfactors.ThelimneOcandprofundalzonesareseparatedbyathinlayerofwaterwherethetemperaturedropssharplyinsummer.However,duringspringandfall,whensurfacetemperaturesarelower,thiszoneofseparaOonbreaksdowntoallowthemixingofsurfaceanddeepwaters,bringingmorelifeintotheprofundalzone.Pondsareusuallytooshallowforaprofundalzone. Thebenthiczoneisthelakeorpondboeom,theinterfacebetweensedimentandwater,wheresoildwellingorganismsliveanddecomposiOonoccurs.

Pleustonandneustonaretermsappliedtoplantsandinsectsassociatedwithwater’ssurfacefilm.InsectslikeWaterStridersandfloaOngplantswhoseleaveslieonorprojectjustabovethesurfacequalifyaspleuston.InvertebratesorfloaOngplantsthatliejustbelowthewater’ssurfaceareneuston. ManyofTennessee’ssmallerlakescontainpopularsportfishessuchasBluegill,Crappie,RedearSunfish,LargemouthBass,BlueandChannelCanish,andotherspecies.

Wetlands--Swamps,Marshes,Bogs,andFens AccordingtotheU.S.EnvironmentalProtecOonAgency,“Wetlandsareareaswherewatercoversthesoil,orispresenteitheratornearthesurfaceofthesoilallyearorforvaryingperiodsofOmeduringtheyear,includingduringthegrowingseason.WatersaturaOon(hydrology)largelydetermineshowthesoildevelopsandthetypesofplantandanimalcommuniOeslivinginandonthesoil.WetlandsmaysupportbothaquaOcandterrestrialspecies.TheprolongedpresenceofwatercreatescondiOonsthatfavorthegrowthofspeciallyadaptedplants(hydrophytes)andpromotesthedevelopmentofcharacterisOcwetland(hydric)soils. “Non-Odalwetlandsaremostcommononfloodplainsalongriversandstreams(riparianwetlands),inisolateddepressionssurroundedbydryland(forexample,playas,basins,and‘potholes’),alongthemarginsoflakesandponds,andinotherlow-lyingareaswherethegroundwaterinterceptsthesoilsurfaceorwhereprecipitaOonsufficientlysaturatesthesoil(vernalpoolsandbogs).Inlandwetlandsincludemarshesandwetmeadowsdominatedbyherbaceousplants,swampsdominatedbyshrubs,andwoodedswampsdominatedbytrees. “Manyofthesewetlandsareseasonal(theyaredryoneormoreseasonseveryyear),and,parOcularlyinthearidandsemiaridWest,maybewetonlyperiodically.ThequanOtyofwaterpresentandtheOmingofitspresenceinpartdeterminethefuncOonsofawetlandanditsroleintheenvironment.EvenwetlandsthatappeardryatOmesforsignificantpartsoftheyear,e.g.,vernalpools,omenprovidecriOcalhabitatforwildlifeadaptedtobreedingexclusivelyintheseareas,”suchastoadsandtreefrogs. Asbiologicallydiverseecosystems,wetlandsprovideprimaryhabitatforhundredsoffloralandfaunalspeciesofalltypes,includingalargenumberofnaOonallyrareandendangeredspeciesofbirds.OthercriOcalecosystem(andeconomic)servicesincludefloodmiOgaOon,erosioncontrol,waterpurificaOon,filtraOonofsedimentsorsurfacerunoffandpollutants.TheyalsobufferwatersourcesfromlandacOviOes,serveasacarbonsink,andareasourceforgroundwateraquiferrechargeandstreamflowmaintenance. Wetlands,usuallyassociatedwithlenOc(sOllwater)systemsmaybeassociatedwithloOc(flowingwater)systemsiftheyarepartofthechannelorfloodplainofariverorstream.Thereareseveraltypesofwetlands.Characterizedbyanopencanopy,marshesandwetmeadowsaredominatedbyherbaceousplantspecies.Grasslikeplantfamiliessuchascaeailsandsedges,andsomeforbslikesmartweeds,arrowheads,pickerelweeds,andothersun-lovingemergentspopulateweeermarshenvironments.

Swampsareusuallywoodedwithavarietyoftreesandshrubsadaptedtosaturatedsoilspartorallyear.SpeciesincludeBaldCypress,variouswillows,WaterTupelo,SwampWhiteOak,RiverBirch,Sycamore,SwamporSOffDogwood,Winterberry,Bueonbush,andLeatherwood.TruetoitsCoastalPlainroots,WestTennesseehasareasofswampy,boeomlandhardwoods. Bogs(rain-fed,mineralpoor,moreacidic,upland)andfens(groundwater-fed,mineralrich,neutraltoalkaline,lowland)canoccurupto4,000feetandareomenassociatedwithmosseslikeSphagnumMossandspecializedplantssuchasGrassofParnassus.TherareBogTurtleisfoundinthesewetlands.Bogsandfensaretwotypesof“mire,”orquagmire. TheNaOonalWetlandPlantListcompiledbytheU.S.ArmyCorpsofEngineers,FishandWildlifeService,EnvironmentalProtecOonAgency,andNaturalResourcesConservaOonServiceisusedtomakewetlanddeterminaOonsaspartoftheCleanWaterActandNaOonalWetlandInventory.Plantsarecategorizedbasedonthelikelihoodtheirpresenceindicatestheareaisawetland.ThesecodesappearinflorasandotherplantlisOngssuchasUSDAPLANTSDatabaseWebsite.TheUnitedStatesisdividedintosevenwetlandsregions.WestTennesseeisAtlanOcandGulfCoastalPlainRegion;MiddleandEastTennesseeareEasternMountainsandPiedmontRegion.

TheTennesseeWaterQualityControlBoarddefineswetlandsas“areasthatareinundatedorsaturatedbysurfaceorgroundwateratafrequencyandduraOonsufficienttosupport,andthatundernormalcircumstancesdosupport,aprevalenceofvegetaOontypicallyadaptedforlifeinsaturatedsoilcondiOons.”TheWaterQualityControlActof1977recognizedallwatersofthestateaspropertyofthestateheldinpublictrust. Morethan90percentofTennessee’shistoricwetlandsaregone,mostdrainedforagricultureordevelopment.Theremainingwetlandsystemsprovideprimaryhabitatfor97GreatestConservaOonNeedwildlifespeciesasidenOfiedinthestate’swildlifeacOonplan.

IndicatorCode IndicatorStatus Meaning

OBL ObligateWetland Almostalwaysoccurinwetlands

FACW FacultaOveWetland Usuallyoccurinwetlands67-99%,mayoccurinnon-wetlands

FAC FacultaOve Equallylikelytooccurinwetlandsandnon-wetlands

FACU FacultaOveUpland Usuallyoccurinnon-wetlands67-99%,mayoccurinwetlands

UPL ObligateUpland Almostneveroccurinwetlands

Primarywetlandssources: EnvironmentalProtecOonAgency--hep://water.epa.gov/type/wetlands/what.cfm Tennessee’sWetlandRegulatoryProgram,TDECDiv.ofWaterPolluOonControl TennesseeWildlifeResourcesAgencyStrategicPlan2014-2020

Groundwater--UndergroundAquifersinTennessee

Groundwatermaybenearthesurface(e.g.,amarsh)orhundredsoffeetdeep.Itmovesthroughandisstoredinpermeablerockandsandcalledaquifers,whichprovidethelargestsupplyoffreshwaterforconsumpOon.Excesswaterfromthesoil(amerplantuseandevaporaOon)filtersdowntothewatertable,theareawherenaturalconnecOonsthroughrockopeningsinporespacesandfracturesbecomesaturated.Watermovesslowlyunderground,andnaturalrefillingofaquifersisaslowprocess.Surfacewatersystems--rivers,streams,lakes,wetlands--andgroundwateraredirectlyconnectedandinteract(thehyporheiczone),exchangingwaterandanymineralsorpollutantsinsoluOon. Rocksthatallowwatertomovemorefreely,suchasfracturedsandstonesandlimestones,holdandtransmitlargeramountsofwatercapableofyieldinghundredstomillionsofgallonsaday.Dissolvedmineralsfromrockgivewateritstaste.‘Hardwater’containscalciumandmagnesiumfromlimestones.Felsicrockcontainingironmakeswatermoreacidic. Anythingdumpedonthesoilcaninfiltrateaquifers.ImproperlycontainedormanagedmunicipalandindustrialwastesandchemicalferOlizers,herbicides,andpesOcidescancontaminateanddegradeaquifers. AquifersareOedtogeologyandbedrockformaOons,andmapsdepicOngdifferentaquiferregionsinTennesseecloselymimicgeologic,physiographic,andsoilmapsofthestate.

• PiedmontandBlueRidgeCrystallineRockAquifers--igneousandmetamorphicrock• ValleyandRidgeAquifers--sandstoneandcarbonaterock• PennsylvanianAquifers(CumberlandPlateau)--sandstone• MississippianAquifers(HighlandRim)--sandstoneandcarbonaterock• OrdovicianAquifers(CentralBasin)--carbonaterock• Silurian-DevonianAquifers(WesternHighlandRimandWesternValleyofTennessee

River)--carbonaterock• SoutheasternCoastalPlainAquiferSystem(WestTennesseeUplands)--semi-

consolidatedsand• MississippiEmbaymentAquiferSystem(WestTennesseePlain)--unconsolidatedand

semi-consolidatedsandandgravel• MississippiRiverValleyAlluvialAquifer--unconsolidatedandsemi-consolidatedsand

andgravel

InTennessee,groundwaterandundergroundaquifersarecloselyOedtokarsttopography,theerosionofcarbonatelimestoneanddolomitebedrockunderlyingmiddleandeasternporOonsofthestate.TheresulOngformaOonofcaves,sinkingstreams,dryvalleys,sinkholes,andspringsarecharacterisOckarstfeatures.[SeeGeologyandEcologyEnhancedStudyGuide.]ThesefeaturesalsomakegroundwatermorevulnerabletopolluOon.

Primarygroundwatersources: hep://water.usgs.gov/ogw/NatlAqCode-reflist.html hep://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/gw/ hep://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1993/ofr93-643/

Lo8cSystems--RiversandStreams

LoOcsystemshaveflowingwaterthroughstreamsandriverswithinchannelsthatfollowtopographicallandscapefeaturesofawatershed’sdrainagearea.Duringthemid-twenOethcentury,researchersbegantounderstandthedynamicsofthesesystems.Examiningthebiologicalandphysicalchangesthroughoutastream’scourse,theynoOcedpredictablepaeernswhichweresynthesizedintotheRiverConOnuumConcept:tounderstandanypartofariverrequiresknowingbothwhatisupstreamandwhatiscomingfromtheimmediatewatershed. Streamsareconsideredsmallerthanriversandmaybecalledbrook,creek,branch,fork,orprongaspartoftheirname.Smalluplandstreamsmergetoformlargerstreams,apaeernthatrepeatsdownstreamtothelargestrivers.Streamscanbeclassifiedaccordingtothismergerpaeernandgivenastreamorder. Springs(undergroundwaterflowingtothesurface)areatypicalsourceproducingsmallheadwaterstreamswithnotributaries.Thesearefirst-orderstreams.Whentwofirst-orderstreamsmerge,theresulOngstreamisclassifiedassecond-order.Astream’sorderincreasesonlywhentwostreamsofequalorderjoin.Ifalow-orderstreamfeedsintooneofhigherorder,theclassificaOondoesnotchange.Thegraphicbelowdemonstratesthispaeerntothefourth-order.Largeriverscanbesixth-orderorhigher;theMississippiRiverisatenth-orderstream. Streamsjustbelowthesource(springs,seeps,etc.)aretypicallysmallandshallow.Steepmountaingradesproduceswim,straightrunsandmayfeaturewaterfallsorrapids.FastcurrentsoxygenatethewaterandremoveallbutthesmallestparOclesproducingastonyboeom.Inthesestreams,highwaterfromstormsgeneratesenoughenergytomoverocks,scourthebed,cutintobanks,andcreatenewchannels.Lowergradientsslowwatervelocity,increasingstreams’widthanddepth.Lowlandriversbegintomeander,carrymoreorganicmaeer,anddepositsedimentontheboeom.Duringfloods,depositsarespreadoverthefloodplain. Headwaterstreamsaccumulate,process,andtransportorganicmaeer,suchasfallenleaves,fromthesurroundinglandscape.AnimalsinhabiOngswimstreamsderivetheiroxygenfromthewater,whichmusthaveanearsaturaOonconcentraOonofthegas.Watertemperatureisanimportantfactorascoldwaterholdsmoreoxygenthanwarmwater.AnotherconsideraOonis

waterclarity.ManyaquaOcorganisms,parOcularlythoseinheadwaterstreams,donotdowellinturbidorsiltedwater.Infastmovingwater,organismspossessingastreamlinedformwithflaeenedbody,theabilitytosOcksecurelytosurfaces,orslipperycoaOngswithstandtheconstantflowpressurewithlessresistance.

� TennesseeWildlifeResourcesAgency

Twoalternatehabitatsmaybefoundinsmallerstreams.Swimcurrentsproduceturbulentriffles.Someofthespeciesbestadaptedtofastwater,thosethatclingtorocksandlogs,arephotosyntheOcproducerslikediatoms,cyanobacteria,andaquaOcmosses.Interspersedamongtherifflesarequietpoolswherethecurrentslowsenoughfororganicmaeertoseele.InthesepoolsdecomposiOonoccurs,releasingcarbondioxideasbicarbonateinsoluOon,anecessarycomponentsupporOngphotosynthesisintherifflesfurtherdownstream. LargerstreamsshimprimaryenergyproducOontoalgaeandrootedaquaOcplants.RiversdependonfineparOculatemaeeranddissolvedorganicmaeerassourcesofenergyandnutrientsforfilterfeedersandboeom-feedingfishes.Thedownstreamcommunitycountsonfeedinginefficiencyoftheupstreamcommunity.ChangesinenergyproducOonandphysicalenvironmentfromheadwatertoriverarereflectedinthedifferenttypesandspeciesoforganismsfound.

LoOccommuniOeshavemanyofthesamecomponentsaslenOcsytems.InthequietpoolspleustonicorganismssuchasWaterStridersarefound.Phytoplankton,zooplankton,andnektoninhabitslowerwatersandmovedownstream.Thebenthiczonefeaturesmanyinsectlarvae,mussels,andcrayfishonstonyorsiltedboeoms. TherearetwospecializedzonesassociatedwithloOcsystems.Splashzonesaroundwaterfalls,rockyseeps,andthinsheetsofwaterflowingoverrockproduceauniquehabitattermedthemadicolousorhygropetriczonewherephotosynthesizingspeciessuchasalgaeandliverwortscoexistwithvariousgrazingmacroinvertebratespecies,includingbeetles,caddisflies,andotherflylarvae.Organismslivinginthishabitatarecalledmadicoles. Anotherspecializedareaisthehyporheiczoneorhyporheos.Riversinteractwiththelandinthreedimensions--longitudinallyalongtheupstream-downstreamaxis,laterallyontothesurfacefloodplain,andverOcallyintothesubstratebelowthestream’sbedandbanks.ThisverOcaldimensioncomprisesthehyporheiczonewherethepresenceorflowofgroundwaterbelowsurfaceomeninterchangeswithwaterabovethestreambed.Variousburrowinganimals,suchascrustaceans,mussels,andworms,omenliveinthemudorgravelofthiszone. FreshwaterstreamsandriversinTennesseehavetherichestbiologicaldiversityintheU.S.TheMississippiRiveristhelargestriverineecosysteminNorthAmerica,formingthe167-milewesternborderofTennessee.TheTennesseeRiver,thelargesttributaryoftheOhioRiver,is866mileslong,and45percentofitflowsthroughEastTennesseeanddividesMiddleandWestTennessee.TheCumberlandRiver,anotherOhiotributary,is686mileslong,nearlyhalfofwhichflowsthroughMiddleTennessee.

RiparianHabitat Ripariancorridorsaretheterrestrialareasthatrunalongsidestreamsandrivers.Thequalityofthesecorridorsdirectlyinfluencesthequalityoftheassociatedriversandstreams,andcorridorqualityislargelydependentonthevegetaOon. GoodvegetaOvecoveronthestreambanksandallthroughthewatershed,parOcularlyslopes,playsacriOcalroleinbufferingthewater.Intactplantcoverbreakstheerosiveforceofrainfallonsoilandslowsthemovementofsurfacewater,whichincreasesgroundabsorpOon.Slowerwatermovementallowssedimentsandpollutantstodropoutbeforereachingstreams,whichreducessiltaOonandturbidityandimproveswaterclarityandquality.Treecanopyoverastreamprovidesshadetokeepwatertemperaturelower.Coolerwaterholdsmoreoxygen,andoxygen-richwatersupportsmorelife. RipariancorridorsarecriOcallyfuncOoningecologicalsystems,providingimportanthabitatforotherorganisms.BirdmigraOonpathwaysomenfollowthesecorridors.Richassemblagesofwildlife,fromfishingspiderstoherons,areadaptedtolifeinornearthewaterofriparianzones.TheseareasprovideforageforotheranimalsandomenserveasconnecOnglinksamongfragmentedsecOonsofwildhabitat. WestTennesseehasextensiveriparianwetlandhabitatsinboeomlandhardwoodfloodplainforestsalongsmallstreamsandbroadriverboeoms.

Func8onsofAqua8cSystems ThecrucialecologicalandeconomicbenefitsnotedforwetlandsapplyequallytoallproperlyfuncOoningaquaOcsystems.Theyprovideprimaryhabitatforhundredsoffloralandfaunalspeciesofalltypes,miOgatetheeffectsofflooding,minimizeerosion,purifywater,bufferandfilterpollutantsandsedimentsfromsurfacerunoff,serveasacarbonsink,andrechargegroundwateraquifers. Stressesfromwarmingtemperatures,lowstreamflow,toxicpollutants,reducedplantcover,over-harvestedspecies,orintroducednon-naOveinvasivespeciesdegradethesesystemsandunderminetheirabilityfuncOonproperly,placingqualityoflifeforwildlifeandpeopleatrisk.

PrimarywatershedsandaquaOchabitatssources: ElementsofEcology,7thEdiOon,ThomasM.SmithandRobertLeoSmith (BenjaminCummings/PearsonEducaOon,2009) TennesseeWildlifeResourcesAgencyPresentaOon TennesseeWildlifeResourcesAgencyStrategicPlan2014-2020 LongTermEcologicalResearchNetwork hep://www.lternet.edu/research/keyfindings/river-conOnuum

� AnglerinDeepCreekatTom’sBranch,GreatSmokyMountains(MargieHunter)

II.FaunaofAqua8cSystems

Fishes

Fishesarethelargestvertebrategroupofanimalswith28,000species,freshwaterandmarine,worldwide.NorthAmericahasabout1,000freshwaterspecies,andaccordingtoEtnierandStarnes(TheFishesofTennessee),ourstatehastherichestfreshwaterfishfaunaintheU.S.,represenOngapproximately315speciesin29familiesand18orders.Tennessee’sfishesrangefromprimiOvespecieslikelampreys,sturgeons,andpaddlefishestomorerecentlyevolvedperches. ThediversityofTennessee’sgeologyand,byextension,itsstreamsandriversisdirectlyresponsible,creaOngdisOnctandvariablehabitats.Amongthesehabitats--smallstreams,rivers,springs,lakes,swamps,(andinthecaseofmarinespeciesvariousbrackishorsaltwaters)--mostfisheslifehistoriescenterononeortwobasichabitattypes.Onlyafewaregeneralistsinthisregardandcanbefoundinseveralhabitattypes. InTennessee,loOchabitatsincludeverylargerivers(MississippiorlowerTennessee),largerivers(lowerCumberland),mediumrivers(Clinch),smallrivers(Liele),largeandsmallcreeks,andspringruns.Montanecreeksandrivershaveasteepgradient,fastcurrent,androckyboeom.Uplandstreamsaremoremoderatewithvaryingsubstrates.LowlandstreamsaresluggishwithdeposiOonalsandorsilt.Undergroundstreamsandcavescreateuniqueenvironments.Lakes,reservoirs,swamps,marshes,andstreambackwatersprovidelenOchabitats. Allofthesehabitattypesareinfluencedbylocalandregionalgeologicaldifferences.ThegeneralnatureoffishestopreferaparOcularhabitattypecoupledwithsuchhabitatvarietyledtotheevoluOonofnewspecies,enrichingTennessee’sfauna.TheRidgeandValleyandHighlandRimprovincesaretherichestareasinthestate,wheretheTennesseeandCumberlanddrainagessupportatotalof205and161speciesrespecOvely.RiversandstreamsinWestTennesseeharbor130species.ThoughdrainingverysmallsecOonsofthestate,theBarrenandConasaugariversbasinsrespecOvelyadd5and24uniquespeciestoTennessee’sfishfauna.

FishAnatomy Fishesaredividedintothreemaingroups.

• PrimiOvejawlessfishes(lampreys)havelieleskeletalstructure.• CarOlagenousfishes(sharks,rays,etc.)haveskeletonsthatarelargelycarOlage.

SturgeonspeciesandthePaddlefishinTennesseearecarOlagenous.• Bonyfishescomprisethemajority.

Allfishgroupshavegills.BonyandcarOlagenousfisheshavepairedfins. Afish’sbodyhasthreeprimaryareas:thehead,trunk,andcaudal(tail)regions.It’sshapemaybeelongatedandmoreorlesscylindrical(terete)orflaeenedontop(dorsallycompressed),oritmaybedeepbodiedandlaterallycompressed.Fishesthathaveevolvedinswimcurrentsexhibitdepressedorstreamlinedprofiles.

SequenOalmusclesegments(myomeres)inthebodyalternatelycontracttomovethefishforwardalongwiththrustfromthetailfin.Pairsofpectoralandpelvicfins,oneormoredorsalfins,ananalfin,andthetail(caudal)finareusedforshortswimbursts,stabilizaOon,stopping,andreversemovement. Inbonyfishes,thegillsaremadeoffivearchedbonessupporOngnumerousfilamentsthroughwhichflowarterialblood.WaterpassesthroughthegillswhenswimmingorfromalternaOonsofgillflapsandmouthexpansionsacOngasapump.Oxygenfromthewaterisabsorbedintotheblood,andcarbondioxideisreleased.Structurescalledgillrakerscanalsostrainfood.Insomespecies,onearchedbonemayfeatureteethusedtogrindpreysuchassmallmollusks. Themouthsoffisheshaveevolvedtoenhancetheirpreferredfeedingmethod.Longlowerjawsproduceanupturnedmouththatassistssurfacefeeders.Mouthslocatedunderthesnouthelpboeomfeeders.Somespeciesaremidwaterfilterfeeders.BeaklikestructuresmaybeusedtostunpotenOalprey.Thepresenceofteeth,theirtypeandlocaOonvarygreatlyamongspecies. Theskinofafishisslightlypermeable,producesamucousslime,andisresponsibleforcharacterisOccolorsandreflecOveiridescence.Mostfisheshavebonyscalescoveringthebody.Thesescalesvaryinsize,mayaeachfirmlyordislodgeeasily.Somespecieslackscalesoncertainpartsoftheirbodies,suchasthehead,belly,nape,orbreastareas.Afewspecies,suchascanish,lackscalescompletely. Internalorgansincludeaheart,liver,spleen,gallbladder,kidney,esophagus,stomach,intesOne,urinarybladder,gonads,andaswimorgasbladdertoregulatebuoyancyandresonatesounds.Theswimbladdermaybereducedorevenabsentinspeciesthatliveonlakeandriverboeoms.Itisalsosmallerforthoselivinginswimcurrents.

Senses FishescandetectsoundvibraOonanditsdirecOon,andsomeproducesoundpossiblyforcommunicaOon.TheyhaveahighlydevelopedsenseofsmellandmayusevariouschemicalsassignalsandcommunicaOon.Barbels,smallsensingorgansaroundthemouth(canishes‘whiskers’),includetastebuds.Fishesperceivetemperature,andsomespeciesseekwaterswithinafairlyconsistenttemperaturerange. Theeyesofafisharespherical,bulgingfromtheheadtoprovideacircularfieldofvision.Somespecieshavebeenfoundtorecognizecolorsandpaeerns.Thosewhoaresightfeedershavegoodvision,butothers,suchasthoseadaptedtoturbidordeepwaters,arefarlessdependentonsight.Theirsensesofsoundortastearemorekeentocompensate.NocturnalfishesfeatureareflecOvelayerintheeyethathelpsthemmaximizeavailablelight.

FishEcology ThelifestylesofdifferentfishspeciesvarydramaOcally.Somemaybesedentaryandconfinethemselvestoasmallarea.Othersmayconstantlybeonthemove,rovingfreelyandwidely.Somearemoresolitaryinnature,othersschoolinsmalltolargegroups. FishesareanimportantpartofbothaquaOcandterrestrialfoodwebs.Theyfeedoneverything:microscopicorganismslikebacteriaanddiatoms,plankton,plants,macroinvertebrates(insects,crustaceans,mollusks),andotherfishes.TheyarepreyforlargeaquaOcinsects,fishes,repOles,birds,andmammals.Fishesalsoserveashoststomanyinternalandexternalparasites--fungi,protozoans,worms,arthropods,andmussels,thoughtheseseldomhaveanimpactonthefishes’health.

Reproduc8on Fishesintemperateclimatestypicallyspawnfromlatewintertomidsummerinwarmingwaters.CourtshipritualsmayinvolvebehaviorassimpleasamalefollowingafemaletodisplaysconsisOngofswimmingpaeerns,physicalcontact,flaringfins,orchangingcolors. SpawningforthemajorityoffishesinvolvesexternalferOlizaOon--thefemalereleaseseggswhicharebathedinsperm-bearingmiltfromthemale.Theeggsmaybereleasedinmidwaterwheretheyremainbuoyant(shad)orsinktotheboeom(walleye).Somespeciesoffishseekcrevicesinlogsorrock,othersconstructagravelnest.Manyabandontheeggs,butafewspeciesguardthenestsorincubateeggsinthemouthorgillsunOlhatching.OnefamilyferOlizestheeggsinternallyandgiveslivebirthtofullydevelopedyoung. Whentheyhatch,fishlarvaeor“fry”bearlieleresemblancetoadults.TheirfirstnutriOoncomesfromabsorpOonoftheyolksac.Inthe“postlarva”stagetheyfeedprimarilyonmicroinvertebratesanddevelopinto“juveniles”resemblingadults.Thedevelopmentthroughthepostlarvalstagemaytakedaysorweeksdependingonthespeciesandwatertemperature.TheseOnyfishesareeasyprey,andmanyareconsumed.

FishGroupsinTennessee

Lampreysarejawlessfishesthatresembleeels,withlarvalandadultstages.Lampreysremaininthelarvalstage,calledammocoetes,forthreetosixyears,feedingonmicroorganismsanddetritus.Onegroupcalled“brooklampreys”aresmallerspeciesandoncemetamorphosedasadultsdonotfeedbeforespawninganddying.Largerlampreys,the“riverlampreys,”areomenparasiOcasadults,aeachingtheirmouthstofishes,raspingahole,andfeedingontheirhosts’fluids.Evolvingwiththeirhosts,naOveparasiOclampreysdonotappeartoaffectfishpopulaOons.Therearesevenspeciesinthestate,threeparasiOcandfournon-parasiOc. SilverLamprey(Cumberland,Tennessee,andMississippiRivers)andSouthernBrookLampreyintheConasaugaRiverwatershed(BradleyCounty)are“DeemedinNeedofManagement”inTennessee.

Sturgeons(threeTennesseespecies,LakeandtwoShovelnose)andthePaddlefishareconsideredamongthemostprimiOveofbonyfishes.TheirskeletonsaremainlycarOlage,andtheirvertebraeconOnueintotheupperlobeoftheirtailfin.LakeSturgeonarelargefish,upto150pounds,andlonglived,to150years,withbarbelsontheirsnoutsandfiverowsofbonyscutesalongtheirbodylength.Preferringlargelakesandrivers,theyfeedoninsectlarvae,crayfish,andmollusks.ShovelnosespeciessOcktothelargerivers.ThePaddlefishhasalong,paddle-shapedsnoutandisafilterfeeder. LakeSturgeonshavesufferedmanyhardshipsatthehandsofhumans,contribuOngtothespecies’Endangeredstatus.Duetotheirsize,theytorenetsofcommercialfishermenandwerethrownonriverbanks.Theywereburnedasfuelforriverboatsandharvestedfortheirroe(fisheggs).DamoperaOonshavedisruptedLakeSturgeons’spawningrunontherivers. Damshavenowalteredtheirflowreleasetoallowatleasttheminimumwaterneededfortheirruns.Asaresult,thespeciesisbeingreintroduced.TheywillrequireOghtmanagementforsuccessastheyarenotasproducOveasotherspecies.FemalesdonotbecomegravidunOltheyare14or15yearsold,andthenreproduceonlyonceeveryfourorfiveyears.

Garsarelongthinfisheswithlongsnoutsusedtostunotherfishes,theirtypicalfood.Theycangulpairfromthesurfacetofilltheirswimbladder,usingitlikealung.TherearefourspeciesinTennessee.

TheAmericanEelistwotothreefeetlongandsnakelike.Itsdorsal,tail,andanalfinsarejoinedintooneconOnuousfin.Ithasnopelvicfins.Typicallyyellow-brownincolor,adultsturnlightgray(“silvereels”)andmigratetotheSargassoSeainthenorthCaribbeaninfallandwinter,wheretheyspawnanddie.Larvae,adultinshapebuttransparentincolorandcalled“glasseels,”rideoceancurrentstotheGulfandAtlanOccoastsandmigrateuprivers.Theyliveinfreshwaterriversandstreamsfor10to20yearsbeforereturningtothesea.

HerringsandShadshavefivespecieshereandarefoodsourcesforlargergamefishesinreservoirs.

Minnowsbelongtotwofamilies,theSuckersandtheMinnows.• Suckers(21species)includetheRedhorsesandBuffalofisheslivinginmediumtolarge

rivers,wheretheyareimportantcommercialfishspecies.• Minnows(83species)includeDaces,Chubs,Shiners,Stonerollers,andCarps.Thefour

speciesofcarpareallintroduced,andtwoofthem,AsianandBighead,areconsideredinvasivespecies.NaOveminnowspeciesaresmall,rarelyexceedingfiveinchesinlength,andarefoundinallhabitatsexceptcaves.

CaSishspeciesareknownbythebarbels(whiskers)aroundthemouth--fourontheupperjawandfouronthechin.Fishesinthisgrouparemoresocialinnature.

• BullheadsandCanishes(6species)arebothcommercialandsportfishes.• Madtoms(16species)

Madtomsaresmallcanish(generallyunderfourincheslong)inthegenusNoturus.Theyhavethesameelongatedsensoryappendages,omenreferredtoas‘whiskers,’ofthelargercanish,butcanbedisOnguishedbytheiradiposefin.Thisfinisusuallysmall,locatedonthespineofafishnearthetail,andinmostspeciesincludinglargercanish,itisseparatefromthetailfin.Onmadtoms,theadiposefinislongandblendsintothetailfin.Madtomshavelielefinspinesthatcontaintoxinandcan‘sOng’anyonehandlingthesefish,feelingsimilartoabeesOng.Madtomstypicallypreferstreamswithrockyboeoms,andthedifferentspeciesarecoloredandpaeernedtoblendintotheirenvironment.Theybuildnestsfortheireggsandguardthem,ataskomendonebythemale.Mainlynocturnal,madtomsstayunderrocksduringdaylighthours,andsurveysforthesefishmustbeconductedatnight.TheyaresuscepObletochangesintheirenvironmentandareabioindicatorspecies.SedimentaOonfromagricultureandforestrypracOcesposesthebiggestthreattomadtoms. SmokyMadtomsarejusttwoincheslongwhenfullygrown.DeliberatelyexOrpatedinAbramsCreek(BlountCounty)inthe1950stoenhancetroutfishing,itwaspresumedexOnctunOlthe1980swhenanotherpopulaOonwasfoundinMonroeCounty.EffortstorestoretheSmokyMadtomtoAbramsCreekhavebeenslowbutsuccessful.YellowFinMadtomsandPygmyMadtomsaretwootherrarespeciesinEastTennessee.

Salmonshavefourfamilies.• Pikes--twoPickerels,onePike,Muskellunge;allhaveduckbillsnouts;swimpredators• Mudminnows--onespecies• Smelt--onenon-naOvespecies• Salmon--Ninespeciesarealltrout,eightnon-naOveandonenaOveBrookTrout.

Cavefishes--Tennesseehastwospeciesofcavefish.• SpringCavefishlivesinshallowwaternearspringsandgoesundergroundtospawn.

SpecieslikeSpringCavefishthatlivebothaboveandbelowgroundarecalledtroglophilicspecies.

• SouthernCavefishspendsitsenOrelifeunderground.Itlacksapparentpigment,anditseyesareundertheskin.ExternalsensoryorganscalledpapillaeareverysensiOveandhelpthefishnegoOateitsenvironment.SpeciesthatlivesolelyundergroundaretermedtroglodyOc.

Topminnowsswimjustbelowthewater’ssurface,haveupturnedmouths,andfeedonsurfaceinsects.Theyarestrikinglymarkedwithspotsandstripes,parOcularlymaturemales.Tennesseehassevenspecies.

Mosquitofishesaresurfacefeederstoo.Thefemaleincubatesandbearsliveyoung.Thereisonespeciesinthestate.

Perchesaredividedintofourmaingroups.• TemperateBasses--twonaOvespecies(YellowandWhite),oneintroduced(Striped)• PygmySunfish--onespeciesinWestTennessee• Sunfishes--21speciesincludingCrappie,Bluegill,SmallandLargemouthBass,and

RedearSunfishwhicharepopularsportfishes.Thisgroupomenhasbrightyellow,orange,orredcolorsonthebreastandbelly,especiallybreedingmales

• Perches--Thefamily,Percidae,includes93speciesinTennessee,90ofwhicharedarters.ThethreelargerspeciesareYellowPerch(non-naOve),Sauger,andWalleye--allpopularsportfishes.

Darters,smallfishoffreshwaterstreams,areomenbrilliantlycolored,restontheboeomofrockystreams,andeatinsectlarvae.SomeofthemorecolorfulspeciesincludeRainbow,Redband,Banded,Orangethroat,Holiday,andBandfindarters.HolidayDarterisendemictotheConasaugaWatershed.Theyprefercool,flowingstreamswithunsiltedboeoms,wheretheyrest.AfewdartersmusthavenearprisOnecondiOons,andtheirpresenceindicatesgoodwaterquality.TheSnailDarterisaThreatenedspeciesintheupperTennesseewatershed.Itreceivedmuchpublicityinthe1970swhenitwasdiscoveredintheLieleTennesseeRiverandbecamepartofalawsuitinvolvingtheEndangeredSpeciesActandconstrucOonofTellicoDam,aprojectthedarter’spresenceslowedbutdidnotstop.Fortunately,SnailDartershavebeenfoundinotherstreams.

Others--RemainingfishgroupsinTennesseeareBowfin,Mooneyes(2),PiratePerch,Burbot(Codfishes),Silversides(2),Mullet,andSculpin(2).Sculpinslikecanishesarescaleless.

RareFishSpecies Ninety-threespeciesoffishappearonthestate’srareanimallist,andthemajorityhavebeengiventheastatestatusofDeemedinNeedofManagement,Threatened,orEndangered.Thelistincludesforty-sixspeciesofdarters,eightshiners,sevenmadtoms,sevenchubs,andthreelampreysamongmanyothers. ConservaOonFisheriesIncorporatedinKnoxville,TN,isanonprofitorganizaOon“dedicatedtothepreservaOonofaquaOcbiodiversityinourstreamsandrivers.”TheyhavedevelopedpropagaOontechniquesforrare,non-gamefishspeciesforrecoveryandrestoraOonprojects.FishspeciesarealsoraisedformusselhatcheriestouseashostsforraremusselpropagaOon.hep://conservaOonfisheries.org/

Primaryfishessources:(fullbibliographicalinformaOoninsecOonIV.Resources) TheFishesofTennessee,DavidA.EtnierandWayneC.Starnes TennesseeWildlifeResourcesAgency

Crustaceans--CrayfishandShrimp

Crayfish--Crayfish,orcrawfish,crawdads,mudbugs,aresmallrelaOvesoflobsters,withabodylengthofonetoafewinchesnotincludingtheirclaws.ColoraOonrangesfromdrabbrowntobrightorangeorblue.TheirhardexoskeletonoffersprotecOonbutlimitsgrowth,requiringperiodicmoltsduringwhichtheyarevulnerable.Nocturnal,crayfishfeedonplantmaeerandsmallarthropodsinstreams,seeps,andwetgrassyareas.Raccoons,RiverOeers,variousbirds,andevensnakespreyoncrayfish. Crayfishburrowinthesoilnearstreamsandfallintooneofthreecategoriesbasedontheirburrowingbehavior.TerOaryburrowersspendmostoftheirOmeinopenstreamwatersandjustscoopshallowdepressionsunderrocksinthestreambed.Secondaryburrowersdigsimpleburrowsusuallystraightdowntothewatertableunderground.ThesecrayfishareomenfoundalongstreamswithmoreerraOcseasonalflow.Thecrayfishretreatsfurtherintotheburrowasthesurfacewaterleveldrops. PrimaryburrowersexcavateacomplexsystemoftunnelsandchamberswithmulOpleentrancesandspendmuchoftheirlivesunderground.Burrowdepthscanrangefromlessthantwofeettonearlyeightfeet.BesidesmaintainingconOnualcontactwiththewatertable(necessaryfortheirrespiraOonthroughgills),thissystemoftunnelsisthoughttofacilitateaccesstofoodresources.Theburrowingprocess,doneatnight,producescharacterisOcmoundsofmudcalledchimneysateachentrancehole.Eachcrayfishburrowfeaturesa“resOngchamber”wheretheanimalsleepsduringdaylighthours. FemalescarryeggsundertheirabdomensaeachedtoshortprojecOonscalledswimmeretes.Theroundeggsresembleberries,andthefemaleissaidtobe“inberry.”Hatchedyoungaeachtothemotherwithathinthread,remainingthroughtheirfirsttwomolts.Mostcrayfishbreedinthefallandbroodinwinterandspring.Duringbreedingandbrooding,restricOonsmaybeplacedondevelopmentacOvitynearstreamswithvulnerablepopulaOons. Mostsub-drainagesintheCumberlandRiverwatershedhavetheirownspeciesofcrayfishnotfoundanywhereelse.NashvilleCrayfisharefoundonlyintheMillCreeksystem.Problemsoccurwhencrayfisharemovedaroundbyanglers.Endemicspeciesinonedrainageomendon’tcompetewellwithoutsidespeciesfromotherareas. Thereare87speciesofcrayfishinTennesseeand23ofthemareonthestate’srareanimallist.Elevenofthesehaveadesignatedstatestatus(DeemedinNeedofManagement,Threatened,orEndangered),suchastheTennesseeCaveCrayfishandNashvilleCrayfish.Amongtherarespeciesarefourobligatecavedwellingcrayfish.Thesecaveinhabitantsareeyeless,colorless,andtranslucent,adaptedtototaldarknessintheirenvironment.DisOnctpopulaOonsofcrayfishnotyetformallydescribedmayaddtothestate’sspeciestally. Asawhole,crayfisharemoderatelytolerant,orfacultaOve,aquaOcspeciesabletosurvivesomequalityvarianceinenvironmentalcondiOons,thoughexcessivesedimentaOonandwarmingwatertemperaturesarethreats. TwomaingeneraofcrayfishareCambarusandOrconectes.TheAmbiguousCrayfish(Cambarusstriatus)iscommoninthestateandlikelytobeacomplexofseveralcloselyrelated

species.DoubleCrayfish(C.diogenes)isfoundreadilyinWestTennessee.Big-clawCrayfish,(Orconectesplacidus)iscommoninMiddleTennessee,andtheCommonCrayfish(Cambarusbartonii)prefersEastTennessee. AtleasttwoorganismsengageincommensalrelaOonshipswithcrayfish.SpeciesofaquaOcwormslatchontocrayfish,parOcularlyaroundthegills,hitchingarideforeasieraccesstofood.Freshwatershrimparebelievedtoengagethesametypeofcommensalsymbiosis.Neitherofthesetagalongsappearstoharmthecrayfish.

FreshwaterShrimp--Tennesseehastwospeciesoffreshwatershrimp,easterngrassshrimp,inthegenusPalaemonetes.TheyarefreeswimminginsurfacewatersandfairlycommoninWestTennesseetributariesandinMiddleTennesseeasfareastasNashville.

Primarycrustaceanssources: WestVirginiaWildlife,Vol.8,No.1,2008,WVDivisionofNaturalAreas hep://www.gcsu.edu/crayfishes/ecologyandlifehistory.htm TennesseeDepartmentofEnvironmentandConservaOon

Crayfishchimney(MargieHunter)

Mollusks--Snails,ClamsandMussels(PhylumMollusca)

LimpetsandSnails

Tennesseeishometoapproximately256speciesoflandsnailsand99speciesofaquaOcsnails.AquaOcspeciesincludelimpets,pouchsnails,gilledsnails,andflat-coiled,air-breathingram’shornsnails. Limpetsareflatsnailswithbroadlyconicalshellsthatdonotappearcoiled.Theyareomenfoundonemergent,semi-aquaOcvegetaOon. PouchandgilledsnailshavespiralshellsandmaybeproperlyidenOfiedbythedirecOonofthespiral.Holdupthesnailandlookattheshellopening.Ifitopenstothelemofthespiral,itisapouchsnail.Anopeningtotherightofthespiralisagilledsnail. Pouchsnailstakeanairbubbleunderwaterwiththemandaretolerantspecies.GilledsnailsbreatheunderwaterandaresensiOvespecies. Thereare38speciesofaquaOcsnails(allgilled)and87speciesoflandsnailsontheTennesseeNaturalHeritageProgram’sRareAnimalsList(TDEC,March2009).

ClamsandMussels--BivalveMollusks

ClamsandmusselsareintheClassBivalvia.Allbivalveshaveasombodyenclosedinahardshellintwopartsor“valves.”Mussels(intheSubclassPaleoheterodonta,OrderUnionoida)maybeconsideredclams,butnotallclamsaremussels.Clamsaremoretriangularinshapeandhaveapairedsetoflong,lance-liketeeth,oneoneithersideaspartoftheshell’shingeinside.Musselscomeinavarietyofshapes,andtheirshells’hingesfeaturelong,lance-liketeethononeendandshortstubbyteethontheother.Unlikeclams,musselsarecapableofproducingfreshwaterpearls,andtheiryoungareparasiOc. Clams ClamsareinadifferentSubclass(Heterodonta,OrderVeneroida).TheFamilySphaeriidaeofPeaclamsandFingernailclamshasthreegeneraand14speciesinthestatehistorically.ThesesmallclamsareaboutonetotwocenOmetersinlengthandlightincolorwithsmooth,shinyshells. InthesameSubclassandOrder,butFamilyCarbiculidaeisthenon-naOveAsianClam.IntheFamilyDreissenidaearetwoothernon-naOvemollusks--ZebraMusselandDarkFalsemussel.[See“Non-naOveandInvasiveSpecies”undersecOonIII.GeneralConservaOonandManagement.]

Mussels IntheOrderUnionoidaoffreshwatermussels,thelargestfamilyisUnionidae.Allbutonespeciesinthestateareinthatfamily.TherareSpectaclecaseMussel,Cumberlandiamonodonta,isintheMargariOferidaeFamily.Unionids,therivermussels,havetwodifferentsetsof“teeth”aspartoftheirhingethatinterlockandhelpholdthetwohalvestogether--onelongridgecalledlateralteethandshortpseudocardinalteeth.Inbetweenisaspacecalledtheinterdentum.VariaOonsinthesethreeinternalshellcharacterisOcscanplayanimportantroleinidenOficaOon. Musselsareanimalswhoseinternalorgansincludeatwo-chamberedheart,astomach,intesOnes,andakidney.Theseandotherorgansareprotectedwithinthemantle--Ossuethatproducestheexternalhardshell,amiddlecalcareouslayerofcalciumcarbonate,andathicklustrouscoaOngcallednacreinside.Musselsgrowinsizeaddingtotheshell’smarginsandthickness.Thefootextendsbeyondtheshellformovementortoanchorinthesubstrate.MusselsspendtheirlivesparOallyburiedinthebenthiczone. Twostrongadductormusclesopenandclosetheshell,someOmessoOghtlythehalvesarequitedifficulttoseparate.Adorsalligamentholdsthetwosidestogether.Therearetwosiphons,theincurrentsiphontotakeinwaterandtheexcurrentsiphontoexpelwaste.GillsarelocatedneartheincurrentsiphontogatherfoodparOclesandexchangeoxygen.Bothsiphonsarelocatedonthemussel’sposteriorend,whichisalwaysposiOonedtoprotrudefromtheriver’ssubstratedirectedupstream.Musselseatprotozoans,bacteria,diatoms,andorganicparOclesinthewater. Musselsvaryinsize,shape,habitatpreference,andshellcharacterisOcssuchasthickness,texture,andcolor,providingthebasisformostidenOficaOon.Thick-shelledspecies,havingevolvedtowithstandthemorepunishingenvironmentsinfast-waterstreamswithrockyboeoms,areomenfoundinmediumtolargerivers.Theyhaveaheavierhinge,deeperadductormusclescars,andtypicallylivealongOme. Washboardisalarge,ridged,thick-shelledspeciesthatmayliveupto100years.OthersincludeTennesseePigtoe,ThreehornWartyback,Hickorynut,Bankclimber,Bueerfly,andMucket. Thin-shelledspeciesmaygrowaslargeasthick-shelledspeciesbutusuallydon’tliveaslong(approximately10to12years),thoughtheyomengrowfaster.Theiradductormusclescarsareshallow,andthevalvesmaynotcompletelyclose.Becausetheirthinshellsareeasilydamaged,theyaremostomenfoundinslowcurrenthabitats,inthesandandmudofponds,lakes,orquietstreambackwaters.Thin-shelledspeciesmayappeartranslucent,liketheFragilePapershell.OthersincludeFlatFloater,FinelinedPocketbook,Pondmussel,PinkPapershell,andPaperPondshell. Eachyearmusselsincreasethesizeoftheirshells.Slowergrowthinwinterismarkedwitharingorannulus.CounOngtheseringsprovidesaroughesOmateofthemussel’sage.Youngmusselsputalltheirenergyintogrowthproducingwidelyspacedrings.Whenmature,moreenergyisdirectedtowardreproducOon,andtheringsbecomenarrowlyspaced. Shellinteriorsarecoatedwithnacre,asubstancesecretedfromthemussel’smantlethatimpartsabeauOfullusterinvariouscolors--white,pink,salmon,lavender,green,yellow,

copper,blue,cream,orsilver.Knownasmother-of-pearl,freshwatermusselscanmakepearlsbyplacinglayersofnacreonanirritant,likeagrainofsand,insidetheirshells. MusselsareuniqueanimalswithsomefascinaOngcapabiliOes.Despiteasimplenervoussystemcontrolledbyaverysmallnumberofnerves,musselscandetectlight,sensetouch,producelifelikeluresthatmimicotheranimals,andlivefordecades.MostofthesecapabiliOesservetheirreproducOveneeds.

MusselReproduc8on Thesexesaremostlyseparate,however,afewspeciesarehermaphrodiOc--possessingbothsexorgans.Insomespecies,thefemales’shellswilldifferslightly,omenappearingwiderandmoreroundedtoaccommodatedevelopmentofyounginbroodpatchesinthegills.Adultmalesupstreamreleasespermintothewatercolumn.DownstreamfemalestakeinwaterwithspermtoferOlizetheireggsandproducebarelyvisiblelarvaecalledglochidia.Toreachthenextstageofdevelopmentasjuvenilescapableoflivingontheirown,theseOnylarvaemustaeachtofishasparasites.(ThereisonemusselspeciesthatparasiOzestheMudpuppy,anaquaOcsalamander.) Theglochidiamustlatchon(hookorclamp)toafish’sgills,skin,orfins.Iftheydon’t,theywillnotsurvive.Alayerofskindevelopsoverthebabymusselparasiteformingacyst.Theymayremainaeachedfordaysorweeksdevelopingadultinternalorgansandashellbeforeemergingfromthecystanddroppingtothestreambedtogrowasindependentorganisms.Thefish-musselrelaOonshipmaybemorecommensalthanparasiOc,asitappearstocausenoharmtothefish.Musselspeciesmayreproduceonceortwiceayear.Somestaygraviduptosixmonths,luringfishandwaiOngtodischargetheglochidia. Tomaximizetheopportunityfortheiryoungtocatchafish,musselsemployseveralstrategies.MusselswhoaregeneralistscanparasiOzeseveraldifferentspeciesoffishes.Theysimplysprayyoungupintothewaterwhentheysenseashadowabovethem.Thismethodisnotveryreliable,requiringtheproducOonofmanythousandsofglochidia. Inamoretargetedeffort,afewmusselspeciesformpacketsofglochidiathatresembleinsectlarvae.Onespeciesformsredspiraledpacketsthatlooklikebloodworms.Thefemalefloatsthesepacketsaboveheronthinthreads.Fisheseatthem,breakingthepacketsandreleasingtheglochidia.Whenexpelledthroughthefish’sgills,themussellarvaehaveonefleeOngopportunitytoaeach. SomemusselspeciesrequireaspecificspeciesoffishashostfortheiryoungandhaveevolvedclevermeansofaeracOngthem.Thesemusselsproduceluresthatmimicminnows,crayfish,ordarters--whatevertypeofpreywillmosteffecOvelyaeractthetargetfishhostfortheiryoung.Watercurrentsandthemusselitselfwiggletheselurestomakethemmorelifelike.Whenthetargetedfishescomenear,themusselsdischargetheirglochidiadirectlyatthem.Iftheyshouldaeachtothewrongfish,theglochidiadieandsloughoff. TheDarterSnapperConeshellemploysarathergruesomemethodtoensurethecorrectfishspeciesreceivestheglochidia.Itwiggleswhatlookslikeamidgeorcaddisflylarvatoaeractsmalldartersinsideitsshell.Whenitsensesthefish,itclampsdownonthefish’sheadandblowsglochidiadirectlyintothemouth.Dartershaveahardbonestructure,andtheshell’s

pinchdoesn’thurtthem.However,ifanothersmallfishspecieslikeaminnoworshinerswimsin,itsheadwillbecrushed. MusselHabitatandEcology UplandstreamcharacterisOcs--bedrockcomposiOonandtheresulOngwaterchemistry,steepergradients,andlownutrientlevels--arenotsupporOveofmussels.Thesestreams’lowerreaches,however,meanderthroughlimestonewithclearwaterandgoodcurrentsoversandandgravelbedsinshoalsandrifflesprovidingidealhabitats.ThecondiOonofthesubstrateisparOcularlyimportant.Stablegravel,sand,andsiltdepositsallowmusselstobecomeestablishedandsurvive.ThesecondiOonsvaryfromplacetoplaceandaffectspeciesdistribuOon.Thenumberandvarietyofspeciespresentaredirectlyrelatedtohabitatquality.OnlyafewspeciesarefoundinlenOcsystems. Musselsspecieshavevaryingrequirementsandpreferencesforwatertemperatures,dissolvedoxygencontent,substratecomposiOon,waterdepth,andfood.Someprefershallowwater(twotothreefeet),othersmaybefoundatdepthsof35feetormoreinfastflowingbigrivers.Somespeciesburythemselvesafootbelowthestreambed.Sincetheyrarelymovemorethanafewyards,significantchangesinthewaterorsubstratecanproveharmful. Musselsareinefficientfeeders,onlymetabolizingabout18percentofwhattheytakein.Everythingelseisdischargedfromtheexcurrentsiphon.Therefore,theymustconOnuallytakeinwatertomeettheirnutriOonalneeds.Bigmusselscanfilterupto50gallonsofwateraday.Indoingso,theyalsohelpcleanthewater,averyimportantecosystemfuncOon. Veryfewanimalscanopenmusselshells.Raccoons,RiverOeers,andMuskrats(themainpredator)eatthembutsomeOmeshaveahardOmege{nginside.Iftheycan’topenashell,theywillusuallydropitbackinthewater.Afewsmartanimalsmaysetthemusselonthebankto‘cook’inthesunanddie,thenopenit.ShellscanbefoundaroundmuskratdensontheDuckandTennesseerivers. Sincemusselsandfishgotogether,riverswithanabundanceoffishwillalsohavemanymussels.Today,thebestriversformusselsaretheDuck,Elk,Clinch,andPowellriversontheTennessee.CumberlandtributariesObey,CaneyFork,Stones,Harpeth,Red,andYellowCreekhavelessvariety.

MusselSpecies Beforedams,theTennesseeRiverharboredthe“mostdiverseandabundantmusselfaunaofanyriverinNorthAmerica”(ParmaleeandBogan).Flowingthroughlimestone,itscalciumrichwater,habitatdiversityofshoalsandriffles,andabundantnutrientssupported102naOvemusselspeciesalongtheriveranditstributaries.TheCumberlandRiverwassimilarlyrich,havingsupported87knownspecies. ThesetworiversystemscomprisetheCumberlandianProvince,oneofseveralmusselfaunalregionsinNorthAmerica,andfeatureahighlevelofendemicspecies.TheMobileBasinProvince(Tennessee’sConasaugaWatershed)hasjustsevenmilesofriverinextremesoutheastTennesseebuthistoricallysupported24species,18ofwhichwerespecifictothatdrainage.WestTennesseeispartofaverylargeprovince,InteriorBasin,represenOngtheMississippiRiver

drainagearea.Thirty-sevenspecieshavebeenreportedhere,mostofthemalsopresentintheTennesseeand/orCumberlandrivers.TheHatchieRiverhasthegreatestdiversity. TennesseemusselshavedelighnullydescripOvecommonnames:PyramidPinktoe,PurpleWartyback,TennesseeHeelsplieer,CumberlandPigtoe,Snu|ox,ThreeRidge,Rabbitsfoot,BlackSandshell,GreenFloater,SouthernRainbow,Sheepnose,andmanymore.Afewcommonlyfoundspeciesinclude:

• Wavyrayedlampmussel(Lampsilisfasciola)--shinywithfinewavyridges• Fawnsfoot(Truncilladonaciformis)--smallwithdarkraylinesinbrokenpaeerns• PinkHeelsplieer(Potamilusalatus)--darkpurplenacre• Pimpleback(Quadrulapustulosa)--shellsurfacedenselycoveredwithroundedbumps• Pistolgrip(Tritogoniaverrucosa)--elongatedshellwithdisOnctposteriorridge

MusselThreatsandConserva8on CulturalchangesinthepastcenturyhavebeenverydetrimentaltoTennessee’smussels.CommercialexploitaOondepletedpopulaOons.AgriculturalpracOcesandstreamchannelizaOoninWestTennesseeanddamimpoundments,Ombering,andmininginMiddleandEastTennesseedestroyedtheriverinehabitatsresponsibleforthemussels’successanddiversity. DamshavenegaOvelyaffectedmanyspecies.Musselsrequirewarmwater,above70degrees,toreproduce.DeeperwatersbehinddamsremaintoocoldthroughouttheyearanddeterreproducOon.Iftemperaturesremaininthelow60s,populaOonsbegintodieout.DamscanalsoimpedetheavailabilityoffishspeciesattherightOmeofyear.Impoundedwatersareomenmorepolluted.ExcessivesiltaOoninwatercanclogtheirgills,effecOvelysmotheringthem. DuetothesedramaOcchanges,manyspeciesarenowexOnct,andothersarereducedtonon-reproducingrelictpopulaOonsthatwilleventuallydieout.Afewspeciesthatpreferquietwaterandmud/siltsubstrateshaveadaptedtoimpoundedwaters,buttheirsuccesscomesattheexpenseofotherspecies’survivalandadecreaseinoveralldiversity. Tostemthisdecrease,stateofficialsconductriversurveystomonitorpopulaOonsofmussels.ThefocusisnowonprotecOngandrestoringhabitat.CommercialharvesOngregulaOonshavebeenputinplace.Thequalityandamountofdamwaterreleaseshavebeenimprovedtoaidhabitat.ResearchintothelifehistoriesofcertainraremusselspecieswillhelpdeterminehostfishspeciesandallowarOficialpropagaOonforrestoraOonefforts.Asalastresort,populaOonsincompromisedhabitatmayberelocated. Historically,130speciesoffreshwatermusselshavebeendocumentedinTennessee.NineteenareexOnctorfearedso.Ofthespeciesremaining,morethanhalfappearontheTennesseeNaturalHeritageProgram’sRareAnimalsList(TDEC,March2009).Currently,onlyaboutone-thirdofthehistoricalspecieshavestablepopulaOons.Thestaterareanimallistincludes66speciesofmussels,36ofwhicharebothstateandfederallylistedasThreatenedorEndangered.AfewendangeredspeciesincludeRingpink(Obovariaretusa),SalamanderMussel(Simpsonaiasambigua),CumberlandMonkeyface(Quadrulaintermedia),andCatspaw(Epioblasmaobliquataobliquata).ThesedesignaOonssomeOmesofferhope.EndangeredstatusfortheBirdwingPearlymussel(Lemioxrimosus)stoppedconstrucOonoftheDuckRiverdam.

HistoricalandCulturalAssocia8onswithMussels Musselshavealonghistorywithpeople.NaOveAmericansatethemandusedshellsasspoons,dippers,bowls,scrapers,andevenhoes.AncientmiddensaroundShiloharepiledwithmusselshells.FreshwaterpearljewelryhasbeenfoundatNaOveAmericansites.Inthe1800s,farmerscollectedshellsandburnedthemtospreadashesonthesoil,bufferingitspHwiththeshells’calcium. TheinvenOonofadrilltopunchbueon“blanks”frommusselshellsiniOatedalucraOveindustryinthelate1800s.Musselbedswerevirtuallywipedoutinmanyplaces.Itwaswastefulandinefficientasmanypunched“blanks”wereunevenandcouldnotbeused.PilesofshellspunchedwithholescanbefoundaroundClimon,TN.ReliefcameamerWorldWarIIwhenplasOcsbecamecommon. Inthelate1960sandearly1970s,thepearlindustrybeganusingpiecesoffreshwatermusselshellsasthe“blank”forpearlsinseaoysters.Largeshellmusselspecieswouldbeharvested,shucked,andsenttoJapan,wheretheshellwouldbecutintosmallsquares,tumbledtoasphericalshape,andputinsaltwateroysterstoacquireasmallcoaOngofnacre.Themajorityofthis“pearl”ismusselshell.Itremainedabigindustryintothe1990s.

Primarymollusksources:(fullbibliographicalinformaOoninsecOonIV.Resources) TennesseeWildlifeResourcesAgencypresentaOon TheFreshwaterMusselsofTennessee,PaulW.ParmaleeandArthurE.Bogan GreatPlainsNatureCenterUnionidMusselsinKansas hep://www.gpnc.org/unionid.htm Tennessee’sComprehensiveWildlifeConservaOonStrategy,TWRA,Sept.2005

Amphibians,Turtles,andSnakes

ThesefaunalgroupsarecoveredingreaterdepthintheTennesseeNaturalistProgram’sclass“TheRepOlesandAmphibiansofTennessee:Scutes,Scales,andSkin.”

Turtles--Wehave15predominantlyaquaOcturtlespeciesincludingtwolargesspecies--theSnappingTurtle(to35poundsormore)andtheAlligatorSnappingTurtle(50to80poundsormore).ThelaeerspeciesisstatelistedasDeemedinNeedofManagement.BogTurtlesarefoundinopenwetlandsabove3,500feetinJohnsonCountyandarestatelistedasThreatened.

Amphibians--Tennesseehas21speciesoffrogsandtoadsand54salamanders.Frogsandtoadsneedwater,somespeciesconsistentlythroughtheirlives,othersjustforreproducOonandjuveniledevelopment.Salamanderspeciesvaryintheirrequirementsforstandingwater.Somespeciesjustneedaconsistentlymoistandprotectedterrestrialhabitat,andothersinhabitstandingorflowingwaterforpartoralloftheirlifecycle.AmphibiandiversityishighestinEastTennessee.

Snakes--Atleast12speciesofsnakesinTennesseeeitherpreferaquaOchabitatsorarerarelyfoundfarfromawatersource,includingfivespeciesofwatersnake,Queensnake,twospeciesofribbonsnake,Mudsnake,andCoeonmouth.RoughGreensnakeslikeriparianhabitats.RepOlediversityishighestinWestTennessee.

PrimaryrepOlesandamphibianssource: TennesseeWildlifeResourcesAgency

Aqua8cMacroinvertebrates

MacroinvertebratesconsOtutemidlevelpreyinthefoodchain(orflowofenergy)forfish.Energysourcesformostmacroinvertebratesarefallenleaves,algae,aquaOcfungi,bacteria,andotherinvertebrates.MacroinvertebratesfallintoseveralfuncOonalcategoriesortrophicgroupsbasedontheirfeedingmethods.

• Shredders--decomposersbreakuporganicmaterialintofinerparOcles(stoneflies)• Collector-gatherers--retrievefoodparOclesfromtheboeom(midges,caddisflies)• Filterers--filterfoodparOclesfromthewater(blackflies,net-spinningcaddisflies)• Grazers--scrapealgaefromrocks(snails)• Gougers--burrowintowaterloggedwoodydebris(craneflies)• Predators--feedonsmallerstreaminvertebrates(dragonflyanddamselflylarvae)

Bioindicatorsofwaterquality Asagroup,macroinvertebratesaregoodbioindicatorsofwaterquality.TheirlifehistoriesomeninvolveextensiveexposuretoaquaOcenvironments.Manyarenotverymobileandcannotordonotmovegreatdistances.ManyspecieshavelifecycleswithextendedaquaOclarvalstagesofonetoseveralyears.Thesheerdiversityofspeciesprovidesagaugeforqualityasdifferentspeciesexhibitascaleoftolerance(greaterorlesser)forpoorstreamcondiOons. Qualitystreamswillbeclearandcoolwithoxygen-richwater.Togaugestreamquality,threeprimaryfactorsaremonitoredandjudged,(1)speciesrichness,(2)funcOonalgrouptypes,and(3)speciestolerance. Speciesrichnessrepresentsthenumberofdifferentspeciespresent.BecauseofthediversityofaquaOcmacroinvertebrates,thepresenceorabsenceofawidevarietyofspeciesistelling.Greaterdiversityindicatesbeeerwaterqualityandhabitat.LowerdiversityisasignthesystemiscompromisedinsomewayandnotfuncOoningaswellasitshould. FuncOonalgroupsisanotherexpressionofspeciesrichness.Arethedifferentfeedinggroupsrepresented?Arethereshredding,collecOng,grazing,filtering,andpredatoryspeciespresent? SpeciestoleranceofwaterqualitycondiOonsvariesfromorganismtoorganism.Specieshighlyintolerant(SensiOve,GroupI)ofpoorwaterqualitydisappearquicklywhencondiOonsdeteriorate.Hardyorganisms(Tolerant,GroupIII)toleratepoorqualityandcanbefoundindegradedwaters.Otherspeciesfallbetweenthesetwoextremes(FacultaOve,GroupII). StreamcondiOonsmayvaryfromsitetositealongthesamestream.Areasofdecreasedwaterflow,increasedsunlight,siltaOon,orapollutantmayaffectonlyasecOon,andanexaminaOonofspeciespinpointstheseproblemareas.Judgementisnotbasedsolelyonthemerepresenceoftolerantspecies.However,ifthesearetheprimaryoronlyspeciespresentandsensiOvespeciesaremissing,thestreamqualitywillbepoor. ThreefamiliesofmacroinvertebratesarewellknownassensiOvespecies--Ephemeropteraormayflies,Plecopteraorstoneflies,andTrichopteraorcaddisflies.Theirmerepresenceisa

posiOvesign.Streammonitoringassessesthenumbersofvariousspeciesfoundfromthesefamiliestocomputethe“EPTcount.”Ahighcountindicatesgoodwaterquality.

Aqua8cMacroinvertebrateGroups

Mayflies(Ephemeroptera)typicallyhaveaone-yearlifecycle,beginningwitheggslaidinthewater.NymphsdevelopthroughmulOplestagescalledinstars.Adultsofthesamespecieshatchinamass,withinadayofeachother,andmateinswarms.Nymphshavethreetailsandgillsontheirabdomenstobreatheinwater.Theygrazeorfilterfeed;afewspeciesarepredatory.Adultsdonotfeed.Sixspeciesareontherareanimallist.[incompletemetamorphosis,nymphs,nopupae]

Stoneflies(Plecoptera)areextremelysensiOvetowatercondiOons.Theirlifecyclemaytakeuptothreeyearsandincludesasmanyas30instars.Nymphsgrowto1.5inchesinlengthandhavefilamentousgillsneartheirlegsandtwotails.TheyfeedondecayingvegetaOonatfirstandmayincludelivepreylater.Adultsaretwoincheswithwingsflatontheirback.Mostspeciesdonotfeedasadultsanddieamerreproducing.Twentyspeciesareontherareanimallist.[incompletemetamorphosis,nymphsnopupae]

Caddisflies(Trichoptera)havethreelarvalforms--freeranging,casecarrying,andnetspinning.Thosethatarefreerangingmovearoundwithoutacase,onlybuildingitwhentheyarereadytopupate.Speciesofthesecondformbuildacasecoveringallbuttheirheadsandcarrytheircaseswiththem.Theselarvalformsarecollectors.Netspinnersusesilktomaketheircasesandspinwebsinthewatertofilterorganicmaeerfromthecurrent.AdultfemalesdiveintothewatertocementeggstorocksorvegetaOon.Larvaearemainlyherbivores.Adultshavereducedmouthpartsandmaysipnectariftheyfeed.Lifecyclesareaboutayear.[completemetamorphosis] CaddisflycasesaredisOnctinshapeandcomposiOon,andcanbeusedtoidenOfyspeciesbasedonthesecharacterisOcs.TheyaremadeoutofOnystones,leaves,skeletonizedleafveins,orsOcks.ThelaeerarecolloquiallyknownassOckbait,someOmesthreetofourincheslong.Fishesrecognizethemandwilllineupwhererocksarebeingmovedtodartinandgrabone,eaOngthecaseandpassingthematerialsoutthroughtheirgills.SmallmouthBass,Bluegill,andRockbasslovecaddisflies.Thereare29speciesofcaddisflyontherareanimallist. Dobsonfly(OrderMegaloptera)larvaearealsoknownashellgrammitesandgrampus,socalledamertheGermanwordforbigicetongswhichthelarvae’sclamp-likemouthpartswerethoughttoresemble.ItmayalsorefertoKrampus,aEuropeanmythologicalbeastwithbigcurvedhorns.Thelarvaeareverylarge,uptofourincheslong,withseveralpairsofappendagesalongtheabdomen.Theyliveunderrocks,preyingonotheraquaOcspeciesandmolOngseveralOmes.Theyareusedasfishbaitandcanbite.DobsonfliesaresensiOvespecies.[completemetamorphosis]Fishflylarvaeareverysimilarinsizeandappearance.

Alderflies(OrderMegaloptera)areinthesamegroupasdobsonfliesandfishflieswithasimilarappearanceandlifehistoryandareconsideredfacultaOvespecies.Theyarenotaslongandhaveahairytailandhairybacklegs.Theotherspecies’tailandbacklegsarenotashairy.[completemetamorphosis]

CraneFlies(OrderDiptera)allalsoknownasmosquitohawks.Thelarvaecanbebig(uptotwoinches)andaretranslucentandlegless.Mostspeciesliveinthebenthiczoneorwater’sboeomfeedingonalgae,bacteria,orwoodydetritus.Somespeciespreyonotherinvertebrates.CranefliesarefacultaOvespecies.[completemetamorphosis]

Midges(OrderDiptera)haveverysmalllarvaethatstartoutfloaOnginthewaterthenmovetotheboeomorbenthiczonewheretheyburrowandfeedondetritus.Bloodwormsarethelarvalstageofcertainmidgespecies.Theircolorreflectsarespiratorypigmentthathelpsthemcaptureoxygenmolecules.Midgesareconsideredtolerantspecies.[completemetamorphosis] Beetles(OrderColeoptera)Adultbeetleshavehardenedforewingsasawingcasecoveringmembranoushindwings.ManybeetlesarefacultaOvespecies.[completemetamorphosis] PredaceousDivingBeetles--Adults(flatovalbodies,hairlikeantennae)andlarvae(largesickle-shapedmandibles)liveinthewaterandfeedonaquaOcorganismsincludingsmallfish.AdultsholdtheOpoftheabdomentothewatersurfaceandtrapairbubblesundertheirwingcoverstobreatheunderwaterandarenotindicatorsofwaterquality.Theyaregoodswimmers. Whirligigs--Adultshavestreamlinedbodieswithlongforelegs.TheyswimerraOcallyandfeedonthesurfaceofquietwaters.Larvaestayunderwaterontheboeom,preyonaquaOcorganisms,andareconsideredfacultaOvespecies. RiffleBeetles--Foundingravellyboeomsofrifflesinstreams,thesebeetlesareunderwatercrawlersthatdonotswim.Theyhaveaplastron,asheetofrigidhairsthattrapairnexttotheirbody.Inhighqualitystreams,theoxygencontentofthetrappedairisreplenishedbydissolvedoxygendiffusingfromthewater.Becauseofthis,adultrifflebeetlesaresensiOvespecies. WaterPennies--Namedfortheovaltonear-circular,copper-coloredlarvalstage,theyscrapeandeatalgaeinrifflesofmoderatetofast-currentstreams,absorboxygenthroughgillsatthebaseoftheabdomen,andaresensiOvespecies.AdultsarenotaquaOc.

DragonfliesandDamselflies(OrderOdonata) DragonflynymphsaretoppredatorsinsomeaquaOcsystems,aslargernymphscancapturetadpolesandsmallfish.Themouth’shookedlowerlipextendsoutwardtocatchprey.Dragonflynymphsarestockierwithshortpointsontherearoftheabdomen.Theirgillsareinternalandcansqueezewatertopropelthemforward.Theypreferpondsorslowmovingwater.Nymphsmayliveafewyears,adultsabouteightweeks.AdultsholdtheirwingshorizontallywhenresOng.DragonflyspecieshavebeenstudiedfortheirengagementinresourceparOOoning,exploiOngdifferentareaswithinahabitattoreducedirectcompeOOonbetweenspecies. Damselflynymphshavethreetailswhicharelongfeatherygillsextendingfromtheirabdomen.LikedragonfliestheyprefersloworsOllwater,buttheyarenotgoodswimmersand

arefoundonvegetaOonorstreamboeoms.Possessingthesamemouthpartsasdragonflies,theypreyonotherinsects.AdultsholdtheirwingsverOcally. DamselanddragonflynymphsarefacultaOvespecies.NinespeciesofOdonataareontherareanimallist.[incompletemetamorphosis,nymphs,nopupae]

Dragonflynymph(MargieHunter)

TrueBugs(OrderHemiptera)Truebugshavealongslenderbeakforpiercing-suckingandonlyparOallyhardenedforewings.Insectsthatremainonthesurface,breathfromthesurface,ortakesurfaceairunderwaterarenotassuscepObletowaterqualityanddon’tplayaroleinwaterqualityassessments.[incompletemetamorphosis,nymphstage,nopupalstage] WaterStriders--Tinyhairsontheirlegsrepelwaterandholdair,whichallowsWaterStriderstoskateacrossthewater’ssurfacetension.Theyeatotherinsects. WaterBoatmen--Theirflaeenedandoblongshapecombinedwithlonghindlegsshapedlikeoarsfacilitatesmovementinpondsandslowstreams.Theyfeedonplantsandalgae,swimrightsideup,carryanairbubblewhenunderwater,andareomenconfusedwithBackswimmers. Backswimmers--InthesamehabitatasWaterBoatmen,Backswimmershavelargeeyesandswimupsidedown(ontheirbacks)usingtheirlonghindlegslinedwithhairs.TheyfeedonotheraquaOcinsects.Tosubmerge,theytrapairbubblesattheOpoftheirabdomen.High

concentraOonoxygenstreamswillinfuseO2intothebubbleallowingthebeetletostaydownlonger.Inlowerqualitywater,itmustsurfacemoreomen. WaterScorpions--Slendertonarrowlyovalinshape,WaterScorpionshavelargefrontlegstograsppreywhichcanincludesmallfishandamphibians.Theyhideamongsubmergedplantsinthelieoralzone.Along,snorkel-likebreathingtubeattheOpoftheabdomengivesthemaccesstoairatthewater’ssurface.

Crustaceans(ClassMalacostraca) Sowbug--Relatedtoterrestrialpillbugsorroly-polys,aquaOcsowbugshaveasimilarplatestructure.Asomnivores,theyfeedonplantandanimaldebrisattheboeomorbenthiczoneofpondsandstreamsandarefacultaOvespecies. Crayfish--Animportantpreyspecies,crayfisharevitaltotheenergyflowinaquaOcsystems.TheyareconsideredfacultaOve.

Worms(PhylumAnnelida)Mostwormspeciesaretolerantofpoorwaterquality. Planarians--Freeliving,theseflatwormshavelightsensiOveeyespots.Theyfeedondetritus,diatoms,orinvertebratesandliveunderlogs,rocks,orleavesinpondsandstreams. Leeches--MostleechesparasiOzevertebrateorganismslikefrogs,fish,turtles,birds,mammals,releasinganestheOcastheycutthroughtheskintosuckblood.TheyprefersOll,warm,shallowwaterwithshelteringplantsanddebris. AquaOcWorms--CloserelaOvesofterrestrialearthworms,aquaOcspecieseatdebris,bacteria,diatoms(algae,phytoplankton),etc.,inthebenthiczone.Smallerthanterrestrialearthworms,aquaOcwormsaerateandprocesssoilliketheirearth-boundrelaOves. HorsehairWorms--Longandverythin,theadultHorsehairWormlivesandlayseggsinwater.Insects,suchascrickets,grasshoppers,beetles,cockroachesandothers,ingesttheOny,larvae,perhapsonfoliageorinthewater.Theparasitedevelopsinsidethehostandeventuallykillsit,butforcesittoreturntowaterbeforedeath,placingtheadultworminitsproperhabitat.TheyaresomeOmescalledGordianWormsfortheknotsintowhichtheycanOethemselves.

Primarymacroinvertebratesources:(fullbibliographicalinformaOoninsecOonIV.Resources) TennesseeWildlifeResourcesAgencypresentaOon GuidetoAquaGcInsects&Crustaceans,IzaakWaltonLeagueofAmerica EcoSpark--hep://www.ecospark.ca/changingcurrents

III. GeneralConserva8onandManagement

ThreatsfromDams,Channeliza8on,Pollu8on,andDevelopment Throughoutthestate’shistory,Tennessee’swatershavebornethebruntofagriculturalandindustrialchangesinthelandscape--drainingorfillingofwetlandsforagriculture,deforestaOonforfarmlandandOmberharvesOng,riverchannelizaOon,andindustrialminingofvariousmineralssuchasironore,coal,lead,zinc,copper,manganese,andphosphate.AllledtomassivesedimentaOonandpolluOonthatdevastatedaquaOchabitatsandorganisms. Acrossthestate,rivershavebeendammedforpowergeneraOon,floodcontrol,andwaterstorage.AlongtheTennesseeRiver,TVAbuiltdamsfromthelate1930sthroughthe1970s.TheU.S.ArmyCorpsofEngineersconstructeddamsontheCumberlandRiverfromthe1940sthroughthe1960s.Asaresult,theseimpoundmentsfragmenttheriversandalterstreamflowregimesandwaterquality.However,segmentsdoremainasriverinehabitatabovemostreservoirs. Tailwaterscomprisetheriversegmentsbelowdamsandotherwatercontrolstructures.ThesesecOonscanexperiencesignificantlyalteredstreamflows,whichnegaOvelyaffecthabitatsandwaterquality.ThecomposiOonandpopulaOonsofaquaOcspeciesinsomeinstancesaregreatlyreducedoreveneliminated.DamoperaOonsaffectfishhabitatandpopulaOonsduetorapidwaterlevelandflowfluctuaOons.ShorelinevegetaOonpresentwhenreservoirswerefirstimpoundedhavedecayed,andaquaOcplantsareunabletoestablishinchangingwaterlevels.Waterqualitysuffersaswell. InthenineteenthandtwenOethcenturies,severalriverswerechannelizedtostraightentheircoursesandreducefloodingonagriculturallands,parOcularlyinWestTennessee.Thisprocessledtofastercurrents,deeperchannelcuts,lessstablebanks,lossofhabitat,andpoorwaterquality.ChannelizedstreamsmoveagreateramountofsedimentresulOnginsignificantchangesfurtherdownstreamthatcancontributetomoreflooding. Today,sedimentaOon,polluOon(municipal,industrial,andagricultural),overexploitaOonofwildlifespecies,increasingdemandsonwatersupplies,sewersepOcsystems,otherwastewatertreatmentandsurfacerunoff,invasiveexoOcspecies,damoperaOons,populaOongrowthanddevelopment,habitatlossandfragmentaOon,andclimatechangeposeconOnuedorincreasingthreatstoTennesseewaters.

ManagementApproaches Managementcentersona“habitat-firststrategy”andlookstoreducethethreatsandprioriOzeconservaOonandrestoraOoneffortsinkeyorsensiOveecologicalsystemsthroughmulOpleapproaches,suchasin-streamflowrequirementsfordams.AgenciesstudythehabitatneedsandlifehistoriesoforganismsandgatherecologicaldatatoimprovedamoperaOonsforappropriatehabitatandspecieshealth.Otherapproachesincludedamremoval,minereclamaOon,propagaOoneffortsforendangeredandsportwildlifespecies,habitat

enhancement,establishmentofsustainabilitylevels,regulaOonrestricOons,andcontrolplansfornuisancespeciesanddiseases. AcOviOesthatthreatenwaterqualityorinvolvealteraOonofsurfacewaters,bothstreamsandwetlands,requireapermitandmayrequirecompensatorymiOgaOonandmonitoring.Wetlandsthataredestroyed,drainedorfilled,mustbereplacedataminimumraOooftwotoone.OthertypesofmiOgaOonincluderestoraOon,enhancement,creaOon,preservaOonorsomecombinaOon.Thequalityofthewetlandinvolved,replacementsitelocaOon,andotherfactorsdeterminethemiOgaOoneffortrequiredand/orreplacementraOo.

Non-na8veandInvasiveSpecies

ThroughfoodchaindisrupOons,voraciouspredaOon,orchokingmatformaOons,invasiveplantandanimalspeciesaffectaquaOcecosystemsindevastaOngways.Theseeffectsreachwellbeyondnaturalprocesses.FromrecreaOonalboaOngandfishingtomunicipalwatersupplysystemsandpowerprojects,invasivespeciescreateheadachesforgovernmentagenciesandprivateciOzens. ThespreadoftheseplantandanimalspeciesisnowescalaOngtonearepidemicproporOonsaspeopletransportgearandbaitgreaterdistances.Tocombattheproblem,extensivepublicrelaOonscampaignstargetboatersandanglers,whoareencouragedtothoroughlycleananddryallequipmentandclothingtoremoveanytraceofhitchhikingplantsororganismsandneverreleaselivebaitofanykindormovespeciesfromonebodyofwatertoanother.TheseprecauOonsareparOcularlyimportantwhenboaOngorfishingout-of-state.

Animals SilverCarp(AsianCarp)werereleasedasherbivoresforaninvasiveaquaOcplantintheMississippifloodplain,escapingintotheriverduringflooding.Theycanweighupto60poundseachandreproduceverysuccessfully.Theyareknownfortheirabilitytoleaphighoutofthewaterinfrenzieswhenfrightened,someOmecausinginjuriestopeoplenearby.TheyareediblebuthavemanyOnybones.AnotherinvasiveAsianspecies,BigheadCarp,hasthepotenOaltodisruptthefoodchainandisconsideredasignificantthreattonaOveecosystems. ZebraMusselsdonotrequireafishhostasnaOvemusselsdo.NeitherdoAsiaOcClams.Thesespeciessimplysquirttheiryoungintothewater.ZebraMusselsarethinshelledandareeatenbynaOvefishlikeBluegill,buttheypossessthepotenOaltooverwhelmaquaOccommuniOes. Inthelate1920s,non-naOveAsiaOcClamswereintroducedinCaliforniainaquariumsand.Ittookthespeciesabout40yearstoshowupinTennessee.TheyarenowwidespreadinthestateandareparOcularlyinvasiveincalciumrichwaters.AsiaOcClamshaveahardershell,butcertainfishes,suchasDrums,suckthemupandspitouttheshell.WarmerwaterandfishpredatorsmayhelpkeeptheirpopulaOonsincheckhere. OtherproblemaOcspeciesincludeBlackCarp(athreattonaOvemussels),BluebackRiverHerring,NewZealandMudSnail(displacingnaOvetroutfood),RoundGoby(competewith

darters),Rudd,Ruffe,Snakeheads(anaquariumspeciesandvoraciouspredatorofnaOvefish),andSwampEels(anotherpredatorupse{ngcommunitybalance).Parasitesanddiseasesarealsospreading.

Plants Non-naOveaquaOcplantscanquicklyoverrunallotherspeciesofthelieoralzoneandfreefloaOngspeciescanformnearlyimpenetrablematsofvegetaOon,chokingoutplantandanimallifeinthewater.Non-naOveplantsandanimalsareomenintroducedwhenpeopledumpaquariumspeciesintoriversandlakes.Hydrilla,WatermilfoilorParrotFeather,andBrazilianElodeaorWaterweedareamongtheplantspecieswhoseintroducOonsarelikelytraceabletohomeaquariums. Otherspecieshavebeengrownforornamentalpurposes,likeWaterHyacinth,PurpleLoosestrife,orYellowIris.UnintenOonalintroducOonsincludeWater-moss(Salviniamolesta),CurlyPondweed(Potamogetoncrispus),Watercress(RorippanasturGum-aquaGcum),andDidymoalgae(Didymospheniageminata)whichdramaOcallyalterwatersystemsandthewildlifedependentonthem.TerrestrialspecieslikeChinesePrivet(Ligustrumsinense)omenoverrunripariancorridorsdisplacingthewidevarietyofnaOvespeciesinthesehabitats.

Control Effortstocontrolbothplantandanimalinvasivespeciesareexpensive,Ome-consuming,andfraughtwithcollateraldamagetotheenvironment,parOcularlyinaquaOcsystems.MostchemicalmeasuresarejustastoxictonaOvespeciesandmayaffectawiderangeofnon-targetorganisms.IntheGreatSmokyMountains,successfuleffortstorestorenaOveBrookTrouttomanyofthestreamsmustbeprecededbyecologicallydrasOcmeasurestoremoveintroducedEuropeanBrownandwesternRainbowTroutthatoutcompetethesmallernaOvefish. Therecentmassdie-offofAsianCarpintheCumberlandRiverbelowLakeBarkleydamisprompOngofficialstolookforabiologicalcause,perhapsbacterialorviral.Newresearchavenuesininvasivespeciescontrolfocusesonin-depthunderstandingoftheorganism’slifehistorytofindpotenOalweaknessesandaneffecOvemeansofintroducingatargetedcontrolopOonselectedforthatparOcularorganism.ReadmoreaboutthesestudiesattheU.S.GeologicalSurveyWebpage:hep://www.umesc.usgs.gov/aquaOc/tools_to_control_carp_mussels.html

TennesseeWatersConserva8on:WhatYouCanDo

AllTennesseeresidentscantakethesesmallbutimportantstepstomaintaincleanandhealthyaquaOcsystems.

• recyclemotoroil• usenon-phosphatelaundrydetergent• leaveabufferzoneofatleast25to50feetalongacreekorstreamwhenmowing

• plantappropriatenaOvevegetaOoninthebufferzoneforshadeandstabilizaOon• minimizeoreliminatepesOcides,herbicides,andferOlizers• washcarsonthegrass• donotdumpanythinginastream• leavenaturalwoodydebrisforaquaOcorganismhabitatandfood• removealltrashandlieer• donotchangethecourseofastream• plantaraingarden• keeplivestock(manure)outofstreamsandpickuppetdroppings• volunteerforGreatAmericanClean-upandlocalstreamdays• carpoolorusepublictransportaOon• protectstormdrains

WaterUse Cleanwatershouldneverbetakenforgranted.Strivetoconservewaterwheneverpossible.

• Turningoffthewaterwhilebrushingteethsavesasmuchassixgallonsofwater.• Aten-minuteshoweruses50gallons.Takeafive-minuteshowerinstead.• ReplaceoldertoiletorshowerfixtureswithlowflowalternaOvesandfixanyleaks

promptly.Aleakyorrunningtoiletcanwaste70gallonsaday.• Rundishwashersorwashingmachineswithfullloads.• Useabucketandspongetowashcars.Itsaves100gallonsoverconOnuallyrunningthe

hose.• Useabroomratherthanwatertocleanasidewalkordriveway.• Collectroofrunoffinrainbarrelsforwateringlandscapeplants.• ChoosenaOvexericordroughttolerantlandscapeplants,andgroupthemaccordingto

theirmoistureneedstoreducesupplementalwatering.MulchingwithleavesorotherorganicmaterialsslowsevaporaOonofgroundmoisture.Whenwateringthelandscape,dosodeeplyandinfrequentlytoencouragedeepgrowthofroots.WaterduringearlymorninghourstominimizeevaporaOonfromheatandwind.

• ConsideragreywatercollecOonsystem.

Primarymanagementandinvasivespeciessources: Tennessee’sComprehensiveWildlifeConservaOonStrategy,TWRA,Sept.2005 TennesseeAquaOcNuisanceSpeciesManagementPlan,TennesseeAquaOcNuisance SpeciesTaskForce,TWRA,Feb.2008 TennesseeWildlifeResourcesAgencyStrategicPlan2014-2020 Tennessee’sWetlandRegulatoryProgram,TDECDiv.ofWaterPolluOonControl

IV.Resources

AGuidetoCommonFreshwaterInvertebratesofNorthAmerica J.ReeseVoshell,Jr.,McDonald&WoodwardPublishing,2002QuickGuidetoMajorGroupsofFreshwaterInvertebrates J.ReeseVoshell,Jr.,McDonald&WoodwardPublishing,2009GuidetoAquaGcInsects&Crustaceans IzaakWaltonLeagueofAmerica,StackpoleBooks,2006PondLife(aGoldenGuide) GeorgeReid,St.MarOn’sPress,2001TheFishesofTennessee DavidA.EtnierandWayneC.Starnes,UniversityofTennesseePress,1993TheFreshwaterMusselsofTennessee PaulW.ParmaleeandArthurE.Bogan,UniversityofTennesseePress,1998

StatePublica8ons

TWRAStrategicPlan2014-2020 hep://www.state.tn.us/twra/pdfs/twrastratplan.pdf

TennesseeComprehensiveWildlifeConservaOonStrategy,Sept.2005,TWRA hep://www.state.tn.us/twra/cwcs/tncwcs2005.pdf

TennesseeAquaOcNuisanceSpeciesManagementPlan,TennesseeAquaOcNuisanceSpeciesTaskForce,TWRA,Feb.2008 hep://www.anstaskforce.gov/State%20Plans/More/Tnplanfinal.pdf

Internet

TennesseeWildlifeResourcesAgency--hep://www.tn.gov/twraManyonlineresourcessuchas“TheAngler’sGuidetoTennesseeFish,IncludingAquaOcNuisanceSpecies”

TennesseeDepartmentofEnvironmentandConservaOon,NaturalAreas “RareandEndangeredAnimalListofTennessee”includingallaquaOcfaunalspecies hep://www.tn.gov/environment/natural-areas/data.shtml

StateDesignatedScenicRivers hep://www.tn.gov/environment/natural-areas/scenic-rivers.shtml

WaterResourcesofTennessee--hep://tn.water.usgs.gov/ USGSsitewithwaterquality,flood,streamflowandotherdata GroundwaterAtlasoftheU.S.(forTennessee)--hep://pubs.usgs.gov/ha/ha730/ch_k/

ProtectYourWaters--CampaigntostopaquaOchitchhikers hep://protectyourwaters.net/

USDANaOonalAgriculturalLibraryNaOonalInvasiveSpeciesInformaOonCenter AquaOcSpecies--hep://www.invasivespeciesinfo.gov/aquaOcs/main.shtml FreshwaterGastropodsofNorthAmerica-Tennessee hep://www.fwgna.org/FWGTN/

EcoSpark--hep://www.ecospark.ca/changingcurrentsCanadiannonprofitpromoOngeducaOonforposiOveenvironmentchange.ChangingCurrentsfocusesonteacherandstudenteducaOonregardingstreammonitoring.DetailedinformaOononaquaOcinvertebratesunder“LearnYourBenthics!”

Organiza8ons

BooneWatershedPartnership--hep://boonewatershed.com/CoalCreekWatershedFoundaOon--hep://www.coalcreekaml.com/CumberlandRiverCompact--hep://cumberlandrivercompact.org/FrenchBroadRiverkeeper--hep://www.riverlink.org/GarnerLakeAssociaOon--hep://www.garnerlake.com/HarpethRiverWatershedAssociaOon--hep://www.harpethriver.org/HiwasseeRiverWatershedCoaliOon--hep://www.hrwc.net/LieleRiverWatershedAssociaOon--hep://www.lieleriverwatershed.org/NorthChickamaugaCreekConservancy--hep://northchick.org/RedRiverWatershedAssociaOon--hep://www.redriverwatershed.org/RichlandCreekWatershedAlliance--hep://richlandcreekwatershedalliance.org/StonesRiverWatershedAssociaOon--hep://stoneswatershed.org/wordpress/SwanConservaOonLandTrust--hep://www.swantrust.org/TennesseeCleanWaterNetwork--hep://tcwn.org/TennesseeIzaakWaltonLeague--hep://www.tnike.com/TennesseeRiverGorgeTrust--hep://www.trgt.org/TennesseeScenicRiversAssociaOon--hep://www.paddletsra.org/WolfRiverConservancy--hep://www.wolfriver.org/

V.ReviewQues8ons

1. LenOcwatersystemsareassociatedwith a.swimmountainheadwaterstreams b.lakes c.groundwater d.awatershed’slargestriver

2.Thelieoralzoneinapondislocated a.onthemuddyboeom b.indeepwaterwherelightdoesnotpenetrate c.alongtheshallowwatermargins d.justbelowthewater’ssurface

3.Twoimportanthabitatsinsmallerstreamsare a.rifflesandpools b.nektonandpleuston c.hyporheicandbenthiczones d.marshesandswamps

4.Bogsandfensaretwotypesof a.watersnakes b.‘mire’orquagmire c.damtailwaters d.vernalpools

5.Aquifersholdwaterin a.claysoil b.peatbeds c.treeroots d.permeablerocks

6.WhichisnotafuncOonofwetlands? a.filterpollutants b.rechargeundergroundaquifers c.impoundwaterforelectricalgeneraOon d.floodmiOgaOon

7.Whichfeatureisfoundinallfishgroups? a.bonyskeleton b.gills c.adiposefin d.pairedpectoralfins

8.InstreamorderclassificaOon a.first-orderstreamsareheadwaterstreamswithnotributaries b.afirst-orderstreamjoiningasecond-orderstreammakesathird-orderstream c.largeriversaren’tclassified d.theTennesseeRiverisconsideredasecond-orderstream

9.SmokyMadtoms a.aresmallcanishes b.weredeliberatelyexOrpatedfromAbramsCreekinthe1950s c.live150years d.bothaandb

10.ThislargefishspeciessufferedsteeppopulaOondeclineswhen,amongotherindigniOes,itwasburnedforfuelonriverboats. a.SilverLamprey b.LakeSturgeon c.SnailDarter d.LargemouthBass

11.Crayfishburrowsfeaturemoundsofsoilcalled a.mountains b.ovens c.chimneys d.crawdadhills

12.MacroinvertebratesfoundinandnearstreamsfallintofuncOonalfeedinggroupsthatinclude a.shredders,collectors,browsers,herders b.grazers,cueers,filterers,herders c.grazers,cueers,herders,shredders d.collectors,grazers,shredders,filterers

13.WaterPenniesaresensiOveaquaOcorganismsthatneedgoodqualitywaterbecause a.theytakeanairbubbleunderwaterwiththem b.theyeatotheraquaOcmacroinvertebrates c.theyabsorboxygenthroughgillsundertheirabdomens d.theyliveontheboeomoflargerivers

14.TomiOgatethenegaOveeffectsofdamsonhabitatandriverinespecies,onemanagementapproachisto a.setwaterreleaseandflowrequirementsindamoperaOons b.channelizetheriverdownstream c.stockreservoirswithlake-adaptedspecies d.buildmanysmalldamsonsmallerstreams

15.Twotypesofspiral-shelledaquaOcsnailsare a.pouchsnailsandlimpets b.limpetsandgilledsnails c.pouchsnailsandgilledsnails d.limpetsandbivalves

16.Babymussels,calledglochidia,mustparasiOze_______forseveraldaysorweekstomature. a.frogs b.fishes c.aquaOcturtles d.crayfish

17.Matchthetermspond,lake,stream,orrivertothefollowingdescripOons.

______--small,flowingbodyofwater,omenonsteepslopes,withfastercurrentsinaseriesofshallowrifflesinterspersedwithdeeperpools,boeomtypicallystony

______--quietbodyofwateromenshallowenoughforrootedplantsthroughout,boeomusuallymuddy,watertemperaturechangingwithairtemperature

______--wide,slow,anddeepmeanderingwatercourse,rifflesandpoolsgenerallyabsent,sedimentsontheboeom

______--largebodyofwaterdeeperinmiddle,possiblewaveacOononshore,rootedplantsalongmarginsonly,morestablewatertemperatureformingcolderlayersatlowerdepthsinsummer,nolightpenetraOonatboeom,photosynthesisonlynearsurface

18.AneffecOvelyfuncOoningriparianhabitata.servesasaforagingdispersalcorridorb.providesdiversebreedingmicrohabitatsforavarietyofspeciesc.hasadequatetreecovertoshadeandcoolwaterd.alloftheabove

19.StreamqualityevaluaOonexaminestheEPTCountwhichstandsfora.Ephemeroptera(mayflies),Plecoptera(stoneflies),andTrichoptera(caddisflies)b.Erosion(streambank),Plants(streamcover),andTopography(streamcourse)c.Energy(waterflow),PrecipitaOon(annualrainfall),Terra(soiltype)

20.WhichisnotamajorwatershedinTennessee?a.CumberlandRiverdrainageb.ConasaugaRiverdrainagec.MississippiRiverdrainaged.NolichuckyRiverdrainage

21. Macroinvertebratesareasignofgoodqualitywaterwhen a.sensiOveorpolluOonintolerantspeciesarepresent b.awidevarietyofspeciesarepresent c.whenmostofthefuncOonalfeedinggroupsarepresent d.alloftheabove

22.CumberlandMonkeyface,PurpleWartyback,ThreeRidge,TennesseePigtoe,Washboard,andBirdwingPearlyarespeciesof

a.clamsb.fishc.musselsd.snails

23.Regardinghabitat,mostfishes a.aregeneralistsandcansurviveinanyaquaOcenvironment b.needshallowwaterwithastonyboeom c.cangulpairatthesurfaceandsurvivelowoxygencondiOons d.expressapreferenceforoneortwobasichabitattypes

24.Whatisawatershed?a.Anareaoflandboundedbyridgesinwhichstreamsflowintocommonlargerwaterbodies(lakes,rivers)b.Anareaoflandboundedbymountains.c.Asmallbuildingwherewatersuppliesarestoredforlateruse.d.Asmallareacoveredbywaterthatflowsintolargerwaterbodies(lakes,rivers)

25.Bigmusselscanfilterupto____gallonsofwateraday. a.25 b.50 c.75 d.100

26.WaterStridersareabletoskateonthewater’ssurfacebecauseof a.theirlightweight b.Onyleghairsthatrepelwaterandholdair c.flatbodyshape d.pontoonfeet

27.Onemajordifferencebetweendamselflyanddragonflynymphsis a.dragonflynymphsareOnyandwormlike b.dragonflynymphshavealongsnorkel-liketailtobreatheatthesurface c.damselflynymphshavethreelongfeathery‘tails’whicharegills d.damselflynymphshavepiercing-suckingmouthparts

28.Tennessee’srichfishfaunacanbeaeributedto a.numerousdamsandreservoirs b.anglersintroducingnon-naOvespecies c.prisOnewaterineveryriverandstream d.diversegeologicalhistoryandgeographicallandforms

29.Instreamsthatarerichwithavarietyoffishspecies,goodpopulaOonsof________speciesarealsoverylikelytobefound. a.mussel b.clam c.caddisfly d.crayfish

30.Whatisasourceofnon-naOveplantoranimalintroducOonstoTennessee’sriversandstreams? a.boatsandequipmentthathavenotbeenproperlycleaned b.livebaitrelease c.homeaquariums d.alloftheabove

AnswerKey:1.b 2.c 3.a 4.b 5.d 6.c 7.b 8.a 9.d 10.b11.c 12.d 13.c 14.a 15.c 16.b 17.stream,pool,river,lake18.d 19.a 20.d 21.d 22.c 23.d 24.a 25.b 26.b 27.c28.d 29.a 30.d

AppendixA

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