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Managing Forest Ecosystems
Series Editors:
Georg-August-University,
Göttingen, Germany
Timo Pukkala
University of Joensuu,
Joensuu, Finland
and
Margarida Tomé
Instituto Superior de Agronomía,
Lisbon, Portugal
Aims & Scope:
Well-managed forests and woodlands are a renewable resource, producing essential raw material
with minimum waste and energy use. Rich in habitat and species diversity, forests may contribute to
increased ecosystem stability. They can absorb the effects of unwanted deposition and other
disturbances and protect neighbouring ecosystems by maintaining stable nutrient and energy cycles
and by preventing soil degradation and erosion. They provide much-needed recreation and their
continued existence contributes to stabilizing rural communities.
Forests are managed for timber production and species, habitat and process conservation. A subtle
shift from multiple-use management to ecosystems management is being observed and the new
ecological perspective of multi-functional forest management is based on the principles of ecosystem
diversity, stability and elasticity, and the dynamic equilibrium of primary and secondary production.
Making full use of new technology is one of the challenges facing forest management today.
Resource information must be obtained with a limited budget. This requires better timing of resource
assessment activities and improved use of multiple data sources. Sound ecosystems management,
like any other management activity, relies on effective forecasting and operational control.
The aim of the book series Managing Forest Ecosystems is to present state-of-the-art research
results relating to the practice of forest management. Contributions are solicited from prominent
authors. Each reference book, monograph or proceedings volume will be focused to deal with a
specific context. Typical issues of the series are: resource assessment techniques, evaluating
sustainability for even-aged and uneven-aged forests, multi-objective management, predicting forest
development, optimizing forest management, biodiversity management and monitoring, risk
assessment and economic analysis.
The titles published in this series are listed at the end of this volume.
Klaus Gadow
Volume 12
and
Edited by
of Forest Biomass
for Energy
A Synthesis with Focus on the Balticand Nordic Region
Dominik RöserFinnish Forest Research Institute, Joensuu, Finland
Finnish Forest Research Institute, Joensuu, Finland
Inge Stupak
Sustainable Use
Antti Asikainen
Karsten Raulund-RasmussenForest & Landscape Denmark, University of Copenhagen, Horsholm, Denmark
Forest & Landscape Denmark, University of Copenhagen, Horsholm, Denmark
Published by Springer,
P.O. Box 17, 3300 AA Dordrecht, The Netherlands.
www.springer.com
Printed on acid-free paper
All Rights Reserved
No part of this work may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form
or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording or otherwise,
use by the purchaser of the work.
and executed on a computer system, for exclusive specifically for the purpose of being entered
without writte n permission from the Publisher, with the exception of any material supplied
ISBN 978-1-4020-5053-4 (HB)
ISBN 978-1-4020-5054-1 (e-book)
© 2008 Springer Science+Business Media B.V.
Library of Congress Control Number: 2008921734
v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PREFACE ....................................................................................... xi
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS....................................................... xiii
1. INTRODUCTION TO SUSTAINABLE UTILISATION OF FOREST ENERGY ...................................................................1 Anders Lunnan, Inge Stupak, Antti Asikainen, Karsten Raulund-Rasmussen
1.1 Introduction............................................................................1 1.2 Energy policy ..........................................................................2 1.3 Sustainable development and forest policy..........................4 1.4 The WOOD-EN-MAN project..............................................6 1.5 References ...............................................................................7
2. FOREST ENERGY RESOURCES AND POTENTIALS ........9 Dominik Röser, Antti Asikainen, Inge Stupak, Karri Pasanen
2.1 Introduction............................................................................9 2.2 Natural conditions................................................................11 2.3 Types of forest bioenergy ....................................................12
2.3.1 Forest types ....................................................................... 15 2.3.2 Differences among tree species ........................................ 16 2.3.3 Physical properties............................................................ 17
2.4 Present use of forest biomass for energy............................18 2.4.1 Firewood ........................................................................... 18 2.4.2 Primary residues ............................................................... 19 2.4.3 Secondary residues ........................................................... 20
2.5 Estimation of woodfuel potential ........................................21 2.5.1 Net annual increment, fellings, and roundwood balance.. 21 2.5.2 Residues from fellings and roundwood balance ............... 23
2.6 References .............................................................................26
Table of Contents
vi
3. EFFECTS OF VERY INTENSIVE FOREST BIOMASS HARVESTING ON SHORT AND LONG TERM SITE PRODUCTIVITY.......................................................................... 29 Karsten Raulund-Rasmussen, Inge Stupak, Nicholas Clarke, Ingeborg Callesen, Heljä-Sisko Helmisaari, Erik Karltun, Iveta Varnagiryte-Kabasinskiene
3.1 Introduction......................................................................... 29 3.2 Nutrient fluxes to and from forest ecosystems ................. 32
3.2.1 Deposition......................................................................... 33 3.2.2 Leaching............................................................................ 38 3.2.3 Nutrient removals in forest biomass harvesting ............... 40 3.2.4 The soil as a source and a store of nutrients ..................... 47
3.3 Assessment of long term productivity consequences of very intensive harvesting................................................ 53
3.4 Case studies – examples of assessments of vulnerability and compensation recommendations ................................ 57
3.5 Synthesis and nutrient compensation recommendations 65 3.6 References ............................................................................ 70
4. WOOD ASH RECYCLING – POSSIBILITIES AND RISKS ................................................................................... 79 Erik Karltun, Anna Saarsalmi, Morten Ingerslev, Malle Mandre, Stefan Andersson, Talis Gaitnieks, Remigijus Ozolinčius, Iveta Varnagiryte-Kabasinskiene
4.1 Introduction......................................................................... 79 4.2 Wood ash properties ........................................................... 80
4.2.1 Wood ash composition and quality................................... 80 4.2.2 Contamination risks .......................................................... 83 4.2.3 Pre-conditioning before recycling .................................... 85
4.3 Effects of wood ash application on soils ............................ 86 4.3.1 Soil acidity changes .......................................................... 86 4.3.2 Effects on microbiological processes in the soil............... 88
4.4 Effects of wood ash application on trees ........................... 91 4.4.1 Mineral soils ..................................................................... 91 4.4.2 Peat soils ........................................................................... 92 4.4.3 Tree physiology, morphology and biochemical status ..... 93
Table of Contents
vii
4.4.4 Effects on fine root growth, mycorrhiza and vitality........ 94 4.5 Effects of wood ash application on ground
4.5.1 Species composition ......................................................... 95 4.6 History, current use and regulation of ash recycling...... 97 4.7 Recommended doses and regulations...............................100 4.8 References ...........................................................................101
5. INSECT PESTS AND FOREST BIOMASS FOR ENERGY .............................................................................109 Leif Martin Schroeder
5.1 Introduction........................................................................109 5.2 Pest species..........................................................................110
5.2.1 The spruce bark beetle .................................................... 111 5.2.2 Pityogenes chalcographus............................................... 112 5.2.3 The pine shoot beetles .................................................... 112 5.2.4 The pine weevil............................................................... 114
5.3 Risk for tree mortality in relation to insect density
5.4 Insect reproduction in forest fuel .....................................116 5.5 Influence on regional population densities ......................118 5.6 Risk for damage close to forest fuel piles.........................119 5.7 Legislation...........................................................................121 5.8 Conclusions .........................................................................122 5.9 Management recommendations from an insect
pest perspective ..................................................................123 5.10 References ...........................................................................124
6. THE EFFECTS OF FOREST BIOMASS HARVESTING ON BIODIVERSITY ...................................................................129 Mats Jonsell
6.1 Introduction........................................................................129 6.2 Potential problems for biodiversity due to forest
biomass harvesting.............................................................130 6.3 Organisms that may be affected by bioenergy use..........131
6.3.1 Wood living organisms................................................... 131
and understorey vegetation ............................................... 95
and tree vigour ...................................................................114
Table of Contents
viii
6.3.2 Organisms dependent on piles of logging residue .......... 132 6.4 Associations with different types of wood....................... 133
6.4.1 Tree species..................................................................... 133 6.4.2 Sun exposure................................................................... 134 6.4.3 Diameters ........................................................................ 135 6.4.4 Decay stages ................................................................... 137 6.4.5 Tree part .......................................................................... 137
6.5 Dispersal of saproxylic organisms ................................... 138 6.6 Risks for species loss ......................................................... 140
6.6.1 Processes that create dead wood in natural and managed forests........................................................ 141
6.6.2 Risks of species loss due to degree of sun exposure....... 143 6.6.3 Risk of species loss due to tree species associations ...... 145
6.7 Trapping of insects in piles of logging residues.............. 145 6.8 Management recommendations....................................... 147
6.9 References .......................................................................... 148
7. REVIEW OF RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FOREST ENERGY HARVESTING AND WOOD ASH RECYCLING............................................................................... 155
7.1 Introduction....................................................................... 155 7.2 Environmental aspects...................................................... 157
7.2.1 Soil nutrient fertility........................................................ 157 7.2.2 Soil organic matter and carbon storage........................... 164 7.2.3 Wood ash recycling and other nutrient compensation.... 165 7.2.4 Hydrology and water ...................................................... 171 7.2.5 Biodiversity..................................................................... 171 7.2.6 Insect pests and fungal diseases...................................... 174 7.2.7 Harvesting damages........................................................ 176
7.3 Silvicultural aspects .......................................................... 178 7.3.1 Woodfuel from early thinnings ....................................... 178 7.3.2 Logging residues from forest regeneration..................... 179 7.3.3 Stump harvesting ............................................................ 180 7.3.4 Storage ............................................................................ 181
6.8.1 Extraction of logging residues ........................................ 147
Inge Stupak, Antti Asikainen, Dominik Röser, Karri Pasanen
6.8.2 Storage of logging residues in the forest......................... 148
Table of Contents
ix
7.4 Costs, technical, and logistic aspects ................................181 7.4.1 Existing recommendations and guidelines ..................... 182
7.4.3 Accessibility ................................................................... 183 7.4.4 Density, amount of harvestable fuel, and forwarding
7.4.5 Quality of chips............................................................... 185 7.4.6 Storage of harvested material to buffer demand............. 185 7.4.7 Harvesting methods ........................................................ 186
7.5 Economic aspects................................................................186 7.6 Social and health aspects ...................................................188 7.7 Landscape, archaeology, culture, non-wood goods.........188 7.8 Benefit and drawback trade-offs ......................................189 7.9 Conclusions .........................................................................191 7.10 References ...........................................................................191
8. POLICY AND ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF FOREST ENERGY UTILISATION ...........................................................197 Anders Lunnan, Lelde Vilkriste, Gunnar Wilhelmsen, Diana Mizaraite, Antti Asikainen, Dominik Röser
8.1 Introduction........................................................................197 8.2 Sustainability from an economic point of view ...............199
8.2.1 Sustainable production of woody biomass ..................... 200 8.2.2 Sustainable use of woody biomass ................................. 203
8.3 Constraints and measures of bioenergy utilisation.........205 8.4 Supply of wood-based biomass for energy.......................209 8.5 The market for wood for energy.......................................218 8.6 Regional co-operation and impacts ..................................225 8.7 External effects – economic and regulatory aspects .......228
8.7.1 Investment programmes.................................................. 228 8.7.2 Joint implementation ...................................................... 229
8.7.4 Bioenergy-based thermal production.............................. 231 8.7.5 Promotion and use of biofuel for transport..................... 231
8.8 Conclusions .........................................................................231 8.9 References ...........................................................................232
8.7.3 Green electricity - Green Certificates ............................ 230
7.4.2 Harvesting of forest fuel - overview of cost factors........ 183
distance ............................................................................ 183
Table of Contents
x
9. ENERTREE – DECISION SUPPORT TOOL TO ANALYSE FOREST BIOMASS EXTRACTION SCENARIOS................................................................................ 235 Karri Pasanen, Inge Stupak, Dominik Röser, Antti Asikainen, Karsten Raulund-Rasmussen
9.1 Introduction....................................................................... 235 9.2 Decision making on forest energy by forest owners....... 237 9.3 EnerTree ............................................................................ 239
9.3.1 Model structure ............................................................... 240 9.3.2 Decision environment ..................................................... 240 9.3.3 Input variables................................................................. 243 9.3.4 Stand characteristics ....................................................... 245 9.3.5 Growth and harvesting simulations ................................ 245 9.3.6 Decision criteria and alternative scenarios ..................... 246
9.4 EnerTree example calculation ......................................... 250 9.5 Evaluation and future developments............................... 252 9.6 References .......................................................................... 254
INDEX .......................................................................................... 257
PREFACE
From time immemorial, firewood has been a very important source of energy for mankind. Later in history, wood for energy decreased its importance because of other more convenient and cheaper sources, mainly fossil fuels. Today, focus is again on use of forests as a producer of energy with main drivers being climate change, shortage and increasing prices of fossil fuel sources, and safety in energy supplies. However, intensive use of forest biomass is ques-tioned since fundamental ecological processes may be influenced negatively thus making up a trade-off with the benefits of using an otherwise sustainable source of energy.
In this book, selected aspects of intensive use of forest bio-mass for energy is treated with main focus on ecological aspects like maintenance of soil fertility, recycling of the combustion ash, influ-ence on biodiversity and pests, and economical aspects both at forest owners level and for society. Another focus point is the implementa-tion of this knowledge into decision support, recommendations and guidelines. The geographical scope is mainly the Nordic and Baltic region.
The EU-financed project “Wood for Energy, - a contribution to the development of sustainable forest Management” (WOOD-EN-MAN)1, make up the frame for the book. Seven partners participated in the project: Forest & Landscape Denmark, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Norwegian Forest and Landscape Institute, Lithuanian Forest Research Institute, Latvian State Forestry Research Institute, and Estonian University of Life Sciences with Forest & Landscape Denmark as coordinator. The work was financed by EU and the seven partners, and Nicholas Clarke made the linguistic revisions. All contributors are gratefully thanked.
1 Contract No QLK5-CT-2001-00527, EU FP5 Quality of Life.
xi
It is our hope that the book can contribute to the debate and further development of using forest biomass as an energy source in a sustainable way.
Karsten Raulund-Rasmussen and Inge Stupak Coordinator team of WOOD-EN-MAN
Forest & Landscape Denmark
xii Preface
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS Stefan Andersson Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences Box 7014 75007 SE-Uppsala Sweden
Antti Asikainen Finnish Forest Research Institute Box 68 FIN-80101 Joensuu Finland
Ingeborg Callesen Risoe National Laboratory P.O. 49 DK-4000 Roskilde Denmark
Nicholas Clarke Norwegian Forest and Landscape Institute Postboks 115 N-1431 Ås Norway
Helja-Sisko Helmisaari Finnish Forest Research Institute PL 18 FI-01301 Vantaa Finland
Morten Ingerslev Forest & Landscape Denmark
Denmark
Mats Jonsell Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences Box 7044 75007 SE-Uppsala Sweden
Erik Karltun Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences Box 7001 75007 SE-Uppsala Sweden
Anders Lunnan Norwegian Forest and Landscape Institute Norwegian University of Life Sciences Postboks 115 N-1431 Ås Norway
Malle Mandre Estonian University of Life Sciences Viljandi mnt. 18b EE-112 Tallinn Estonia
xiii
University of CopenhagenHoersholm Kongevej 11DK-2970 Hoersholm
List of Contributors xiv
Diana Mizaraite Lithuanian Forest Research Institute Liepu 1 4312 LT-Girionys Lithuania
Remigijus Ozolinčius Lithuanian Forest Research Institute Liepu 1 4312 LT-Girionys Lithuania
Karri Pasanen Finnish Forest Research Institute Box 68 FIN-80101 Joensuu Finland
Karsten Raulund-Rasmussen
Hoersholm Kongevej 11
Denmark
Dominik Röser Finnish Forest Research Institute Box 68 FIN-80101 Joensuu Finland
Anna Saarsalmi Finnish Forest Research Institute PL 18 FI-01301 Vantaa Finland
Leif Martin Schroeder Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences Box 7044 75007 SE-Uppsala Sweden
Inge Stupak Forest & Landscape Denmark
Hoersholm Kongevej 11
Denmark
Latvian State Forestry Research Institute Riga str. 111 LV-2169 Salaspils Latvia
Kabasinskiene Lithuanian Forest Research Institute Liepu 1 4312 LT-Girionys Lithuania
Lelde Vilkriste Latvian State Forestry Research Institute Riga str. 111 LV-2169 Salaspils Latvia
Gunnar Wilhelmsen
Institute
N-1431 Ås
Forest & Landscape Denmark University of Copenhagen
Talis Gaitnieks Iveta Varnagiryte-
Norwegian Forest and Landscape
University of Copenhagen
DK-2970 Hoersholm
DK-2970 Hoersholm
Postboks 115
Norway
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