teacher’s guide to cultural findings at meadowcroft ...€¦ · teacher’s guide to cultural...

of36FirstPeoples:ArchaeologyatMeadowcroftRockshelterFirstPeoples:ArchaeologyatMeadowcroftRockshelterTeacher’sGuidetoCulturalFindings

Teacher’sGuidetoCulturalFindingsatMeadowcroftRockshelterAComponentofFirstPeoples:ArchaeologyatMeadowcroftRockshelter

Contentforexploringthetechnologies,occupationpatterns,culturalperiods,andimplicationsofexaminingthelivesoftheFirstPeoplesatMeadowcroftRockshelter

ThisprojectisgenerouslysupportedbytheClaudeWorthingtonBenedumFoundation

ContentsTeachingCulturalFindings...........................................................................................................................3

IntersectionofCulturalFindingswithFirstPeoplesThemes.......................................................................4

CulturalFindingsGigaPanInquiry............................................................................................................5

MajorTermsandConcepts......................................................................................................................6

PrehistoricTechnologyatMeadowcroft......................................................................................................7

LithicArtifactsfromMeadowcroftRockshelterandtheCrossCreekDrainage.......................................8

PerishableArtifactsfromMeadowcroftRockshelter...............................................................................9

CeramicsFromMeadowcroftRockshelter...............................................................................................1

AdditionalInquiryforExploringPrehistoricTechnologiesatMeadowcroftRockshelter......................13

CulturalPeriodsRepresentedatMeadowcroftRockshelter......................................................................15

Paleo-Indian(pre-10,000B.P.)...............................................................................................................16

ArchaicPeriod(10,000B.P.to3000B.P.)..............................................................................................18

WoodlandPeriod(3000to450B.P.)......................................................................................................21

HistoricPeriod(450B.P.toPresent)......................................................................................................23

AdditionalInquiryforExploringCulturalPeriodsatMeadowcroftRockshelter....................................24

GeneralCharacteristicsofSiteUtilization..................................................................................................26

AdditionalInquiryforExploringSiteVisitation......................................................................................29

CulturalSignificanceofMeadowcroftRockshelter....................................................................................31

DisputingClovisFirstTheories...............................................................................................................32

MeadowcroftandThePeoplingofNorthAmerica................................................................................33

Conclusion..............................................................................................................................................34

AdditionalInquiryforExploringtheCulturalSignificanceofMeadowcroftRockshelter.......................35

Bibliography...............................................................................................................................................36

of36FirstPeoples:ArchaeologyatMeadowcroftRockshelterTeacher’sGuidetoCulturalFindings

TeachingCulturalFindings

Artifacts, features, and contexts are the product of archaeological excavation. During excavation,archaeologistsremovematerialslowlysothattheycandocumentthecontextsofanyevidence,creatingamapoftheoccupationalfloorofthesite.Theycreateamapforeachsubsequentfloortheyencounter.AtMeadowcroft,thisresultedinatleast11occupationalfloormaps:oneforeverystratigraphiclayer.Usingthelawsofsuperposition(thatoldestisdeepestandnewestisuppermost);archaeologistsestablishasequenceorchronologyofculturalactivityatthesite.Relativeandscientificdatingmethodssupportthe chronology. By analyzing artifacts, features and contexts as they occur throughout time(stratigraphy),archaeologistscanbegintointerprettheculturalsignificanceofthesite.

ForthepurposesoftheFirstPeoplescurriculum,the“CulturalFindings”themedifferentiatesbetweenrawarchaeological data andmore conclusive interpretations about the people atMeadowcroft. Forinformation about the excavation process and methodologies, visit the First Peoples Archaeologymaterials.

The essays below will help educators understand the classification of prehistoric technology atMeadowcroftandtheculturalsequenceasbasedonstratigraphyandradiocarbondating.Lateressayselaborateon thegeneral characteristicsof visitation toMeadowcroftRockshelter and,ultimately, theculturalsignificanceofthesite. TheseessaysarealldrawnfromtheoriginalorsubsequentpublishedworksbyMeadowcroft’smulti-disciplinaryresearchteam.Manyareavailableonlyinprintfromthroughconferenceproceedingsthataredifficulttoprocureoutsideofacademiclibraries.Forthisreason,theyaretranscribedorparaphrasedbelow.Acompletelistofreferencescitedandconsultedislistedinthebibliography.

IntersectionofCulturalFindingswithFirstPeoplesThemesThetablebelowsummarizeshowtheCulturalFindingsthemeoftheFirstPeoples:ArchaeologyatMeadowcroftRocksheltercurriculumcanbeusedtoexplorevariousacademicdisciplines.Archaeologyisincludedsinceitteachestheprocessbywhichculturalevidenceisrecovered.

CulturalFindingsInquiryinFirstPeoples:ArchaeologyatMeadowcroftRockshelter Science History Environmentand

EcologyGeography Technologyand

EngineeringCulturalFindings

Elevennaturallyoccurringstrata(geology)and52radiocarbonassaysindicateacontinuoushumanpresenceatMeadowcroftover16,000years.

AllknownNew-WorldculturalperiodsarerepresentedatMeadowcroft.Archaeologicalevidenceexplainshowthesecultureschangedovertimeandthesignificanceofthesechanges.

TheabundantnaturalresourcesandarelativelystableclimateresultedincontinuousbutintermittenthumanuseofMeadowcroftover16,000years.Prehistoricpeoplesadaptedtominorclimaticepisodesandmodifiedtheiractivityatthesitebasedontheseasons.

Throughout16,000years,humanshavemodifiedtheCrossCreekwatershedtomeettheirevolvingneedsandinresponsetochangingenvironments.

Prehistoricpeopleadaptednewtechnologiesandpracticesinresponsetonaturalandculturalevolution.

Archaeology Althoughoftengroupedwithsocialsciences,archaeologyusesscientificmethodologyandprocedurestounderstandthelivesofhumansinthepast.AttritionofthesandstonecliffanddepositionofsedimentscreatedthestratigraphyofMeadowcroftRockshelter(geology).Radiocarbonassaywasusedtoscientificallydate

Thepurposeofarchaeologicalinvestigationistorevealpatternsabouthumancultureoverperiodsoftime.

Geofactsandecofactscontributeevidencetothestudyofarchaeology,particularlyregardingtheavailabilityofnaturalresourcesandhumanresponsetoenvironmentalconditions.

Geographycontributesevidenceaboutthemovementofhumansthroughthelandscape,resourcedistribution,humancharacteristicsofthelandscape,andtheinteractionsbetweenpeopleandtheenvironment.

ArchaeologicalevidenceandstratigraphycanbeusedtodemonstratehowprehistorictechnologiesandpracticeschangedovertimeatMeadowcroft.FieldSchoolsatMeadowcroftinthe1970sutilizedearlycomputertechnologiesinthesystematicorganizationofdataduringtheexcavation.

culturalevidenceatthesite.

CulturalFindingsGigaPanInquiryTheFirstPeoplesCulturalFindingsGigaPanExplorationsdemonstratesomeoftheobjectivesforthiscurriculumandstatespossibleindicatorsofmastery.

Gradeband

ObjectivesStudentswill...

IndicatorsofMasteryStudentswillbeableto...

11th-12thGrades

• EvaluatethemethodsusedforestablishingachronologyatMeadowcroft

• AnalyzeandEvaluateculturalpatternsofcontinuityandchangeovertimeatMeadowcroftRockshelter

• Evaluatetheculturalimplicationsof

artifacts,features,andotherdatafromMeadowcroft

• EvaluatetheimpactofartifactsanddatafromMeadowcroftRockshelteronthestudyofarchaeologyintheUnitedStatesandtheworld

• DemonstratehowarchaeologistsatMeadowcroftusedrelativeandscientificdatingtodocumenttheculturalsequence;giveexamplesofhowstratigraphyandradiocarbondatessupportthesequence;evaluatethevalueofthismethodology

• Explainnuancesintheartifactrecordandstratigraphythatevidencecontinuityandchange;drawinferencesaboutoccupationalpatternsandsiteuseovertime.

• EvaluatethesignificanceofPre-Clovisfindings;explainhowtheseresultedinarethinkingofpeoplingtheories

• EvaluateMeadowcroft’ssignificanceinprehistoricAmericanarchaeology

8th-10thGrades

• DescribethemethodsusedforestablishingachronologyatMeadowcroft

• DescribeandEvaluateculturalpatternsofcontinuityandchangeovertimeatMeadowcroftRockshelter

• Describetheculturalimplicationsof

artifacts,features,andotherdatafromMeadowcroft

• EvaluatetheimpactofartifactsanddatafromMeadowcroftRockshelteronthestudyofarchaeologyintheUnitedStatesandtheworld

• ConductresearchonMeadowcroft

Rockshelterusingathesisstatementanddemonstrateuseofappropriatesources

• DemonstratehowarchaeologistsatMeadowcroftusedrelativeandscientificdatingtodocumenttheculturalsequence;giveexamplesofhowstratigraphyandradiocarbondatessupportthesequence.

• Explainnuancesintheartifactrecordand

stratigraphythatevidencecontinuityandchange;drawinferencesaboutoccupationalpatternsandsiteuseovertime.

• ExplainhowthediscoveryoftheMiller

complexupsetClovistheories

• EvaluatethesignificanceofPre-Clovisfindings;explainhowtheseresultedinarethinkingofpeoplingtheories

• ExplainMeadowcroft’ssignificanceinprehistoricAmericanarchaeology

5th-7thGrades

• RecognizethatrelativeandscientificdatingmethodsareusedtosupportthechronologyoflifeatMeadowcroft

• RecognizethattechnologycanbeusedtounderstandcontinuityandchangebetweenculturalperiodsatMeadowcroft

• Describehowthelocationofartifactswithinasitecanhelparcheologistsunderstandthetimewhentheywereused;recognizethattheoldestartifactsaredeepest

• IdentifyMeadowcroftRockshelterasasignificantprehistoricculturalsite

• ExplaintheculturalsequenceatMeadowcroftandgiveexamplesofhowrelativeorscientificdatingcontributetothissequence

• Identifyexamplesoftechnologyandexplain

howtheycorrespondtoculturalcontinuityorchange

• DescribetheageoftheMillerlanceolatepointbasedonitslocationatMeadowcroft;explaintheculturalsignificanceofthepoint

• DescribewhyMeadowcroftRockshelteris

asignificantprehistoricculturalsite

K-4thGrades

• RecognizethatpeoplewholivedatMeadowcroftinthepasthadthesamebasicneedsaspeopletoday

• Recognizethatartifactsandfeaturesareevidenceofprehistoricculturalgroups

• IdentifyanddescribehowgeographyandclimatehaveinfluencedcontinuityandchangeovertimeatMeadowcroft

• Recognizethatarchaeologistsusethe

locationofartifactsinasitetodescribehowoldtheyare

• RecognizethatMeadowcroftRockshelterisaprehistoricarchaeologicalsiteinPennsylvania

• DescribehowprehistoricpeopleusedtheRockshelter;giveanexampleofculturalevidencethatshowsanactivityrelatedtofoodacquisition

• Describeanartifactandtellhowitwasusedandgiveanexampleofafeatureandthetypeofactivityitrepresents

• DescribetheenvironmentoftheCross

Creekwatershed;identifytwospeciesthatarefoundinthePaleo-andmodernenvironmentatMeadowcroft

• IdentifytheMillerlanceolatepointastheoldestartifactfromMeadowcroftbecauseitisdeepestinthesite

• IdentifyMeadowcroftRockshelteranddescribeitasaprehistoricarchaeologicalsiteinPennsylvania

MajorTermsandConceptsScatteredthroughoutthecurriculumguideandGigaPanexplorationaretermshighlightedinbold.Theseincludekeyvocabularyterms,concepts,anditemsofsignificance.Teacherscanincorporatethetermsinvocabularyandspellinglists.

Terms Concepts/Theories IdentificationSignificanceAssemblageBasketry

LawofSuperpositionContinuityandChange

MeadowcroftRockshelterWoodlandPeriod

CeramicsLithicsPerishablesRadiocarbonDatingSequenceStratigraphyTechnology

ScientificandRelativeDatingPeoplingTheories:ClovisFirstTheorySolutreanhypotheses

ArchaicPeriodPaleo-IndianPeriodClovisPre-ClovisMillerComplex

PrehistoricTechnologyatMeadowcroft

MeadowcroftRocksheltercontainscriticalartifactsthatarchaeologistsusedtounderstandlifeatthesiteduringtheprehistoricoccupations.TheseartifactassemblagescanalsobeusedtocomparelifeatMeadowcrofttolifeatotherlocalarchaeologicalsites.ThreecategoriesofartifactswererecoveredfromMeadowcroft,includinglithics,perishables,andceramics.

Lithicanalysisisthestudyofstonetoolsusingscientifictechniques.Itseekstoexplainthemorphology,orform,oftheartifact,throughaninvestigationofphysicalattributesandfeatures.MeadowcroftRocksheltercontainedartifactsproducedthroughlithicreduction,ortheflaking/knappingofstone,andgroundstones,ortoolsmadethroughacombinationoftechniquesthatresultinhammers,mortars,axes,etc.Asizeableamountofdebitage(byproductsoflithicreduction)wasalsorecoveredfromthesite.

Perishabletechnologiesaretechnologiescreatedfromsofterorganicmaterialssuchaswood,fiber,andevenbone.PerishabletechnologieswerefoundineverystratumatMeadowcroft,includingsomeoftheearliestbasketryfragmentsinNorthAmerica.

GigaPanNotes

TheartifactsrecoveredfromMeadowcroftRockshelterwereremovedduringtheexcavationprocess.Atthecloseofeveryfieldschool,allrecoveredevidencewastakentothelaboratoriesforanalysis.Thereareafewexceptions;somemolluskshellsanddeerbonesremainvisibleinprofilesofthesite.AsyourstudentsexaminetheGigaPanimages,theywillnot“discover”anyartifacts.However,manyoftheinterestpointscontainphotographsormultimediathatwillsatisfystudentcuriosityaboutthe“stuff”.

UsetheCulturalEvidenceGigaMapintheCulturalFindingsGigaPanExplorationsGuidetolearnmore.

Ceramics,orvesselsmadefromclay,werefoundinsmallnumbersatMeadowcroft.However,thesefragmentsareamongtheearliestyetexcavatedintheUpperOhiovalley.

TogethertheprehistorictechnologiesatMeadowcroftsupporttheoriesofshort-termoccupationsoftheRockshelter,centeredontheacquisitionoffoodbynativepeoples.

LithicArtifactsfromMeadowcroftRockshelterandtheCrossCreekDrainageCompiledfromP.T.Fitzgibbons,J.Herbstritt,W.C.Johnson,andC.Robbins,“LithicArtifactsfromMeadowcroftRockshelterandtheCrossCreekDrainage,”inMeadowcroft:CollectedPapersontheArchaeologyofMeadowcroftRockshelterandtheCrossCreekDrainage.Pittsburgh:UniversityofPittsburghPress,1982.

LithicartifactscomprisethelargestartifactassemblagerecoveredfromMeadowcroftRockshelterandthearchaeologicalsurveysoftheCrossCreekvalley.Severaltypesoftoolswereclassifiedandanalyzed,includingprojectilepoints(pointsattachedtoaprojectilesuchasaspear,dart,orarrow,orusedasaknife),bifaces(implementsflakedonbothsides),unifaces(implementsflakedononeface),groundstoneartifacts,anddebitage.

Flakedorknappedtechnologies,includingtheMillerlanceolateprojectilepointandMungaiknife,aresomeofthemostrecognizablelithicsrecoveredfromMeadowcroft.Thesetoolswereintentionallyformedbyreducingalargerpieceofrawflint,chert,orothertypeofstonethroughstrikingorchippingaction.Theshapingisintentionalandreducestheinitialcoretoashapedesignedtoachieveaspecifictask.Theresultingchipsarereferredtoasdebitage.Atotalof2,498flakedstoneartifactsandca.22,840piecesofdebitagewererecoveredduringthe1973-78MeadowcroftProject.MeadowcroftRockshelteraloneyielded555flakedstoneartifactsandca.5,163piecesofdebitage(Fitzgibbons1982).

Archaeologistsperformedtwosetsofinterrelatedanalysesontheassemblage.Thefirstestablishedthetypologiesforallclassesofflakedstonetoolsanddebitage(e.g.projectilepoints,bifaces,blades,bifacialthinningflakes,etc.)throughattributeanalysis.Atypologyisaclassificationaccordingtogeneralcharacteristics,includingmorphology,measurements,andexistingfeatures;classesoftypologiesincludetools,productionanddebitagecategories.Thesecondtypeofanalysisattemptedtodevelopfunctionaltypologies,orexaminationsoftheuseofthetools,throughmicrowearexaminationofsurfaceandedgewearpatternsusingmagnification(from80Xmagnificationonthelowendto500Xmagnificationonthehighend).Functionaltypologiesexamineuse-wearpatterns,suchaspolishedareasordamagethatresultfromthetoolbeingused.

Basedontheanalyses,archaeologistsdeterminedthattheentirelithicassemblageatMeadowcroftappearstorepresenttheresultsofgenerallysmall,short-termoccupationswithrelativelylowartifactfrequenciesforeachsuccessiveoccupation.Thepresenceoffinishedartifactsanddebitageindicatethatpeopleweretransitory,meaningtheywerevisitingwithcompletetoolkitsforseasonalhuntingandfoodprocessing.

Theseindividualsleftabundantevidenceoflithictoolmaintenanceandrejuvenation(orresharpening)intheformofsecondaryandtertiaryflakingdebitage(smallflakesthatdemonstratethatapiecewasreworked).However,thereislittleevidencethatlithictoolsweremanufacturedatMeadowcroft,onlyfewcoresofchertandflintwerefound.Tomakealithictool,apersonbeginswithacoreandstrikesittoreducethematerialintothedesiredshape.Theseinitiallargeflakesarecalledprimaryflakingdebitage.LowfrequenciesofprimaryflakingdebitageandtherelativeabsenceofcoresorcorefragmentsindicatethatpeoplewerenotmakingtoolsatMeadowcroft.Archaeologistsdidrecoverbifacialthinningflakes,atypeofdebitagethatresultsfromthereductionofpreformsorblanks,indicatingthatpeoplebroughtunfinishedprojectstoworkon(justassomeonemightcarrytheirknittingwiththem).However,basedontheevidence,archaeologistsdeducedthatlithicmanipulationatMeadowcroftwasprimarilytherepairoftoolsusedduringfoodacquisition.

TheRocksheltercontainsoneofthemostsecurelydatedflakedstoneassemblagesintheNewWorldfromPaleo-IndianthroughLatePrehistorictimes.Whilesomelevelslack“typical”diagnosticartifacts,most(includingthelatestandearliest)docontainsometimemarker/indexartifactsthatcanbecorrelatedwithsimilar,datedspecimensfromothersites.Local,regional,andextra-regionalcomparisonsoftheMeadowcroftlithics,particularlythosefromStratumIIa,havebeenundertaken.Localcomparisonswithsitessuchas35WH351(amulticomponentlithicworkshoplocatedontheveryedgeoftheCrossCreekdrainage)revealedprehistoricculturalcontinuitieswithintheCrossCreekdrainage.36WH351hasproducedflutedpointsthatarenearlyidenticalduplicatedoftheMillerLanceolatepointfoundinMeadowcroftStratumIIa.Thesepoints,microbladecores,andmicrobladesindicatethattheStratumIIalithicsatMeadowcroftarenotrestrictedtothesite.

Similaranalyseswereconductedfortheflakedstoneartifactsfromthe236sitesrecordedintheCrossCreekdrainageduringthedrainagesurveys.AsatMeadowcroftRockshelter,alltimeperiodsofprehistoricoccupationarerepresentedatthesites.Ingeneral,thesesitesservedasshort-termhabitationorspecialactivityareas.TheyaresituatedinawidevarietyofgeographicandtopographicsettingsthatvaryfromuplandsandridgetopstotheCrossCreekfloodplain.

Last,atotalof12completeandfragmentarygroundstoneartifactswererecoveredfromMeadowcroftRockshelterandanadditional60-70suchspecimensfromseveralsitesintheCrossCreeksurvey.Groundstonetypicallyreferstoanytoolmadebyacombinationofflaking,pecking,pounding,grinding,drilling,orincising.Groundstonetechnologiescanbeassimpleasaroundcobbleusedasanuttingstone,orascomplicatedasamortarforholdingmaterialstobeground.AtMeadowcroft,groundstoneswereclassifiedaspittedcobblesandslabs,hammerstones,manos,celts,adzes,fullandthree-quarter-groovedaxes,gorgets,etc.Rawmaterialsusedinthemanufactureoftheseitemsincludelocallyavailablesandstoneandlimestoneaswellasexoticigneousandmetamorphicrocks(Fitzgibbons:1982,91-129).

PerishableArtifactsfromMeadowcroftRockshelterCompiledfromT.E.Stile,“PerishableArtifactsfromMeadowcroftRockshelter,WashingtonCounty,SouthwesternPennsylvania,”inMeadowcroft:CollectedPapersontheArchaeologyofMeadowcroftRockshelterandtheCrossCreekDrainage.Pittsburgh:UniversityofPittsburghPress,1982.

Ninety-onespecimensfromfourclassesofperishableartifactswererecoveredfromMeadowcroftRockshelter:basketry,cordage,modifiedwood,andmodifiedbone(Stile1982).Thoughscarcewhencomparedwiththenumbersoflithicartifacts,“perishables”occurinalloccupationalstrataatthesiteexceptinStratumIX,includingthelowestandearliestculturallevels.OnebasketryfragmentisfoundinStratumIIalower,oneinIIamiddle,andthreecarbonizedbasketryfragmentsderivefromStratumIIb.AportionofthefragmentfromStratumIIalowerwasradiocarbondatedto17,650±2400BC(19,600B.P.),makingthisararesurvivalofaPaleo-Indianbasket.TheremainingfragmentsareascribabletotheMiddletoLateArchaicandEarly/MiddleWoodlandoccupationsattheRockshelter.Allspecimensrepresentsimpleplaitinganappeartobeportionsofrectangularorcircularcontainers.

Basketryencompassesseveraldistincttypesofitems,includingrigidandsemi-rigidcontainersorbasketsproper,matting,andbags.Mattingincludesitemsthataretwo-dimensionalorflat,whilebasketsarethree-dimensional.Bagsareviewedasintermediateformsbecausetheyaretwo-dimensionalwhenemptyandthree-dimensionalwhenfilled.However,thetechniqueofmanufactureisthesameforbasketry,matting,andbags.Specifically,allformsaremanuallywovenwithoutanyframeorloom.Sinceallbasketryiswoven,itistechnicallyaclassoftextilealthoughthattermisusuallyrestrictedtoclothfabrics.

Thirteenbasketryfragmentswererecovered.Allappeartohavebeenmadeofacut,birch-likebark.Ineachspecimen,theplaitingstripsappeartohavebeencuttoequalsize.Thelargestfragmentappearstohavebeenasubstantialcontainer,withthefragmentmeasuring2feetX1foot2inches.Thebasketsweresimplyproducedbycuttingthematerialtosize,immersingitinwatertoensureflexibility,andthenplaitingit.Arimcouldbeproducedbyfoldingthematerialoverarodandthenlacingittothebodyofthebasket.Whenproperlywoven,plaitedbasketsofthistypecanbewatertightwithouttheadditionofpitchorresin.

Thebasketryfragmentsaredirectlyassociatedwithhackberryseeds,raspberriesandavarietyofnuts,suggestingthatthebasketswereusedforcollectingwildplantfoods.TheymayalsohavebeenusedtotransportfreshwatermusselsfromCrossCreekortheOhioRiver.Thelargefragmentdescribedaboveisnotdirectlyassociatedwithfoodstuffs,thoughitappearstobepartofacompletevesselthatcollapsedinuponitself.InsidethevesselareseveralpiecesoflimestonewhichmayoffermutetestimonytotheIndianpracticeofboilingorcookingwithhotstones.

BasketryoccursinPaleo-Indian,Archaic,andWoodlandlevelsatMeadowcroftRockshelter.ItismorerepresentedinstratigraphicunitslikeStratumIVduringwhichtimeMeadowcroftwasmostcertainlyabasecampforbandsofforaginggroupsthatalmostcertainlyincludedwomen.ThisissupportedbytheconcentrationofmodifiedboneinStratumIIIandtoamuchgreaterextentinStratumIV.The

disappearanceofbasketryaboveStratumVparallelsadecreaseinthenumbersofrecoveredhackberries(previouslyaheavilyexploitedfoodsource),aswellasnutsandfreshwatermussels.Someofthespecializedcooking/boilingfunctionsofplaitedbasketrywerereplacedbyceramics,whileflexibletwinedbags(evidencedasimpressionsonthesurfacesofWoodlandperiodceramics)replacedbasketsincarryingandtransportationfunctions.

TwocordageremainsfromMeadowcroftarerestrictedtothedriestportionsoftheupperlevelsofthesite(StrataVIIIandXI).Cordageisatypeofstringorropemadefromfiber.ThecordagespecimensrecoveredfromMeadowcroftaretiny(lessthan1cm.inlength)andarenearlydisintegrated.Noconclusivestatementscanthereforebemadeaboutcordageatthesite.Itprobablyexistedinmuchgreaterquantities,evidencebythepresenceofbasketryandcord-markedpottery.However,conditionsintheRockshelterwerenotconducivetothesurvivalofcordage.

Asmallnumberofmodifiedartifactsweremadefromwoodandbone.Naturalmaterialssuchasboneandwoodaredescribedasmodifiedwhentheydisplaysignsofintentionalshaping.Excludedfromthemodifiedartifactcategoryarebonesthatshowmarksofbutcheringbutnotevidenceofshapingtocreateatool.Modifiedwoodenartifactsincludepeg-likeitemsthataresharpenedononeendandasinglebipointforeshaftfromadartorspearthatwasrecoveredfromlowerStratumIIa.

ModifiedBonetoolsofseveraltypesandconfigurationsincludeboneawls,adelicatelycarvedtriggersnare,amodifiedantlerbase,bonebeamers,andmanytoolsrelatedtobasketrymanufacturewereuncoveredinvariousstrata.Awlswerethesinglemostcommonmodifiedbonetool.Mostofthesampleswerecreatedfromwhitetaileddeerandwildturkeybones.Edgewearonthetipsofawlsexplainstwotypesofuse:flatterspecimensthatwerethrustinandoutofayieldingsoftmaterialandspecimenswithroundcrosssectionsexhibiting“inandout”androtarywear.Giventheevidence,awlswereusedtoperforatehidesorskinsandtosewrimsonbasketsatMeadowcroft.

Bonebasketrytoolsincludeabonechiseloid(presumablyusedasaplane)foundindirectassociationwithabasketfragmentinStratumIIb(thebasketcontainingtheformwaspartiallyfinished)andseveralboneshuttlesfromStrataIIbandIII.Giventheabundanceofbone(includingthinsplinters)recoveredfrommoststrataatMeadowcroft,itisnotunlikelythatbonetoolsweremanufacturedonthesitethoughdirectevidenceintheformofworkareasislacking.Bonetoolswerealsousedasperforatorsorpressureflakersinlithicreductions.Threepunchesmadefromwhite-taileddeerantlertinesincludeonefromStratumIIalowerwhichisdirectlyassociatedwiththesnappedendofalithicblade.

AspecialsubclassofmodifiedbonefromMeadowcroftincludesmodifiedtortoisecarapaceswhichweremadeintocupsandappearinmodestnumbers.

Collectively,theperishablesfromMeadowcroftprovideinsightintothenon-lithictoolkitandtechnologiesofprehistoricpeoplesbutalsointothechangingcharacterofsiteutilizationthroughoutthelongoccupationalsequence.

CeramicsfromMeadowcroftRockshelterCompiledfromW.C.Johnson.(1982).CeramicsfromMeadowcroftRockshelter:ARe-Evaluationand

Interpretation.Meadowcroft:CollectedPapersontheArchaeologyofMeadowcroftRockshelterandtheCrossCreekDrainage(pp.142-162).Pittsburgh:UniversityofPittsburghPress.

Ceramicsaredefinedasvesselsmadeoffiredclay,completeoffragments.Twoprimaryattributesofprehistoricceramicsareusedbyarchaeologiststo:1)thematerialthepotismadefromand2)theformorshapeofapot.Theclaymaterialofapotanditsinclusionscanhelptellwherethepotwasmade,aswellashowitwasmadeandsometimesadateofwhenitwasmade.Theformofavesselcanindicatewhenandhowitwasusedaswellassuggestingtheculturalpreferencesofthepeoplewhomadeit.

The1973-1977excavationsatMeadowcroftproduced393ceramicsherdsandspalls(Johnson1982).AllceramicsarerestrictedtoStratumIIIandabove.Fourtypesofceramicwarearerepresented,includinggrit-temperedHalf-Moonware,limestonetemperedWatsonware,shell-temperedMonongahelawareandafewsherdsofochreandfinegrit/sandtemperedware.Thesherdsandspallswerereducedto39reconstructedvessel“clusters”.Theceramicassemblageissmall,butitconformswithgeneralceramicandtextilepatternsestablishedfortheUpperOhiovalley.

CeramicAnalysisandHypotheticalVesselReconstructionTechniques

Ceramicsfoundinarchaeologicalsites,includingMeadowcroftRockshelter,arenotoftenwholevessels.Rather,theyarefoundasclustersofbrokensherdsthatwerediscardedinmiddensortrashpits.Thegoalofstudyingceramicassemblagesisnottoreconstructforms,buttogainunderstandingofthegreaterpatternsofceramicuseatasite.Meadowcroftsherdstendedtoclusterhorizontallyandverticallythroughouttheexcavationunits.Sherdswithsimilarcombinationsofattributesgenerallyclusterincontiguousexcavationunitsbothverticallyandhorizontally.Hypotheticalvesselorsherdclustersaredefinedbytheirpaste,tempertype,sizeanddensity,sherdthickness,primaryandsecondarysurfacetreatment.

Ratherthanlimitingtheiranalysistosherdcounts,archaeologistsatMeadowcroftanalyzedeachceramicfragmentforgramweight,amethodforquantifyingarchaeologicalremainsbytheirmass.Variouswaresdifferintemperwhichreflectsdifferentceramicstechnologies,eachofwhichcouldproducewaresthatweremorefriable,orpronetocrumbling.Differencesinthefriabilityofwaresallowsmoreresistantwarestowithstanddamagefromweathering,frost,andanimalorhumanactivity,whilelessresistantwaresfragmentintosmallersherdsgivingtheillusionofhavingbeenoriginallymorenumerousatthesite.Biasinceramicpatternscanalsobeintroducedbynativepeople’sgarbagedisposalhabitsanddifferencesintheintensityandlocationofoccupationovertimeintheRockshelter.Measuringthegramweightofsherdseliminatedsomeofthenaturalbiasinbasingceramicusesimplyonthequantityofsherds.

Sherdsweremeasuredforthickness,andgritsizeandweresortedintoplain-finishedandcordmarkedcategories.Cord-markingreferencesceramicsthathaveclearcordageimpressionsintheirexteriorsurfaces.Theseimpressionscanbeusedtodiscusstextileproductionbyaculturalgroup,however,ceramicsmakersalsosometimessmoothedcordageimpressionsbeforefiringceramics.Cord-markedpotteryortheabsenceofdoesnotprovideareliablemeansofgaugingagroup’stextiletechnology.Basedongramweightandtheattributesdescribedabove,archaeologistsreducedthe393sherdsto39hypotheticalclusters.

CeramicsSummary

MeadowcroftproducedsomeoftheearliestdatedceramicsfortheUpperOhioValley.Feature60B,partofagiganticfirepitwithitsbaseinStratumIII,yieldedaHalf-Mooncord-markedvesselandanassociatedradiocarbondateof865±85B.C.(2815B.P.).AsecondHalf-Mooncord-markedvesselelsewhereinFeature60ataslightlydeeperlevelhasanassociateddateof1115±80B.C.(3065B.P.).Half-MoonwareisrestrictedtouppermostStratumIIandStratumIVattheRockshelterindicatingthatitisthefirstceramictypefortheCrossCreekdrainage.

Limestone-temperedWatsonwaresarethemostcommonceramictypeatMeadowcroftandarerepresentedby325sherdsandamaximumof36vesselclusters.FinalZandStwistcordageimpressionsarebothpresentinsurfacetreatmentsonthesepots.Significantly,72.73%oftheWatsonvesselsareclusteredinLateWoodlandPeriodStrataVIIIthroughXI.TheMonongahelashell-temperedwaresdemonstratedirectevolutionoutoftheearlierWatsonwares.

Thefinalcategory,representedbyfoursmallsherdsofasingleochreandfinegrit/sandtemperedvessel,wasfoundinStratumXIandcanbeattributedtotheLateWoodland/earlyHistoricPerioduseoftheRockshelter.

TheceramicsrecoveredfromMeadowcroftRockshelterrepresenttheremainsofmanybriefhumanoccupationsoveranextendedperiod.Theseremainsdisproportionatelyrepresenttheoriginal“universe”ofceramicuseatMeadowcroft.

AdditionalInquiryforExploringPrehistoricTechnologiesatMeadowcroftRockshelter

ThingstoDo

• Havestudentsresearchthevarioustechnologiesdiscussedinthisguide.Askthemtofindpicturesofthedifferentpointtypes,basketry,andceramics.UsetheimagestocreateatimelinethatrepresentsculturalactivityatMeadowcroft.

• CreateatimelinethatcomparesprehistorictechnologieswithOldWorldtechnologiesthatyourstudentshavestudied.Howarethesetechnologiessimilar?Different?Canstudentsinferanythingaboutculturalvaluesorbeliefsbasedontheappearanceorfunctionoftheobjects?

• Archaeologistsusetypologychartstoclassifyartifactsaccordingtotheirphysicalcharacteristics.Lithictypologychartsdisplayvariationsinlithictools,whichareoftenviewedasdeviationsfromaspecificform.Similarly,ceramictypologiesclassifytypesofceramicsbasedonattributesthatareoftenobvioustoevenanuntrainedeye.Securesometypologychartsforyourstudentstoanalyze.Whatarethebenefitsoforganizinginformationthisway?Whatarethelimits?

• Securesomeofthebasicmaterialsthatprehistoricpeopleusedtocreatetheirtools.Discussthepropertiesofthematerials.Howmightthepropertiesofamaterialdetermineitsuse?

• Exploretheconceptofartifactdeviation.Sometimesarchaeologistsfindanartifactthatdoesnotfitsecurelyintoatypologychart.Archaeologistsspeculatethatmanyofthedeviationsmaybefromdifferencesinrawmaterialsorthetechnicalcompetencyofthemaker.Distributeclaytoeachstudentandaskthemtocreateasmallpot.Comparepots.Askstudentstocreatealistoffactorswhichmightcontributetowhythepotsaredifferent.Howcanthisinformarchaeologicalinvestigations?

ThingstoRead

Adovasio,J.M.,OlgaSoffer,andJakePage.2007.TheInvisibleSex:UncoveringtheTrueRolesofWomeninPrehistory.NewYork:SmithsonianBooks.

CulturalPeriodsRepresentedatMeadowcroftRockshelter

Archaeologistsareinterestedinhowcultureschangedovertime.SiteslikeMeadowcroft,withdeep,continuousstratigraphy,areusefulforunderstandingculturalchangeandadaptation.MeadowcroftRockshelter’sstratigraphycontainsacontinuousrecordofeverymajorculturalperiodintheeasternUnitedStatesfromthetimeoftheIceAgeuntilthearrivalofEuropeans.PrehistoricoccupationsofMeadowcroftRocksheltercanbeassignedtothePaleo-Indian(pre-10,000B.P.),Archaic(10,000to3000B.P.),Woodland(3000to450B.P.)andHistoricPeriods(450B.P.toPresent).ThesefindingsalignwithgenerallyacceptedperiodsforprehistoricarchaeologicalsitesinPennsylvania,theupperOhiovalley,andmostofNorthAmerica.

Howweknowwhatweknow

Meadowcroft’s stratigraphy is thekey to interpretinghowcultures atthesitechangedovertime.ThestratigraphyprovidesabasicchronologyofhumanactivityatMeadowcroft. Excavations revealedeleven (11)naturalstrata,labelednumericallyfromtheoldestanddeepest(StratumI) to the latest and uppermost (Stratum XI). Each depositional layervaries in thickness, composition, and texture and many includenumerous,oftenverythinmicrostrata.Themajorityofthesemicrostratareflect discrete occupation/ visitation events. Significantly, nodepositionaldisconformitiesarenotedacrossthesiteandstratigraphyiscontinuous.ApplyingtheLawofSuperposition,

EcofactData:IsitCultural?

Tremendousamountsofnaturalmaterialssuchasbone,fishscales,crustaceanshells,eggshells,seeds,etc.appearinthesite,oftenastinyfragmentsthatwererecoveredfromconstantvolumesamples(CVS)andflotation.Someofthesematerialsoccurbecauseofhumanactivityandsomeareduetotheactivitiesofanimals,primarilyraptorfeedinghabits.Muchoftheanthropogenically(human)depositedmaterialsareassociatedwithculturalfeatureslikefirepits,ortheydisplaymodificationsfromfire.Archaeologistsandrelatedspecialistsarestillintheprocessofdrawingpatternsandinterpretingthedata.Futuretechnologiesmayhelpclarifythedepositionalsourcesofecofactmaterial.

GigaPanExploration

Usethe“CulturalSequence”GigaMapintheCulturalFindingsGigaPanExplorationsGuidetolearnmore.

archaeologistssafelyassumethatanyculturalevidenceiswhereitwasdepositedbyprehistoricpeoples,withtheoldestevidencebeingdeepestandthenewestontop.Withelevennaturalstratareachingtoamaximum excavated thickness of 4m (13 ft.) Meadowcroft Rockshelter has produced the longestcontinuous(althoughnotcontinuallyoccupied)stratifiedsequenceofculturalremains inPennsylvaniaandthenortheasternUnitedStates.

Fifty-two radiocarbondates anchor the stratigraphic sequence. The calibrated ages for these assaysindicateaWoodlandperiodascriptionforStrataXI-IV(upper),anArchaicascriptionforStrataIV(middle)-IIb,andapredominatelyPaleo-IndianascriptionforStratumIIa.Thisplacedtherangeofcalibrateddateswithin the accepted ranges of cultural periods recognized for Pennsylvania and the upperOhio Riverwatershed. However, the lower levels of Stratum IIa contained materials with calibrated dates thatregisterahumanpresenceatMeadowcroftseveralmillenniaearlier thanotheracceptedPaleo-Indiansites.Thisdiscrepancyhasresultedinnearly40yearsofdebateinthearchaeologicalcommunityaboutthepossibilityofPre-ClovispeoplesinNorthAmerica.

InterpretingtheEvidence

TheinformationbelowprovidesasnapshotofhumanactivityatMeadowcroftforeachculturalperiodbasedonthedatagatheredduringtheMeadowcroftProject.ThediscussionsummarizeskeyfindingsfromthearchaeologicalexcavationatMeadowcroftRockshelterandthearchaeologicalsurveystheCrossCreekdrainageconductedaspartofthegreaterMeadowcroftProject.Theenvironment,technology,settlementpatterns,andsubsistenceforeachperiodareoutlined.

Throughoutitslonghistoryofhumanoccupation,Meadowcroftwasabivouacoracampsiteusedforshortdurationsbypeoplevisitingtoexploitnaturalresourcesbeforemovingon.Assuch,archaeologistsdidnotfindtheusualhallmarksofadvancedsettlementpatternsandincreasingpopulationsthatcanbediscernedfromlargersites.SomeevidenceofsettlementandpopulationgrowthhasbeenpossibleduetothepresenceofotherarchaeologicalsitesintheCrossCreekdrainagethatweresurveyedaspartoftheMeadowcroftProject.However,eventhesesites,apartfromtheAvellaMoundandCrossCreekVillage,donotprovideconclusiveevidenceabouttheculturalpatternsofthesegroups.DatafromtheMeadowcroftProject(oranysinglearchaeologicalsiteforthatmatter),cannotbeusedtomakesweepingclaimsaboutthelifewaysofanyspecificculturalgroupsinanyoftheculturalperiods:theresimplyisnotenoughevidence.

Paleo-Indian(pre-10,000B.P.)TheearliestoccupationsofMeadowcroftareassignedtothePaleo-Indianperiod,representedbyStratumIIa.Noculturalevidenceisfoundbelowthislayer,makingthePaleo-Indiansthe“FirstPeople”tousethesite.

Environment

Althoughonlyfifty-twomilesfromtheWisconsinanGlacialMaxim,theCrossCreekdrainagehadatemperate,Carolinianecologydominatedbyfloralandfaunalspecies,somecanstillbefoundintheareatoday.TheconditionsofStratumIIaweresomewhatharsh,limitingtheamountofrecoverableecologicaldata.Floralremainsaregenerallyrepresentativeoftemperateclimatespecies,suchaswalnutandoakwoodcharcoalandwalnutnutshells(Cushman1982).CrossCreekwasatitshighestlevelduringthistime,indicatedinthegastropodrecordbyspeciesthatthriveonverymoistconditionsonfloodplains(Lord1982).

FewbonefragmentssurvivedtheconditionsofStratumIIalower,butoftheelevenrecoveredspecimens,white-taileddeer,easternchipmunk,southernflyingsquirrel,deermouse,passengerpigeon,toadandcolubridsnake(Parmalee1982)wereidentified.Thechipmunkandpossiblythedeermouseprobablyburroweddownintotheselevels.Thesespeciessupporttheconclusionsaboutatemperateecology.

Technology

ThePaleo-IndiantoolkitatMeadowcroftischaracterizedbybladetools,includingstandardizedtoolshapessuchasknivesorwedgesandflutedprojectilepoints.Thesetoolstendtobefashionedfromhigh-qualitystonessuchaschertsandjaspers. Therewereonehundredandtwenty-threechippedstoneartifactsrecoveredfromlowerandmiddleStratumIIaincludingoneunflutedlanceolatepointnamedtheMillerLanceolate,severalunhaftedbifacesunifaces(includingtwo“MungaiKnives”),prismaticbladesandfragmentsofprismaticbladecores,utilizedflakesanddebitageflakes(Fitzgibbons1982).ElsewhereintheCrossCreekvalley,the

Paleo-IndiansarerepresentedbyscatteredsurfacefindsofflutedClovis-likepointsthatwereeitherlostordiscardedpresumablyatshort-termhuntingcamps(Fryman1982).

TheearliestperishableartifactsatMeadowcroftarePaleo-Indian.TheoldestbonetoolfromtheshelterwasfromlowerStratumIIaandisacutandcharredfragmentfromawhite-taileddeerantlerbase.Itwasrecoveredinafirepit/hearththatalsoprovidedaradiocarbonsampledatedto16,175B.P.+975year(14,225B.C.,uncorrected;SI-2354).AbipointwoodentoolwasrecoveredfromlowerStratumIIaItresemblesaforeshaftforacompounddartorspearshaft.StratumIIalowerandStratumIIamiddleeachcontainedabasketryspecimen.ThefragmentfromStratumIIalowerwasradiocarbondatedto17,650±2400BC(19,600B.P.),makingthisoneoftheoldestplaitedbasketryintheAmericas.Whileitisuncertainwhatspecificfunctionstheyservedatthattime,theoccurrenceofthewood

bipoint,basketry,andmodifiedboneinthemostancientoccupationalstratumatteststoatleasttheproductionanduseofalltheperishableclasseswellbeforetheendofthePleistocene(Stile1982).

SettlementPatternsandPopulations

AsurveyoftheCrossCreekdrainagefoundsevensites,besidesMeadowcroftRockshelter,withsurfaceevidenceofPaleo-Indianoccupations.Thesecomponentswereclassifiedasonebasecamp,whichproducedmultiplePaleo-IndianpointsandotherrelatedPaleo-Indiantools,andsixbivouacs/shorttermcampsites.Basedonthisdataandcomparisonswithsimilarlydatedsites,itappearsthatthePaleo-IndianinhabitantsoftheUpperOhiovalleyconsistedofsmallgroupsorbandsofpeoplethatmayhaveroamedoverawideterritoryandexploitedwhateverfoodsandnaturalresourcestheycouldfind(Fryman1982).

Subsistence

OnefactofPale-Indianlifedoesemergefromtherecord:peoplewerecomingtoMeadowcroftinsearchoffood.AlltheartifactsandfeaturesfoundatMeadowcroftandtheotherCrossCreekwatershedsitesforthePaleo-Indianperiodrelatetofoodacquisition,preparation,orstorage.AtMeadowcroft,mostofthisfoodcamefromforagingandhunting.Atotalofthirty-eightculturalfeatureswereidentifiedinthislayer.Theywereclassifiedastwenty-sixfirepits/hearths,fiverefuse/storagepits,oneroastingpit,onefirefloor,oneash/charcoallensandfourspecializedactivityareas(Stuckenrath1982)).Allthelithictechnologiesrecoveredfromthesitewerehuntingtoolsorrelatedtotheprocessingofgame.However,theartifactrecordlikelyskewsthetruepictureofsubsistenceatthesite:thegroundconditionsatthisdeepestlayerofthesitewerenotconducivetothesurvivalofperishabletechnologies(i.e.baskets,nets,cordage)thatwereusedinforaging.

SurvivingevidencedoesnotpointtoanexactdietforPaleo-IndiansatMeadowcroft,butthedietlikelyconsistedoflargeandsmallgame,fish,andforagedseeds,nuts,berries,androots.ThepresenceofnumerouswalnutshellsassociatedwithculturalfeaturesindicatesthatautumnoccupationoftheRockshelterwascommon.BasedonthisevidencefromMeadowcroft,Paleo-Indiansmovedfrequentlyandseasonallyinsearchoffood.

ArchaicPeriod(10,000B.P.to3000B.P.)TheArchaicPeriodissubdividedintoEarly,MiddleandLateArchaicbasedlargelyondifferencesinlithictechnologies.EvidencefortheArchaicPeriodatMeadowcroftisfoundinStratumIIaUpper(EarlyArchaic,8011-10950B.P.),StratumIIb(MiddleArchaic,6670B.P.),andStratumIII(TerminalArchaic,3255B.P.)Changesinstoneartifacts,anincreasedvarietyofperishableartifacts(includingbasketry),andtheappearanceofceramicsindicateanintensifiedexploitationofnaturalresources.Populationslikelyexpanded,madepossiblebyimprovedtechnologiesinfoodacquisition,processing,andstorage.

AnincreasednumberandvarietyoffeaturesappearinArchaicstrata,particularlyintheformoffirefloors,ashlenses,andhearths(Stuckenrath1982).Twenty-fiveculturalfeaturesappearinStratumIIb(MiddleArchaic)andfifty-fourinStratumIII(Transitional/TerminalArchaic).Mostfeaturesinbothstrataarefire-related(20ofthefeaturesinStratumIIband51ofthoseinStratumIII),whichmayindicatethatArchaicculturalgroupswereusingMeadowcroftRockshelteronamorefrequentbasisthantheirPaleo-Indiancounterparts.Bycontrast,twenty-nineofthethirty-eightPaleo-Indianfeatureswerefire-related.

Environment

TheSub-BorealclimaticepisodeduringtheEarlyArchaicperiodresultedinwarmanddryconditionsformuchofthetimerepresentedbyStratumIIbandStratumIII.OaksremainedcommonneartheRockshelter,withhickorynutsandbutternutsappearinginthearchaeologicalrecordaspinetreesdisappeared.Thesespecieswerelikelyaccompaniedbyavarietyofunderstoryplantsbearingseeds,rootsandberries(Cushman1982).Theflorawouldhavesupportedarelativelymodernfauna,likethosespecieslivingaroundMeadowcroftinPaleo-Indiantimes.Basedonecologicaldata,conditionsnearMeadowcroftbecameverymoisttowardtheendoftheperiod(LateArchaic/Transitional,3,255B.P.-2,930B.P.).LevelsofCrossCreekwerelikelyhigher,resultinginthemoistconditionspreferredbywillowsandmapleswhichjoinedtheoaks,walnuts,andhickoriesoftheforest.HigherlevelsofCrossCreeklikelyexplaintheincreasedpresenceofterrestrialgastropodsandriverinespeciessuchasfreshwatermusselsintheecologicalrecord(Lord1982).

Technology

ArchaicperiodtoolswerequitesimilartoPaleo-Indiantools,exceptforspearpointsthatwerenotchedinsteadoffluted.AwidevarietyoflithictechnologiescharacterizetheArchaicsub-periodsatMeadowcroft.Eight(8)differentpointtypesandasecondMungaiKnifewereamongtheassemblage.

ArchaicpeoplewhooccupiedMeadowcroftusedlocallithicresourcesinadditiontoexoticstones.Microscopicanalysisoflithicrawmaterialsemployedintheseartifactsindicated31specimens(31.6%oftheassemblagethatcouldbeidentified)weremadefromBrushCreekChert,alocallyavailablechert(VentoandDonahue1982:124).However,significantportionsofthe

ArchaicPeriodComponentsoftheCrossCreekDrainage

Sub-Period TotalSites(excludingMeadowcroft)

Typeofsites(excludingMeadowcroft)

EarlyArchaic 10 • 1basecamp• 9bivouacs/short-termcampsites

MiddleArchaic 2 • 1basecamp• 1bivouac/short-termcampsite

LateArchaic/

TerminalArchaic

20 • 3basecamps• 17bivouacs/

short-termcampsites

assemblageweremadefromexoticlithicmaterialsincludingseventeenspecimens(17.3%)madefromFlintRidgeChalcedony/VanportChertand16specimens(16.3%)madefromKanawhaChert(VentoandDonahue1982:124).ThenearestsourcesofFlintRidgeChalcedony/VanportChertislocated70milesnorthwestofMeadowcroftRockshelter,whileKanawhaChertisfound114milessouthwestofthesite(VentoandDonahue1982:116).ThelithicrawmaterialdataindicatetheArchaicinhabitantsofMeadowcroftRockshelterhadbeenintheregionlongenoughtodiscoverlocalchertsources,butalsousedmaterialsfromamuchlargerterritorythanjustthelocalregion.Alternatively,theexoticlithicmaterialsmayindicatetradewithneighboringgroups,iftheywerepresentatthattime.

Thenumberandvarietyofartifactsmadefromperishablematerialssimilarlyincreases,withfiveplaitedbasketryfragments,woodentools,andboneawls,weavingneedles,andtines.ThepresenceofHalfMoonandWatsonCordmarkedceramicsinStratumIIIindicatessomeceramicsproduction.

Throughouttheperiod,Archaicpeopleswerelivinginbands,andthebandsprobablycontrolledwell-establishedterritorieswithintheregion.ThenumberofbasecampsintheCrossCreekdrainagemostlikelyremainedstableuntiltheLateArchaic/TerminalArchaicPeriod(Fryman1982:63).However,thenumberofcomponentsdecreasedduringtheMiddleArchaicPeriod.Thisdoesnotsuggestadecreaseinlocalpopulations,butarchaeologists’inabilitytoaccuratelyidentifyMiddleArchaicshort-termcampsites.ThenumbersofbasecampsintheCrossCreekdrainageincreasedduringtheLateArchaic/TerminalArchaicPeriod,suggestinganexpansionofthepopulation.Oneofthebasecamps,CrossCreekVillage(36WH293),wasexcavatedandproducedatleastfourroughlyovalwoodpoststructuresassociatedwithLate/TerminalArchaicremains(ApplegarthandCowin:1982).Thiscampsitewasnotoccupiedonayear-roundbasis.Theremainssuggestasummerthroughfallutilizationofthesite.

Subsistence

MaterialsfromMeadowcroftdemonstrateacontinuedhuntingandgatheringexistenceduringtheArchaicPeriod.However,investigationsalsoindicateanincreaseintheexploitationofwildplantsandriverineresources.

FreshwatermusselshellsappearinthearchaeologicalrecordduringtheLateArchaicPeriod(StratumIII)andcontinueasafoodsourcethroughtheEarlyWoodlandperiod(StrataIVandV).Comparedwithshellmiddensatotherlocalsites,Meadowcrofthasalimitednumberofshells,perhapsbecauseArchaicpeopleoccupiedthesiteforveryshortintervals,indicatingthatwhilemusselswereafoodsource,musselcollectionwasnotaprimaryactivityattheRockshelter.Twospeciesofmusselswereconsumedasfood:aCrossCreekspeciesandaspeciesfromtheOhioRiver.TheCrossCreekspeciesdominatestherecord,reflectingwhatthemalacologistsdeemed“ThePrincipleofLeastEffort”,meaningitsimplytooklesseffortforpeopleattheRocksheltertocollectmusselsfromthelocalsource,ratherthanthe

distantriver.ThesefindingsareconsistentwithlargeshellmiddensfoundinotherArchaicsitesintheOhiovalley;freshwatermusselsseemedtobearegularpartofpeople’sdiets.

TheacquisitionofplantfoodsprobablydominatedmuchoftheArchaicactivityatMeadowcroft.SeveralspeciesofplantremainsrecoveredfromMeadowcroftrepresentprobablehumanfoods.Theseincludeacorns,hackberries,walnuts,hickorynuts,blackberries/raspberries,cherries,grapes,andgoosefoot.UppermostStratumIIIandStratumIVproducedtheearliestdomesticatedplantsyetknownfortheUpperOhiovalley:Cucurbitasp.(squash)and16rowZeamays(corn).Manyoftheseplantfoodsaredirectlyassociatedwithstoragepitsandhearths.Bycontrast,fewanimalbonesfromthesestratacanbedirectlyassociatedwithfoodacquisition.ThisisnottosaythatmeatwasnotvitaltothedietofArchaicpeople,butratherthatmostofoccupationsatMeadowcroftwererelatedtoforagingandgatheringfoodstuffs,particularlyplants.Plantfoodstendtopreservelongerthananimalfoods,supportedintheartifactrecordbythepresenceofplaitedbasketscontainingplantresidueandseeds.Throughouttheperiod,evidencesuggeststhatpopulationsgraduallyincreasedastechnologiesimprovedtheefficiencyoffoodgathering,processing,andstorage.

WoodlandPeriod(3000to450B.P.)TheWoodlandPeriodissubdividedintoEarly(3000to2000B.P.),Middle(2000to1000B.P.)andLateWoodland(1000to450B.P.)Periods.TheWoodlandPeriodatMeadowcroftisrepresentedbypartofStratumIII(EarlyWoodland)andStrataIV(EarlyWoodland),V(Early-MiddleWoodland),VI(LateMiddleWoodland),VII,VIII,IX,andX(allLateWoodland).Anexplosionofdata,consistentwiththeexplosionofWoodlanddatafromotherPennsylvaniasites,characterizestheWoodlandperiodstrataatMeadowcroft.

ArchaeologicalsiteslocatedintheCrossCreekdrainageduringtheMeadowcroftProject,theRockshelterincluded,displayaremarkablebreakwithearlierpatternsbythetimeoftheMiddleWoodlandPeriod.CulturalpatternsduringthePaleo-IndianandArchaicPeriodswerelikethoseobservedamongculturalgroupsintheSusquehannaandDelawaredrainagesystems.However,asWoodlandPeriodpopulationsintheCrossCreekdrainageapproachtheHistoricPeriod,theydemonstrateanincreasingsimilaritytoMidwesterncultures.Specifically,theyincorporateAdenasystems,asetoftraditionsthatextendfromtheupperMississippivalleythroughtheupperOhiodrainageintoWesternNewYork,withalreadyexistingtechnologiesandbehaviorpatterns.

Environment

OccupantsofMeadowcroftRockshelterexperiencedagenerallywarmtemperateclimate,liketheclimatetoday.Oak-elm-hickoryforestdominatestheperiod.Earlyon(3050B.P.-2290B.P.),conditionsweremoisterandslightlycoolerthantoday,withmaplesandwillowsthrivingalongthefloodplainofCrossCreek.TheseconditionscontinuedthroughStrataIV,V,andVI(approximately3050B.P.–1290

B.P.).By685B.P.,conditionsbecamedrierwithopenwoods.TheseconditionsprevailedtotheHistoricPeriod.

Technology

Aseriesofdiagnosticpoints,Jack’sReefCornerNotched,Jack’sReefPentagonal,KiskiNotchedandLevanna,indicatethatthespearthrower(atlatl)wasgraduallyreplacedbythebow-and-arrowduringthelateMiddleWoodland.Theearliestceramics,Half-MoonWare,foundintheregionarefromthisperiodwiththecharacteristicpointstylesinthestemmedformslikeAdena,Cresap,andRobbins,etc.

WorkintheCrossCreekdrainagefoundelevenEarlyWoodlandcomponentsbesidesthoseatMeadowcroftRockshelter(Fryman1982:65).Thesecomponentswereclassifiedasatleasttwoandpossiblythreebasecampsandeightorninebivouacs/short-termcampsites.NoEarlyWoodlandburialmoundsorvillagesiteswereidentifiedintheCrossCreekdrainage.

AsurfacesurveyoftheCrossCreekDrainagerecordedsiteswith15MiddleWoodlandPeriodcomponentsexcludingMeadowcroftRockshelter(Fryman1982:65).Novillagesiteswereidentified,but1basecamp,4moundsand10bivouacs/short-termcampsiteswererecorded.TheAvellaMound(36Wh415),locatedinthetownofAvellaandabout3km(1.9mi)eastofMeadowcroftRockshelter,representsatypicallateMiddleWoodlandMound(ApplegarthandCowin1982).AvellaMoundisalow,1mhighmoundthathadstonecrypts.Therewerenosingle“typical”burialtypeandthemoundcontainedextended,flexedandcremationburials,mostlackinganyassociatedgravegoods.AvellaMoundwaslocatedonaknollattheendofabenchoverlookingthemoderntownofAvella.Unfortunately,coalminingconductedadjacenttoAvellaMoundpriortoitsexcavationhadeliminatedanyevidenceofnearbyassociatedhabitationsorfeatures.TheconstructionofmoundsandprobablytheconstructionofwoodpostdomestichousesindicateEarlyWoodlandpeopleslivedamoresettledorsedentaryexistence.Thetimeneededtobuildthemoundsandtheenergyexpendedinconstructionofwoodpolehousesisnotcharacteristicofanomadiclifestyle.

LateWoodlandsitesarenotparticularlynumerousintheCrossCreekDrainage.ExcludingMeadowcroftRockshelter,onlythreeothersiteshadLateWoodlandcomponents(Fryman1982:65).Allthreesiteswereclassifiedasbivouacs/short-termcampsites.ThelackofLateWoodlandsitesinthedrainageisprobablyrelatedtoMonongahelapreferencesforsituatingvillagesinuplandsettingsonridgesaddlesandbenchesalongstreamdivides.

Subsistence

TheearlyportionoftheWoodlandPeriodischaracterizedbyamoresedentarylifestylefocusedonextensiveexploitationofwildplant,animalandriverineresourcesthataresupplementedbydomesticatedplantfoods.BytheendoftheWoodlandPeriod,peoplearelivinginpermanentyear-roundvillages,domesticatedplantsprovidemostofthefoodandaresupplementedbywildresources.

ThelateMiddleWoodland(1400to1000B.P.)isnotaswelldocumentedintermsofexcavatedsites.However,itisduringthisperiodthatmaizehorticulturedevelopsintoanimportantpartofthelocaleconomy.

TheLateWoodland(1100to450B.P.),alsoreferredtoastheLatePrehistoricPeriod,ischaracterizedbythedevelopmentoftheMonongahelaculture.Monongahelapeopleslivedinhamlets(early)andovalvillageswithcentralplazas.LargerMonongahelasiteswereusuallylocatedonsaddlesorbenchesalongmajorstreamdrainagedivides.Manyvillagesweresurroundedbyanexteriorpalisade.Thehouseswerecircularandoftenhadanattachedstorageappendage.Monongahelaceramicsmaybelimestonetempered(usuallyearlyforms)orshelltempered.ThediagnosticprojectilepointformwasthesmalltriangularMadisonPointanditwasanarrowpoint.Maizeagriculturewasthepredominanteconomicactivity.Themaizedietwassupplementedbywildplant,animal,fishandshellfish.Domesticatedbeansappearintheregiontowardthemiddleoftheperiodandareanotherdietarysupplement.

HistoricPeriod(450B.P.toPresent)TheearlyportionoftheHistoricPeriodseesthedemiseoftheMonongahelacultureandthemovementthroughtheareaofvarioushistoricNativeAmericantribes(e.g.,Delaware,Shawnee,etc.)whowerebeingpushedwestbytheexpandingEuropeanpopulations.TheMonongahelacouldobtainEuropeantradegoods(e.g.,glassbeads,brasskettles,brassornaments,etc.)attheFoleyFarm(36GR52,Herbstritt,personalcommunication)andThrockmorton(Michael1983)sitesintheupperOhiovalley.However,theMonongahelaapparentlyacquiredEuropeantradematerialsthroughNativeAmericanintermediariessincetherearenodefinitiverecordsofdirectEuropeancontactwiththem.TheMonongahelaleftsouthwesternPennsylvaniaduringtheearly17thcentury.Richardsonetal.(2002)hasproposedthataseriesofseveredroughtsandattacksfromtheIroquoisforcedtheMonongahelatoabandonedsouthwesternPennsylvaniacircaA.D.1635.SomeMonongahelarefugeesapparentlyresettledinHalifaxCounty,south-centralVirginia(Wells2002).AfterA.D.1730,theDelaware,ShawneeandotherNativeAmericantribes,werepushedthroughwesternPennsylvania,becauseoftheexpandingEuropeansettlementsalongtheeasternseaboard(Kentetal.,1981).TherecurrentlyisnodirectevidenceofhistoricNativeAmericanuseoftheCrossCreekdrainage.

EuropeansettlersstartedtomoveintosouthwesternPennsylvaniainthemiddleofthe18thCenturyA.D.andallNativeAmericanpeopleshadbeenpushedoutofsouthwesternPennsylvaniabythelaterportionofthe18thCentury.The19thCenturyA.D.wasaperiodofexpandingEuropeanpopulationsintheregion.EarlyEuropeanmigrantsintotheareawereprimarilyfarmers.Bythemiddleofthe19thCentury,theironindustrystartedtodevelop.Bytheendofthe19thCenturytheareawasnotedforitscoalmines,cokefurnacesandsteelmills.Smalltownsandvillages,likeAvellaintheCrossCreekDrainage,developedinresponsetotheseindustries.Thesecontinuedtobethemainindustriesintheregionthroughthemiddleofthe20thCenturyA.D.whenthesteelindustrywentintodecline.Today,southwesternPennsylvaniaremainsalargelyruralarea.Thesmalltownsandvillagesassociatedwiththecoalandsteelindustriesarealsoindecline.Coalmining,particularlylongwalldeepmining,remainstheprimaryindustryintheregion,andcattleandsheepfarmsarestillcommonbusinessesintheruralareas.Theearlyyearsofthe21stcenturyhaveseenrisetothenaturalgasindustry,againalteringthecharacterofthelandscape.

AdditionalInquiryforExploringCulturalPeriodsatMeadowcroftRockshelterThingstoDo

• Assigneachstudentaculturalperiod.AskthemtodrawapictureoflifeatMeadowcroftduringthisperiodusinginformationfromthisTeacher’sGuide.Askstudentstodisplaytheirworkandhaveotherstudentsguesswhichperiodtheimagerepresents.Discusswhatisdifferentabouttheimagesorarrangetheminchronologicalordertocreateavisualtimelineoflifeatthesite.

• CreateatimelineofprehistoriclifeatMeadowcroft.CreateaparalleltimelinewithknowneventsfromtheOldWorld.

• Assigneachstudentaculturalperiod.AskthemtowriteastoryfromtheperspectiveofapersonatMeadowcroftduringtheirassignedculturalperiod.UseinformationfromthisguideorevidencefromthearchaeologicalexcavationatMeadowcrofttosupportthedetailsofthestory.

• Playculturalcharades:createaseriesofcardsdescribingaCulturalPeriodandanappropriateactivity.Askeachstudentorgroupsofstudentstoactoutwhatiswrittenontheircard.Havetheotherstudentsguessthetimeperiodandactivity.

• Conductthe“LocatingArchaeologicalSites:SurveyingforCulturalEvidence”activitylistedwiththeFirstPeoplesMaterials.Havestudentssurveyanenvironmenttoseewhattypesofculturalevidencetheycanfind.Howdoesthisprocedurehelparchaeologistsunderstandculturalactivityatasite?

• Askstudentstocreatea“Paleo”recipebasedoninformationfromMeadowcroftRockshelter.Studentsshouldwritetherecipe,includingalistofappropriateingredients,methods,tools,etc.Howmightchangingtechnologiesimpacttherecipe?

ThingstoRead

Carr,KurtW.,andRogerW.Moeller.2015.FirstPennsylvanians:TheArchaeologyofNativeAmericansinPennsylvania.

Thisisanextremelyaccessible,profuselyillustratedexplorationofarchaeologyandprehistoricculturesinPennsylvania.ThechaptersonCulturalPeriodsexploretheenvironment,toolsandtechnologies,subsistence,settlementpatterns,socialorganizationsandbeliefsystemsfornativepeoplesinthethreeprimaryPennsylvaniawatersheds(theOhio,theSusquehanna,andtheDelaware).Avarietyofvisualmaterials,includingprojectilesequences,maps,tablesandcharts,photographsofartifacts,anddiagrams,wouldmakeexcellentprojectionsorcopiesforclassroomuse.Thetextitselfwouldbeexcellentforhighschoolstudents.TeacherswillfindavarietyofinformationtouseinmakingcomparisonsbetweenPennsylvaniaculturalgroupsthroughouttheperiodrepresentedatMeadowcroft.246pages,includingcolorandblackandwhiteimages.

GeneralCharacteristicsofSiteUtilizationAdaptedfromAdovasio,J.A.andPedler,DavidR.(2012).MeadowcroftRockshelter:Retrospect2012.Pre-ClovisintheAmericas(pp.63-75).WashingtonD.C.:SmithsonianInstitution.

SubsistenceandSeasonality

DespitethelongrecordofaboriginalvisitationtoMeadowcroftRockshelter,itisclearfromavarietyofdatasetsthattheprimaryfunctionofthesiteremainedessentiallyconstantthroughtime.Specifically,thedatarecoveredfromMeadowcrofttodatestronglyarguethatthroughoutitshistorythesiteservedasatemporarylocusforbroad-spectrumhunting,collecting,andfoodprocessingactivities.Thepredominanceofutilizedflakesalongwithprojectilepointsshowingmultifunctionaluse-incombinationwithlimitsnumberofbifacesandunifaces,therelativeabundanceoffoodbone,voluminousedibleplantremainsand,atcertaintimes,invertebrateresourcesplusthepresenceofperishableartifactsusedintheacquisition,transport,orprocessingoftheseremains-allsupportthisconclusion.Inmarkedcontrasts,thegeneralabsenceofextensiveinsitumanufactureoflithic,ceramic,orshellartifactsaswellasothercategoriesofevidencemilitatestronglyagainstalongertermorpermanentoccupationofthesite.

Although115,166identifiablebonesandbonefragmentsrepresentingmorethanonehundredandfortyspecieshavebeenrecoveredfromthesite,onlyelevenidentifiablespecimensandlessthan11.9gramsofplantremainsderivefrommiddleandlowerStratumIIa.Ifalltheidentifiedfaunalremainsfromtheselevelsrepresentfoodremains,whichishighlyunlikely,thentheearliestvisitorstothesiteexploitedwhite-taileddeerandperhapsmuchsmallergame.Themeagerfloralassemblagesuggeststhepossiblegatheringofhickory,walnut,andhackberry(Celtissp.).Itisconceivableandlikelythatthesepopulationsmighthaveexploitednow-extinctPleistocenebiggameanimals,notablymastodon,butnoevidenceofsuchpredationwasobservedatthesite.Thelatersitedepositsdirectlyindicatethattheprimarysubsistencemodesofthevariouspost-10,600BPMeadowcroftpopulationsincludedthehuntingofdeer,elk,andturkeyaugmentedbythetakingofawiderangeofsmallergameand,atvarioustimes,bytheexploitationofriverinefauna,notablymussels.Theintensivecollectionofhackberries,nuts,andavarietyofotherfruitsandseedsisalsoconsistentlyindicated.

GigaPanExploration

Throughouttheculturalhistoryofthesite,peoplevisitedMeadowcroftonaseasonalbasistoacquirefoodstuffs.DiscovermoreabouttheevidencetheyleftbehindbyexploringtheGigaPanimages.

UsetheFoodwaysGigaMapintheCulturalFindingsGigaPanExplorationGuidetolearnmore.

ExaminationoftheconstituentsofthedietarymodesoftheMeadowcroftpopulationsrevealssomeinterestingtrends.Thehuntingmodeseemstohavebeenconstantthroughouttheoccupationalsequence,whiletheothersubsistencemodesmirrorseveralpotentiallysignificantchanges.Hackberryexploitationsharplydiminishedafter925±65BP(calAD993-1225[1σ])alongwiththecollectionofRubussp.AndVacciniumsp.Conversely,thegatheringofothernutsandseedsremainedconstant.Similarly,exploitationofriverineresourceswasrelativelyinsignificantbeforetheLaterArchaicwhenitbecameimportantimmediatelythereafterandremainedsountilca.1665±65BP(calAD236-543[1σ]),whenitvirtuallyceased.Finally,theadditionofcultigenstowardtheendofthelongMeadowcroftsequencedoesappeartocorrelatewithadiminutionincollectionofcertainwildplants,thoughitdoesnotseemtohavealteredthebasiccharacterorfunctionofsiteuse.

BasedontheavailabilityoftheprincipalplantfoodexploitedatMeadowcroft,theprincipaltimeofsitevisitationwaslatesummerthroughmiddletolateautumn.AsmallquantityofbirdeggsinculturalfeaturesalsosuggestsbriefepisodesofspringvisitationduringArchaicandWoodlandTimes.

IntensityofSiteUse

EventhoughtheprimaryfunctionofMeadowcroftremainedconsistentthroughtime,theintensityofsiteuseappearstovarysignificantly.Itshouldbeemphasizedthatintensityofsiteuseisadifficultparametertodefineprecisely.Itmayrefertothelengthoftheaboriginalvisitationintervalmeasuredindaysorweeks,thefrequencyortimingbetweenseparatevisitationevents,thenumberofpersonspervisit,oranycombinationoftheforegoing.Whateveritsdefiningproperties,however,severaldiscreteandcomplementaryproxiesmaybeused–withcaution–tomeasurethisphenomenon.Theseinclude:(1)thenumberandkindofculturalfeaturesperstratumorattendanttimeperiod,(2)artifactsofvariouscompositionalclassesortypesbystratumorchronologicalinterlude,(3)frequencyanddensityofecofactualmaterialsthroughtime,and(4)thespatialandtemporaldistributionofselectedconstituentsofconstantvolumesamples(CVS)selectivelycollectedfromacrossthesiteandthroughoutthedeposits.

ThefrequencyandtypesofculturalfeaturesatMeadowcroftareplottedbystratumandculturalperiodinTable1.Asthattableindicates,thedensestconcentrationofculturalfeaturesoccursinStrataIII(LateArchaic/Transitional)andIV(EarlyWoodland),withreducedormarkedlylowerconcentrationsbeforeandaftertheseperiods.Significantly,thegreatestconcentrationofmorecarefullyprepared(i.e.,lined,rimmed,etc.)firepits,re-usedfirefeatures,specializedactivityareas,thickashandcharcoallenses,andextensiveburnedareasorfire-floors–whichmayrepresenttheintentionalincinerationoftrashbyitsaboriginalinhabitants–alsooccurduringthistimesegment.

Table1:FrequencyofCulturalFeaturesatMeadowcroftRockshelter,byStratumStratum(FieldDesignation)

FirePits

Refuse/StoragePits

RoastingPits

FireFloors

Ash/CharcoalLenses

SpecializedActivityAreas

XI(F3,F8) 4 - - - - - 4X(F25) 1 - - - - - 1

IX(F9) 2 - - - - - 2VIII(F12) 1 - - - - - 1VII(F13) 9 - - - 1 1 11VI(F63,F129)

9 - - 1 2 - 12

V-IX(F4)(outsidedripline)

5 1 - 2 2 - 10

V(F14) 20 1 1 2 6 4 34IV(F16) 35 9 3 13 15 3 78III(F18) 26 2 - 8 17 1 54IIb(F46) 6 3 - 6 8 2 25IIa(F46) 26 5 1 1 1 4 38I/IIainterface(F85)

3 - - - - 1 4

I(F99) - - - - - - -Total 147 21 5 33 52 16 274Source:Stuckenrath,Adovasio,Donahue,andCarlisle(1982:Table1).

Interestingly,theincidenceofdiscretemicrostratawhichmayrepresentindividualseasonalvisitationisfarmorenumerousduringtheemplacementofStrataIIIandIVthanatanyothertimeinthesite’soccupationaltrajectory.Notcoincidentally,thisindexofdifferentialvisitationisalsoreflectedinawidearrayofotherproxyintensityindices.Thoughspaceprecludesareproductionofthecomplextableswhichdetailthosedistributions,sufficetonotethattheoccurrenceoftemporallydiagnosticprojectilepoints(cf.Fitzgibbons1982:Table2),allotherclassesoflithicartifacts(cf.Fitzgibbons1982:Table1),floralremains(e.g.Cushman1982:Tables1–4)aswellasvertebrateandinvertebratefaunalremains(GuildayandParmalee1982;Lord1982)mirrortheconcentrationofculturalfeaturesabove.

WhileallofthesedistributionsclearlyindicatethatthemomentsofmostintensivesiteuseallintotheLateArchaicorTransitionalthroughEarlyWoodlandperiods,thisconclusionisalsoetchedinyetsharperreliefbyscrutinyoftheCVSflotationdatafromMeadowcroft.Sixverticalcolumnsofheavyandlightfractionsfromtheflotationsamplinghavebeensortedandtheircomponentsidentifiedandquantified(Skirboll1982).Threeofthesecolumnsderivefrominsidethemoderndriplineandthreefromoutside.AsdetailedbySkirboll(1982:224–228),twooftheheavyfractioncolumnsfrominsidethemoderndriplinespaneveryexcavatedstratum,microstratum,andlevelfromthemoderngroundsurfacetothebaseoftheexcavationinculturallysterileStratumI.Examinationofthedistributionofselectcomponentsfromthesecolumns–whichareprincipallyattributabletoanthropogenicagencysuchaslithicflakes,charcoal,burnedbone,musselshell,fishscales,andthermallyalteredhackberryseeds–indicatesthatthesematerialsaredifferentiallydistributedthroughtimeandexhibitamarkedtendencytoco-clusterindifferenttimeperiods.

ArelativelylowfrequencyofanthropogenicallyintroducedmaterialisfoundinPaleo-IndianStratumIIawhichislatePleistoceneinage.However,theamountsofallclassesofflotationcomponentsattributabletohumanoriginincreaseduringtheEarlyandMiddleArchaicrepresentedinStratumIIb.Significantly,allclassesofmaterialaremostabundantinStrataIIIandIV,whichencompassestheLateArchaicorTransitionalandEarlyWoodlandperiodoccupationsatthesite.Moreover,withfewexceptions,theoccurrenceoftheseintensityproxiesfallsoffmarkedlyoneithersideofthisca.1400radiocarbonyearinterval.

Earlierpublications(Adovasioet.al.1977;Skirboll1982:224)notedthattherehavebeensomequestionsastowhetherthelargeamountsofbones,eggshells,and(especially)hackberriesrecoveredattheRockshelterareattributabletohumanorigintransportorsomeothernon-humanvector.Whileitiscertainthatnumerousbirds(explicitlyincludingraptors)andotheranimalpredatorsdoubtlessoccupiedthesitethroughoutitslonghistory,thereisstrongevidencetosupporttheviewthatattheveryleasttheburnedmaterialswereassociatedwithhumanoccupation.

Again,asdetailedbySkirboll(1982:228),thereisapositivecorrelationbetweenburnedbone,hackberries,eggshells,andotherclassesofmaterialcertainlyorhighlylikelytohavebeenanthropogenicallydepositedatthesite.Theincidenceoftertiaryflakes,crustaceanshell,andfishscalescorrelatecongruentlywithburnedeggshell,bone,andthermallyalteredhackberries.Additionally,andsignificantly,theunburnedfractionofthelargehackberrysampledoesnotcorrelatewellwitheithertheburnedspecimensorwiththelithicflakes,crustaceanshellorfishscales.(Forthisreason,unburnedhackberriesarenotincludedinFigure6.)

UnburnedhackberriesaremostabundantinPaleo-IndianStratumIIawhileburnedhackberriesaremostcommoninLateArchaic/TransitionalStratumIII.Finally,whileunburnedhackberriescouldrepresentmaterialsintroducedbyanimals,theirconditionmayalsoreflectdifferentialfoodprocessingproceduresbyhumans.

AdditionalInquiryforExploringSiteVisitationThingstoDo

• Workasaclasstocreateachartthatreflectstheseasonalavailabilityofplants,animals,andotherresourcesusedbyNativePeoplesatMeadowcroft.Canstudentspredictthehighvisitationperiodsbasedonthechart?HowdoesclassroomthinkingcorrelatewithfindingsfromMeadowcroft?

• AskstudentstocreateachartoftheMeadowcroftStratigraphy.Labelhowthestratarelatetoculturalperiods.AskthemtofindimagesthatreflecttheanthropogenicmaterialsrecoveredfromMeadowcroft;pastetheimagesontothecorrectstrata.Whatimagesmightreflect

consistenciesthroughoutculturalperiods?Howcantheyrepresentanydiscrepancies?Whyischarcoalconsistentinallstrata?Whichismoreimportantindiscussingprehistoriclife:continuityorchange?Why?

ThingstoExploreonFirstPeoplesGigaPans

• UsethezoomfunctionsonanyoftheinteriorimagestoexaminethestratigraphyoftheMeadowcroftRockshelter.MatchtheStratumwiththeFieldDesignationtags(whitetagswiththeletterffollowedbyanumber).

• Searchtheimagesforevidenceofprehistoricsubsistence:canyoulocateplantandanimalremains?Canyoutelljustbylookingiftheseareassociatedwithculturalfeatures?Isthereanyotherevidenceintheimagesthatcanhelpyoudetermineifthesethingsareindeedanthropogenicallydeposited?Whatscientificproceduresormethodscouldhelpyoulearnmoretodrawyourconclusions?

• AnalyzetheFirstPeoplesGigaPanimagesforevidenceoftechnologies.WhatevidenceremainsintheRockshelter?Wheremighttheotherevidencebe?Whydoyouthinkitwasremovedfromthesite(destructivescience)?

• AnalyzeTable1above.SearchtheinteriorFirstPeoplesGigaPanimagesforevidenceoftheseculturalfeatures.Whatdotheylooklikeinsitu?Whatcanyouobservethatsuggeststhepresenceofafeature.Rememberthatarchaeologyisadestructivescienceandnotallfeaturesfoundstillexistatthesite.

CulturalSignificanceofMeadowcroftRockshelter

ManyvisitorstoMeadowcroftRockshelter,particularlyschoolstudents,arekeentoknowexactlywhotheprehistoricpeoplewereandwhattheydid.TheywantMeadowcroftstafftoweaveastoryofNativeAmericanlifethatplayslikeamoviewithcharactersandsettingsandplots.Theywanttobeabletoassociatetheseearlyindividualswithaspecificgroup;theywanttohaveanamefortheirculture.However,thenatureofprehistoricarchaeologymakesthisdesireimpossibletofulfillbecauseonlytheevidenceleftbehindspeakstothelivesofthepeoplewhocampedheresolongago.Therearenonarratives,nopaintings,nobiologicalinformationtopinpointtheidentitiesofthesepeopleandtheirdailyactivities.Instead,staffmemberspresenttheevidencefoundduringtheexcavationsandguidestudentstousetheirimaginationstocreateastorybasedinarchaeologicalfact.

Whatweknow:

• Howlongtheyvisitedthesite:Theearliestvisitorscameover16,000yearsago,andthemostrecentradiocarbondatesassociatedwithaboriginalhumanmaterialsisA.D.1265±80(685YBP.Diagnosticartifacts,stratigraphy,andradiocarbondatingallsuggestthatallthemajorculturalgroupsknowninprehistoricPennsylvaniavisitedMeadowcroftRockshelter.

• Whytheycamehere:TheenvironmentandecologyoftheCrossCreekwatershedremainedrelativelystablefromtheendofthePleistocenethroughthepresentday,withonlyminorclimaticeventsimpactingtemperaturesandprecipitation.Thisresultedindiversebutstableecologythatofferedavarietyofnaturalresources,particularlyfoodsourcesfornativepeoples.

• Whentheycamehere:PrehistoricoccupationsoftheRockshelteroccurredonaseasonalbasis,primarilyautumnwithoccasionalspringvisits.

• Whattheydidhere:Archaeologistsknowthatnativepeoplesprimarilyvisitedtohuntandgatherfood.Allmaterialculturerecoveredfromthesitedealswithtoolsusedtoacquire,prepare,andpreservefood.Thereisonlyminorevidenceofthemanufactureoftools,andthelimitedevidenceisdebitageconsistentwiththereworkingofexistinglithictools(suchassharpeningorrepointing).

Whatwedonotknow:

• Whotheywere:ThereisnotenoughevidencetodeterminethelineageoftheprehistoricpeoplewhocampedatMeadowcroft,orthemoderndescendantsofthosepeople

• Wherethesepeoplecamefromandwheretheywent:SomeevidencesuggeststhattheearliestpeopleatMeadowcroftcamefromeasternPennsylvania,whilelatergroupsweremoreclosely

alignedwithmid-westernAdenapeoples.However,evidencedoesnotconclusivelypointtotheoriginsofthenativepeoplesatMeadowcroft.AfterA.D.1265±80(685YBP),thereislittleaboriginalevidenceatthesite.Wedonotknowwheretheywent.Noristhereanyconclusiveinformationaboutwheretheywent.

• Whytheystoppedvisiting:ArchaeologistsknowthatculturalevidencefromupperstratumatMeadowcroftdiminishesinquantityanddiversity.ArchaeologistsofferseveraltheoriesonwhynativepeoplesnolongervisitedMeadowcroft:perhapsagriculturalpracticesresultedinstablefoodsuppliesthatmadeforagingandhuntingtripstoMeadowcroftunnecessary;perhapstheencroachmentofEuropeanpeoplemadevisitsunsafe.However,thereisnoconclusiveevidencetodemonstratewhytheystoppedcoming.

Inshort,culturalevidencefromMeadowcroftsuppliesmore“Big”questionsthanitdoesanswers.Thesiteis,touseananalogyfirstofferedbyAlbertMilleruponhisdiscoveryoftheMeadowcroftRockshelter,asinglechapterinthebookofprehistoriclife.Fromthearchaeologicalrecord,theprehistoricoccupantsofMeadowcroftRockshelterfromthelate-Paleo-IndianthroughtheHistoricperiodswerenotallthatdifferentthantheircounterpartselsewhereinPennsylvania.FromtheevidencerecoveredfromMeadowcroft,wecanrelativelysafelyreconstructtheenvironmentsthroughwhichprehistoricpeoplewalked,theanimalsandplantstheyencountered,therawfoodstheyacquired,thewaytheydisposedoftheirrubbish,andthefrequencyoftheirvisits.Wherethestorydeviateshowever,iswiththoseearliestinhabitantsoftheRockshelter,thegroupsassociatedwithculturalactivityinStrataIIalower,nicknamedtheMillercomplexafterAlbertMiller,andradiocarbondatedtobetween16,175and11,300yearsago.PriortoMeadowcroft,theaccepted“FirstPeoples”werethePaleo-IndianCloviscultures,namedforasetofdistinctivestonetoolsassociatedwithPleistocenefaunadiscoverednearClovis,NewMexico,andradiocarbondatedbetween11,500and11,000YBP.Here,then,inStratumIIaliestheculturalsignificanceofMeadowcroftRockshelter.

DisputingClovisFirstTheories

ThediscoveryofPaleo-IndianartifactsinStratumIIaatMeadowcroftincludedbladeliketoolsthatdidnotresemblethetypicalflutedstonetoolsofthePaleo-IndianPeriod.Thesetoolswereassociatedwithanthropogenicmaterialsradiocarbondatedbetween16,175and11,300yearsago(Adovasioetal.1990).ThePre-ClovisartifactsfromMeadowcroftRockshelterincludealanceolatepoint(namedtheMillerLanceolate),bifaces,unifaces,prismaticblades,corefragments,anddebitage.Thesematerialsprovidedthefirstwell-datedPre-CloviscomponentingoodstratifiedcontextsintheUnitedStates.Thedates,stratigraphy,andtoolformsrevealeda5,000-yeargapbetweenClovisartifactsfromtheAmericansouthwestandtheolderdiscoveryatMeadowcroft,suggestingthatClovispeoplewerenotthefirstculturalgrouptopopulateNorthAmerica.

WhenDr.AdovasiopublishedtheinitialsetofradiocarbondatesfromMeadowcroftRockshelterin1975,therewerenootherMeadowcroft’s.Atfirst,thearchaeologicalworldrockedattheproclamationofPre-ClovisPaleo-Indiancultures.However,gradually,widespreadrecognitionofPre-ClovisculturescamewiththediscoveryandpublishingofremainsfromotherPre-Clovissites(e.g.,MonteVerdeinChile,CactusHillandSaltvilleinVirginia,MilesPointinMarylandandTopperinSouthCarolina).Theexcavationsofthesesites,exceptMonteVerde,haveproducedlithicassemblagesthatarecloserintechnologicalaffinitytothoserecoveredfromlowerandmiddleStratumIIaatMeadowcroft.

MeadowcroftandThePeoplingofNorthAmerica

ProponentsoftheClovisFirsttheoryspeculatesthatpeoplemovedfromSiberiatoBeringiaandAlaskaintothecontinentalUnitedStatesviaanice-freecorridororlandbridgeafter12,500yearsago.Supposedly,thesefirstinhabitantssouthoftheglaciersintheUnitedStatesweremembersoftheClovisCulture.ThediscoveryofevenearlierpeopleatMeadowcroftRockshelternecessitatedaparadigmshift,sincethearrivaloftheFirstAmericanscouldnowbeplacedsomewherebefore12,500yearsagoandpriortotheestablishmentofClovisCulture.Thedata fromMeadowcroftRockshelterforcedanthropologiststothinkaboutalternativemethodsforpeoplingtheNewWorld.

Currently,thereisnosingleacceptedhypothesisconcerninghowpeoplefirstarrivedintheNewWorld.ScholarsdoacceptthatMeadowcroftisakeycomponentintheformationofanynewpeoplingtheories.MeadowcroftholdsthepotentialtoyieldadditionalinformationaboutbothNewandOldWorldconnectionsasitiscomparedtonewdiscoveriesinSiberia,EuropeandPre-ClovissitesinNewWorld.SomehypothesessuggestthatPre-ClovispeoplesmayhaveavoidedcrossingbetweenorovertheWisconsinanicesheetsbytakingboatsaroundtheunglaciatedcoastlinesofNorthAmericaduringglacialmaximumorperhapsevenmigratedbyfootintotheNewWorldpriortotheWisconsinanglacialmaximum.OtherscholarshavesuggestedaPre-Clovis/SolutreanconnectionbetweenIberiaintheOldWorldandtheNewWorld,basedinpartonthebladetechnologyfoundatMeadowcroftRockshelterandCactusHill.Attheveryleast,theearlymaterialsfromMeadowcroftRockshelterhaveinitiateddiscussionsaboutthe

GigaPanExploration

ThepublicationoftheMillerComplexPre-ClovisPaleo-IndianmaterialsfromStratumIIaforcedarchaeologiststoconfrontevidencethattheClovistheorydidnotlikelyexplainthepeoplingoftheAmericas.

UsethePeoplingTheoriesGigaMapintheCulturalFindingsGigaPanExplorationsGuidetolearnmore.

peoplingoftheNewWorldintimesorwaysnotseriouslyconsideredbeforeitsexcavation.

ThePre-ClovisculturalremainsfromMeadowcroftRockshelterprovideresearcherswiththebestevidenceformigrationoftheearliestpeoplesintotheEasternUnitedStates.Analysesofthesematerialshaveprovidedinsightintowhenthesepeoplearrived(before16,000yearsago),whattheydidafterarrivalandhowlargeaterritorytheymayhaveexploited.TheunexcavatedportionsofMeadowcroftRockshelteralsomeanthatfurtherworkandanalysestoconfirmorrefuteargumentsconcerningwhenthefirstpeoplemigratedintotheUnitedStatesandfromwhatdirectiontheyarrivedcanbeconductedatthesiteinthefuture.Ifthelargerockfallsintheexcavatednorthernsideoftheshelteraresafelyremoved,Meadowcroftcouldproduceadditionalearlyremainsinsealedcontextsthatanswerquestionsconcerningworld-widerelationships.Therealsoareunexcavatedsectionsoftheshelteralongtheeasternsidethathavethepotentialtoproduceadditionalearlyremainsingoodstratigraphiccontexts.

Conclusion

MeadowcroftRockshelterisoneofthemostimportantsitesexcavatedintheEasternUnitedStates.Thereasonsforthisaresimple.NoothersiteinPennsylvania,or,indeed,therestoftheUnitedStates,hasprovidedsuchawell-datedsequenceofculturaloccupationsatonelocation.Becauseofitsexposureinthetradeandpopularpresses,MeadowcroftRockshelter'simportanceisrecognizedworldwidebybotharchaeologistsandthepublic.MeadowcroftrevolutionizedhowarchaeologistsviewthepeoplingoftheNewWorld.IthasresultedinarchaeologistsactivelylookingforstratifiedPre-Clovissiteswhentheypreviouslywouldhavestoppedorcompletedtheirexcavations.Therenowhasbeenaparadigmshiftbecauseofthissite.BecauseoftheworkatMeadowcroftRockshelter,ClovisisnolongerconsideredbymostNewWorldarchaeologistsasthefirstAmericanculture.

TheoriginsoftheFirstPeoplescannotbedeterminedbyMeadowcroftoranysingleotherPre-Clovissite.TogetherthesesitesdoindicatethatpeoplewereinNorthAmericanmuchearlierthanpreviouslyaccepted.Wedonotknowwheretheydepartedfrom,howtheygothere,orwhentheyarrived,butweknowtheywerehereduringtheiceagesofthePleistocene.MeadowcroftandtheotherPre-Clovissitesdemonstratethatmorethanonemodelmustbeusedtoanswerthesequestions.Withnewarchaeologicalsitesbeingdiscoveredandpublishedallthetime,thedialoguewillcontinuetogrow.Newstudentswillaskthequestionsandexaminethedata,exploringtheoriesaboutmultiplehomelands(e.g.IberiaratherthanSiberia),multiplesequentialorcontemporaneouspeoplingpulses(andmultipleentryroutes)bypopulationswithdifferentgeneticprofiles,linguisticbackgrounds,technologies,andsubsistenceorientations.

AdditionalInquiryforExploringtheCulturalSignificanceofMeadowcroftRockshelter

ThingstoDo

• ResearchthenumeroustheoriesaboutthepeoplingoftheAmericas:TheClovisFirstTheory,• ExamineamapthatshowsNorthandSouthAmerica.Askstudentstolabelarchaeological

excavationsitesthatarecriticaltothediscussionofhowthefirstpeoplearrivedintheAmericas.Askstudentstodeveloptheoriesaboutthepossiblemigrationsofthesedifferentgroups.Youmightchoosetodrawarrowstodemonstratehowthestudentsthinkpeoplearrivedatthesites.Discusseachmigrationandtheevidenceforeachtheory.Whichexplanationseemsmostlogicaltoyourstudents?

• Whenpeopletravellongdistances,therearecommonneedsthattheymustdealwith.Theyneedtogetfoodandwater,chooseapathorroadtofollow,andfindshelterorasafeplacetosleep.Todaywhenpeopletravel,theyoftenstayatahotelorcampgroundlocatedneartheroadtheyaredrivingonandtheyeatatlocalrestaurants.HowwastraveldifferentforNativePeople?HowaretheneedsofNativePeopleslikeourownneedswhenwetravel?Discusshowprehistoricpeoplesfollowingproposedmigrationroutesmighthavemettheirbasicneedsgiventheenvironmentalconditionsofthetimes.

ThingstoDiscuss

• Havestudentsdiscussorwrite(3-5sentences)aboutwhytheannouncementof16,000yearsofhumanpresenceinNorthAmericamightalarmarchaeologists.Theyshouldbasetheiranswersonboththeexcavationandresearchprocessesofarchaeology.

BibliographyAdovasio,J.M.andPedler,DavidR."MeadowcroftRockshelter:Retrospect2012."Pre-Clovisinthe

Americas.WashingtonD.C.:SmithsonianInstitution,2012.63-75.

Cushman,K.A."FloralRemainsFromMeadowcroftRockshelter,WashingtonCounty,SouthwesternPennsylvania."Meadowcroft:CollectedPapersontheArchaeologyofMeadowcroftRockshelterandtheCrossCreekDrainage.Pittsburgh:UniversityofPittsburghPress,1982.207-220.

Fitzgibbons,P.T.,J.Herbstritt,W.C.JohnsonandC.Robbins."LithicArtifactsfromMeadowcroftRockshelterandtheCrossCreekDrainage."Meadowcroft:CollectedPapersontheArchaeologyofMeadowcroftRockshelterAndtheCrossCreekDrainage.Pittsburgh:UniversityofPittsburghPress,1982.91-111.

Fryman,R.F."PrehistoricSettlementPatternsintheCrossCreekDrainage."Meadowcroft:CollectedPapersontheArchaeologyofMeadowcroftRockshelterandtheCrossCreekDrainage.Pittsburgh:UniversityofPittsburghPress,1982.53-68.

Johnson,W.C."CeramicsfromMeadowcroftRockshelter:ARe-EvaluationandInterpretation."Meadowcroft:CollectedPapersonthearchaeologyofMeadowcroftRockshelterandtheCrossCreekDrainage.Pittsburgh:UniversityofPittsburghPress,1982.142-162.

Lord,K."InvertebrateFaunalRemainsfromMeadowcroftRockshelter,WashingtonCounty,SouthwesternPennsylvania."Meadowcroft:CollectedPapersontheArchaeologyofMeadowcroftRockshelterandtheCrossCreekDrainage.Pittsburgh:UniversityofPittsburghPress,1982.186-206.

Parmalee,JohnE.GuildayandPaulW."VertebrateFaunalRemainsfromMeadowcroftRockshelter,WashingtonCounty,Pennsylvania:SummaryandInterpretation."Meadowcroft:CollectedPapersontheArchaeologyofMeadowcroftRockshelterandtheCrossCreekDrainage.Pittsburgh:UniversityofPittsburghPress,1982.163-174.

Stile,T.E."PerishableArtifactsFromMeadowcroftRockshelter,WashingtonCounty,SouthwesternPennsylvania."Meadowcroft:CollectedPapersontheArchaeologyofMeadowcroftRockshelterandtheCrossCreekDrainage.Pittsburgh:UniversityofPittsburghPress,1982.130-141.

Stuckenrath,R.J.M.Adovasio,J.Donahue,andR.C.Carlisle."TheStratigraphy,CulturalFeaturesandChronologyatMeadowcroftRockshelter,WashingtonCounty,SouthwesternPennsylvania."Meadowcroft:CollectedPapersontheArchaeologyofMeadowcroftRockshelterandtheCrossCreekDrainage.Pittsburgh:UniversityofPittsburghPress,1982.69-90.

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sayers, paul; meadowcroft, ian strategic planning in

a teacher’s guide a teacher’s guide the selective...

teacher’s score

teacher’s pd

geology and archaeology of meadowcroft rockshelter

transformational giving: pam meadowcroft and jim holland ›...