rodney j. clarke school of computing, staffordshire university
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Clarke, R. J (2002) Staffordshire: 1
Rodney J. ClarkeSchool of Computing, Staffordshire UniversityBeaconside, Stafford ST 18 0DG, United Kingdom +44 (0)1785 35 3334 office +44 (0)1785 35 3497
www.dsl.uow.edu.au/~rclarke/contact.htm
r.j.clarke@staffs.ac.uk
Intertextuality at Work:Large-Scale Structure of Information Systems
School of Computing Seminar Series: June 26th, 2002
Blue Theatre, Staffordshire University
Clarke, R. J (2002) Staffordshire: 2
Agenda
Introduction: Research Problems and Approach Case Study: ALABS at the Microcomputer
Laboratories Workpractice Theory: Systemic Semiotic
Workpractice Framework Methodological Issues Systems Use: Workpractice Texts in Context Workpractice Change:
Individual Elements Sequence Copying and Elaboration
Intertextuality and Systems
Clarke, R. J (2002) Staffordshire: 3
IntroductionResearch Problems and Approach
Clarke, R. J (2002) Staffordshire: 4
IntroductionResearch Problems and Approach (1)
although users of information systems do not have unmediated access to systems features, an elision exists in the literature between features and workpractices
in contrast, systems features are negotiated through the enactment of workpractices in workplaces
Clarke, R. J (2002) Staffordshire: 5
IntroductionResearch Problems and Approach (2)
failure to recognise the differences between them means that diachronic studies of systems can only be described in terms of acontextual changes to technical features
if we want to study diachronic changes to information systems then this must be done by studying workpractices (pragmatics)
Clarke, R. J (2002) Staffordshire: 6
IntroductionResearch Problems and Approach (3)
attempt to describe the relationships between organisations and systems development or utilisation of common
theory, methods, and notations without reducing one to the other
provision of a contextual and communicative framework
creation of synoptic and diachronic levels of description
Clarke, R. J (2002) Staffordshire: 7
IntroductionResearch Problems and Approach (4)
including:development of a semiotic/contextual
framework for workpractices associated with information systems comprising both theory and methods
apply it to a case study of an information system that has been used for a lengthy period of time- greater than the average half-life of an operational information
Clarke, R. J (2002) Staffordshire: 8
Case StudyALABS at the Microcomputer Laboratories
Clarke, R. J (2002) Staffordshire: 9
Microcomputer Laboratories High Demand- TES Incident (1998)
Clarke, R. J (2002) Staffordshire: 10
Microcomputer Laboratories Virtual Reality- Physical Facility (1996)
Clarke, R. J (2002) Staffordshire: 11
ALABSAutomated Library And Borrowing System
commissioned in 1986- crucial to supporting MCL day-to-day operations
standalone system for the provision of disk-based software, manuals and hardware to students & staff
used barcode technologies as used in shopping centres and spoken language service encounter genres to realise service transaction
Novell Netware Servers ALABS
Clarke, R. J (2002) Staffordshire: 12
Workpractice TheorySystemic Semiotic Workpractice Framework
Clarke, R. J (2002) Staffordshire: 13
Workpractice TheorySystemic Semiotic Workpractice Framework
in use an information system consists of many system features negotiated through the enactment of workpractices
apply a composite of two semiotic theories to explain the structure and function of workpractices- referred to as systemic semiotics (Fawcett 1986)
Clarke, R. J (2002) Staffordshire: 14
Workpractice TheorySystemic Semiotic Workpractice Framework
systemic semiotic workpractice framework utilises: systemic functional linguistics- a semiotic
model of language, andsocial semiotics- a general semiotic theory
which has developed out of systemic functional linguistics
an exploratory study (Clarke 1996) revealed that both theories may at times be required
Clarke, R. J (2002) Staffordshire: 15
Workpractice TheorySystemic Semiotic Workpractice Framework
to develop a suitable systemic semiotic workpractice framework requires a detailed understanding of exactly what each of these theorists is claiming many of these terms are not exact
matches- use the concept of theoretical affinities
at certain times we must drop one theory in favour of the other- conditions of use
Clarke, R. J (2002) Staffordshire: 16
Workpractice TheorySystemic Semiotic Workpractice Framework
Social Semiotics (Bakhtin, Foucault, Althusser)
Systemic Functional Linguistics (Halliday, Martin, Hasan)
the model itself is a product of discourse
context of culture and situation
texts as product & process
tenor relations
discourse
social context
text emphasising process
social subjectivity
theoretical affinities
Clarke, R. J (2002) Staffordshire: 17
Workpractice TheoryBakhtin’s Dialogism (Clarke 1997)
using social semiotic theory (Bakhtin), workpractices are considered as having a dialogical relationship to system features
a monologic condition arises when users comply with the discourses negotiated in the workpractice
a dialogic condition arises when users resist and attempt to renegotiate the discourses associated with the workpractice
Clarke, R. J (2002) Staffordshire: 18
Workpractice TheorySocial Semiotic Theory
SOCIAL SUBJECT
TEXT
DISCOURSE/S
Texts are informed in and by discourses. Discourses produce a dominant Reading Position in texts.
Subjectivity is continually being formed and reformed under changing social, economic and historical circumstances
Genre and Conventions
Reading Position (single) position from which the text appears meaningful and coherent (obvious)
Social Context/s
Subject Positions (multiple) subject is familiar with the conventions and identifies with, or contests, the most obvious reading constructed in the text (ie. Reading Position)
Because social subjects are multiple; discourses are contested in social contexts- they can also be changed in social contexts
Discourses must address Social Subjects, referred to as interpellation
incorporated recent social semiotic theory (Foucault, Althusser and Kress) together with dialogism (Bakhtin) to form a descriptive model of workpractices
must be supplemented with compatible semiotic methods- systemic functional linguistics
operational definition of workpractices as one or more texts together with zero or more actions
Clarke, R. J (2002) Staffordshire: 19
Workpractice TheorySFL Semiotic Model of Language
used Systemic Functional Linguistic (SFL) theory to provide actual methods for conducting applied linguistic analysis of texts (Halliday 1985)
the Stratal Model of SFL (Martin 1992) is derived in subsequent slides- useful in identifying which strata, systems, and units to consider in a specific study
Clarke, R. J (2002) Staffordshire: 20
Workpractice TheorySFL Context and Text
solidary relationship- that is a relationship of unity- between texts and contexts
context predicts text, text construes context
note the similarity to Hjelmslev’s concepts a major influence for Martin’s reformulation of Halliday
Context
Text
Clarke, R. J (2002) Staffordshire: 21
Workpractice TheorySFL Bi-stratal Organisation of Context
two types of context recognised by the theory (after Malinowski) Situational Context which
provides secific situational ‘values’ to the text
Cultural Context which provides a pattern or template that is portable across different situations within a national or organisational culture
Language
Cultural Context
SituationalContext
Clarke, R. J (2002) Staffordshire: 22
Workpractice TheorySFL Contextual Strata
Situational Context is represented in SFL by Register consisting of field- social action
and activities, tenor- who is involved in the language, and mode- how language is used
Cultural Context is represented in SFL by Genre text staging involving sequence,
selection, and iteration
Language
Genre
Register
Clarke, R. J (2002) Staffordshire: 23
Workpractice TheorySFL Tri-stratal Organisation of Language
unlike most semiotic systems, the meanings in language (content) are not directly realised into sounds or letters (expression)
language is tristratal; the content (signified) involves meanings and wordings
Genre
Register
Meanings
Wordings
Expression
Clarke, R. J (2002) Staffordshire: 24
Workpractice Theory SFL Language Strata
meanings of a text are associated with the strata of Discourse Semantics…
…are in turn realised in wordings (words and grammar) are associated with the strata of Lexico-grammar
…are in turn given expression (sounds and letters) with the strata of Phonology/Graphology
Genre
Register
Discourse Semantics
Phonology Graphology
Lexico-grammar
Clarke, R. J (2002) Staffordshire: 25
Workpractice TheorySFL Metafunctions
while strata are responsible for major language units, metafunctions are responsible for the kinds of meanings simultaneously conveyed in texts: ideational metafunction-
concerned with action interpersonal metafunction-
concerned with reflection textual metafunction-
concerned with connection
Genre
Register
Discourse Semantics
field
Phonology Graphology
Lexico-grammar
experiential
TransitivityMood Theme
textualinter- personal
tenor mode
Clarke, R. J (2002) Staffordshire: 26
Workpractice TheorySFL Ideational Metafunction
resolved in language as two distinct components- experiential meaning:
expression of processes and other phenomena in the social world including the speakers’ own consciousness
logical meanings: involves the mapping of experiential meanings into language
Genre
Register
Discourse Semantics
field
Phonology Graphology
Lexico-grammar
experiential
TransitivityMood Theme
textualinter- personal
tenor mode
Clarke, R. J (2002) Staffordshire: 27
Workpractice TheorySFL Interpersonal Metafunction
the metafunction of language by which: social groups are delimited and the individual is identified,
represented and reinforced
Genre
Register
Discourse Semantics
field
Phonology Graphology
Lexico-grammar
experiential
TransitivityMood Theme
textualinter- personal
tenor mode
Clarke, R. J (2002) Staffordshire: 28
Workpractice TheorySFL Textual Metafunction
refers to the way the text is organised as a piece of writing
Genre
Register
Discourse Semantics
field
Phonology Graphology
Lexico-grammar
experiential
TransitivityMood Theme
textualinter- personal
tenor mode
Clarke, R. J (2002) Staffordshire: 29
Workpractice TheoryAppropriate SFL Methods
stratal SFL model has useful properties, eg. for a given study appropriate linguistic methods can be determined in advance
for workpractices associated with IS, metthods must be selected that emphasise the relationship between a text and its context, rather than the language system
methods associated with the (organisational) of IS are used in the case
Clarke, R. J (2002) Staffordshire: 30
Methodological Issues
Clarke, R. J (2002) Staffordshire: 31
Methodological Issues Workpractices: Operational Definition
workpractices are defined in terms of:one or more texts which can be described
by text types (genres), or zero or more action types described using
qualitative sequences formed by direct observation or activity reconstruction
theoretical, methodological and notational similarities between genres and actions are described in Clarke (1999)
Clarke, R. J (2002) Staffordshire: 32
Methodological Issues Empty Corpus Problem
empty corpus problem (Andersen 1992)- what can you do when you have no language to analyse- exactly the conditions in this project
its partial resolution- is to ask stakeholder- elicit using a probe
transform a potential empty corpus situation into a non-text situation
Clarke, R. J (2002) Staffordshire: 33
Methodological Issues Work Situations
Text Situation (Spoken) Non-text Situation Text Situation (Written) Service Encounter Genre Action Sequence Instructional Procedure Genre
Clarke, R. J (2002) Staffordshire: 34
Methodological Issues Genre
changed traditional SFL theory of genre:removed obligatory/optional element distinction
and altered it from crisp to fuzzy formulation- still in
progress!
altered the classical notation to show:differences between successive versions of the
same workpracticesimilarities between distinct workpractices
Clarke, R. J (2002) Staffordshire: 35
Methodological Issues Work Situations & Genre
Text Situations
Non-Text Situations
Empty Corpus Situations
direct text 'language-in-work'
indirect text 'language-about-work'
non-text
+Activity Structured Factual Genre - Activity Structured Factual Genre Narrative Genre
Service Encounter +Activity Structured Factual Genre - Activity Structured Factual Genre
Activity Sequence
Qualitative Activity Sequence
A G1
A''
G2B
direct observation
Qualitative Activity Sequence
activity reconstruction
Qualitative Activity Sequence
G'
G''
+ probe
+ probe
- probe
C
Genre Diagram merge
ablate
Clarke, R. J (2002) Staffordshire: 36
Methodological IssuesRegister (1)
field- whats going onLexical and Indexical Lexical ItemsSystem Networks
tenor- who is doing itPower (Equal/Unequal)Affective Involvement (High/Low)Contact (Frequent/Occasional)
Clarke, R. J (2002) Staffordshire: 37
Methodological Issues Register (2)
mode- the role of languagespatial/interpersonal distance (casual
conversation/novel)experiential distance language as
action- accompanying the social process / language as relection- constituting the social process
Clarke, R. J (2002) Staffordshire: 38
Methodological Issues Work Situations & Register
Text Situations
Non-Text Situations
Empty Corpus Situations
direct text 'language-in-work'
indirect text 'language-about-work'
non-text
Field Lexical & Indexical Lexical Items Field Taxonomies
A
A''
B
direct observation observed social actions & activities observed role relationships
R'
R''
+ probe
+ probe
- probe
C
activity reconstruction inferred social actions & activities inferred role relationships
System Network
Tenor Power Affective Involvement Contact
Mode Spatial/Interpersonal Distance Experiential Distance
R
Clarke, R. J (2002) Staffordshire: 39
System Use: Workpractice Texts in Context
Clarke, R. J (2002) Staffordshire: 40
ALABS Student Loan
Clarke, R. J (2002) Staffordshire: 41
FGg SRq ISq FqMOq
REq Eq
SRq
(a)
(b)
Gq SRq VIq MOqF
Fq
Negotiated SeparationStudent Loan Version 1 (a) into new form (b)
Clarke, R. J (2002) Staffordshire: 42
Workpractice Change: Individual Elements
Clarke, R. J (2002) Staffordshire: 43
Workpractice ChangeCutting, Pasting, Elaboration (1)
ALABS provides evidence for the purposeful manipulation of individual genres associated with workpractices
three basic operators were operationally identified: cutting: the removal of genre elementspasting: the addition of genre elementselaboration: both of the above
Clarke, R. J (2002) Staffordshire: 44
Workpractice ChangeCutting, Pasting, Elaboration (2)
the evidence for purposeful manipulation of genres:changes are minimal and ‘optimal’some genres appear to change togetherwith respect to information systems
genre re-use is preferred to genre reinvention- it may also be a general mechanism for genre change
Clarke, R. J (2002) Staffordshire: 45
Workpractice ChangeCutting, Pasting, Elaboration (3)
implications for end-user programming practices: was the programmer so intimately
familiar with the code that they knew exactly which lines to add/remove
or was the programmer so intimately familiar with the workpractice that they knew which code implemented which genre element
Clarke, R. J (2002) Staffordshire: 46
FGq SRq ISq FqMOq
REq Eq
SRq
(a)
(b)
FG SR IS FMO
RE E
SR
LO
Element PastingStudent Loan (a) Version 2, (b) Version 3
Clarke, R. J (2002) Staffordshire: 47
Workpractice Change: Sequence Copying and Elaboration
Clarke, R. J (2002) Staffordshire: 48
FGq RAq IFq FqMOq
FGq SRq ISq FqMOq
REq Eq
SRq
RAq
(a)
(b)
Sequence Copying(a) Student Loan Version 1 (b) Append
Clarke, R. J (2002) Staffordshire: 49
Sequence Elaboration(a) Student Append (b) Student Renewal
FGq RAq IFq MOq
RAq
(a)
(b)
Fq
FFqGq RLq IFq
Chronemic
Clarke, R. J (2002) Staffordshire: 50
Sequence Elaboration(a) Student Loan Version 2/3 (b) Move
(a)
(b)
FG SR IS FMO
RE E
SR
LO
FGq RMq IFq FqSLq
Chronemic
Clarke, R. J (2002) Staffordshire: 51
Intertextuality and Systems
Clarke, R. J (2002) Staffordshire: 52
Structural Complements: Co-variation of System Features over Time
structural complements evidence for the large scale structure of workpractices associated with ISelements in distinct but related
workpractices that appear to enter into a kind of systematic co-variation- addition, persistence, and removal
for example LO in Student Loan and LI in Student Return
Clarke, R. J (2002) Staffordshire: 53
Genre Assemblages (1)
workpractices never exist by themselves- and so the texts associated with these workpractices never exist in isolationConditions of Use form is associated with the
Regulations & Enrolment (RE) element in Student Loan genre.
genre assemblage diagrams show how texts associated with workpractices relate to each other
Clarke, R. J (2002) Staffordshire: 54
Genre Assemblage (2)
Conditions of Use
G SR IS
EALABS Student Loan RE
SR
MO F
Clarke, R. J (2002) Staffordshire: 55
Genre Assemblages (3)
the Conditions of Use Regulatory Genre which dictates the rules and regulations involvedsolid line joining this genre to the service
encounters is referred to as a genre association and is actually an intertextual relationship
the association never obvious until a problem specified in the Conditions of Use form occurs
Clarke, R. J (2002) Staffordshire: 56
Genre Assemblages (4)
in addition, the relevant people, agents, interactants or social subjects addressed by the genres can also be indicated on the genre assemblage diagram
these social subjects are signaled by identifying tenor relations- use square boxes with the tenor role included
Clarke, R. J (2002) Staffordshire: 57
Genre Assemblages (5)
become a significant organising principle for information systems
multiple genres linked by common sets of social subjects
organised using interterxtual relations of various kinds (the selection of which is bothe discursive or ’ideological’ as well as historical)
Clarke, R. J (2002) Staffordshire: 58
Genre Assemblages (6)
the kinds of assemblage shown are also referred to as ’direct’ because all genres relevant to it are shown
another form of genre assemblage can be formed, referred to as dependent assemblages, which seem to require other genres in other assemblages
seem to be related to management work
Clarke, R. J (2002) Staffordshire: 59
Student Loan
Condition of Loan
Student Return
Labstaff
Student
do dCD
give Reps
Daily Proc's
OpsSuper
Mgmt C'mte
Notice/ Agenda
ReportsJob Duty
Microcomputer Laboratories Management Committee Meeting
Service Desk
Ws13sp.wk1
Faculty Usage Report
(a)
(b)
Clarke, R. J (2002) Staffordshire: 60
Genre Assemblages (7)Reproduction of Social Subjects
political problems ensued for the MicroLabs as they tried to get academic staff to return items promptlyacademics often needed to have an item
for an entire sessionin response the ALABS system was
altered by adding a completely new type of social subject Long (term) Staff member
Clarke, R. J (2002) Staffordshire: 61
Staff Loan
Yearly Form
Staff Return
Labstaff
Long Loan
Long Return
Overdue Staff
Overdue List
Long List
Staff List
a'
af
b
i, j, k, l, m, n, o
g
ce d
h
[Normal] Staff
Long Staff
Long Loan
Long Return
Genre Assemblages (8)Reproduction of Social Subjects
Clarke, R. J (2002) Staffordshire: 62
(a)
Loans & Returns (Non-Students)
Staff
Tutors
Long Term
(b)
[Normal] Staff
Genre Assemblages (9)Reproduction of Social Subjects
Clarke, R. J (2002) Staffordshire: 63
Use
TutorTutor
Labstaff
1 Class Loan 2 Lab Loan
Student
Class Set Class Loanof Disks Form
Service Desk
Teaching Laboratory
Class Loan Class SetForm of Disks
Tutor
3 Lab Return
StudentTutor
Labstaff
4 Class Return
Service Desk
Teaching Laboratory
ALABS Tutor Loan
Clarke, R. J (2002) Staffordshire: 64
Class Loan
Tutor Form
Class Return
Labstaff
Tutor
e
f, g, h
Class Form
d
b a,c
Student
Lab Loan
Lab Return
Class Form
Service Desk
Teaching Laboratory
Tutor ReturnClass Loan
Tutor ReturnClass Return
Tutor Return
Lab Return
Tutor Return
Lab Loan
Clarke, R. J (2002) Staffordshire: 65
IntertextualityDefinitions
Systemic Functional Linguistics: intertextuality is the direct reference one text can make to another
Social Semiotic (Bakhtin): the ways texts embody meanings that have already been made, in one form or another in other texts- conventional, requiring familiarity not intuition- users understand specific workpractices (texts) because they have prior experience of them
Clarke, R. J (2002) Staffordshire: 66
IntertextualityType of Reference <> Persistence
No correlation between the persistence of workpractices and the type of intertextual references used For example, Class Loans & Returns did not
have any direct or elliptical intertextual relations
yet it was one of the most complicated assemblages and also one of the most persistent
Clarke, R. J (2002) Staffordshire: 67
IntertextualityType of Reference & Order of Development
is a relationship between the type of intertextual references and workpractice development initial workpractices employed direct intertextual
references in their associations once established, additional related workpractices
utilised elliptical intertextual relations dialogic intertextual references were used to associate
additional workpractices assemblages which did not undergo changes to
workpractices did not employ dialogic intertextual references
Clarke, R. J (2002) Staffordshire: 68
IntertextualityStudent Loan/Return Assemblage
Student Renewal
Student Loan
Condition of Loan
Student Return
Student
Student Append
Labstaff
Student List
Student Move
Student Booking
Offense Listh, i g
f
l
a, j, kbcde
m, n, o, p, q, r, s, t, u, v
Student Renewal
Student Append
Direct
Elliptical
Elliptical
Clarke, R. J (2002) Staffordshire: 69
Intertextual RelationsAssemblage Direct Elliptical Dialogic
Student LoanStudent Return
Student AppendStudent Renewal
Student MoveStudent BookingA: Student Loans/Returns
Conditions of LoanStaff LoanStaff Return
Long LoanLong ReturnB: Staff Loans/Returns
Yearly Form
C: Tutor Loans/ReturnsTutor LoanTutor ReturnTutor Form
D: Class Loans/ReturnsClass LoansClass ReturnsClass Form†
Lab LoanLab ReturnClass Form†
E: Report Genres‡Notice/AgendaJob DutyReports
† shared material counted twice (once per material setting)‡ dependent Assemblage
IntertexualityTypes and Occurence
Clarke, R. J (2002) Staffordshire: 70
Conclusions (1)
fundamental research into the relationship between distinct workpractices
likely to relevant to a broad range of concerns within the IS discipline Organisational impact of IS/IT Systems Analysis Systems Development/Prototyping Systems Maintenance/Change Management
Clarke, R. J (2002) Staffordshire: 71
Conclusions (2)
Workpractices don’t exist in isolation: Assemblages and Associations
Users don’t create Systems!: Systems reproduce Users
Knowing how to behave: Social Subjectivity in Organisations
Workpractices Conserve Social Relations of Power
Clarke, R. J (2002) Staffordshire: 72
Conclusions (3)
Mutual coexistence of WorkpracticesIntertextuality and workpractices:
How users negotiate IS in Social Contexts
Social Subjects involved in more than one Assemblage can act as vectors for system change
Clarke, R. J (2002) Staffordshire: 73
ReferencesBelsey, C. (1980) Critical Practice New Accents, London: Methuen
Clarke, R. J. (1996) “The Persistence of Systems in Organisations: Genre Analysis of Systems Decommissioning” in Holmqvist, B.; Andersen, P. B.; Klein, H. and R. Posner eds/ (1996) Signs of Work: Semiosis and Information Processing in Organisations Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 59-106
Clarke, R. J. (1997b) “Eliciting current and proposed systems workpractices using genre: results of a pilot study” ASFLA 1997: Australian Systemic Functional Linguistics Association Conference, University of Wollongong, October 3-5, 1997, p.20
Clarke, R. J. (1997a) “Organisational Semiosis: Rethinking Integrationist and Separationist Views of Information Systems” in Sankey, M. R.; Gimate-Welsh, A. and P. Pellegrino eds/ (1997) La semiótica. Intersección entre la naturaleza y la cultura (Semiotics Bridging Nature and Culture): 6th International Congress on Semiotics Guadalaharo, Mexico, July 13-18, 1997, International Association for Semiotic Studies, Association Internationale de Sémiotique, and the Asociación Internacional de Estudios Semióticos pp.102
Clarke, R. J (2002) Staffordshire: 74
Clarke, R. J. (1998) “Systemic Semiotic Development Using SFX: Prototyping Genre-Based Representations of IS Workpractices” ISIC/CIRA/ISAS’98: IEEE International Symposium on Intelligent Control (ISIC), held jointly with the International Symposium on Computational Intelligence in Robotics and Automation (CIRA) and Intelligent Systems and Semiotics (ISAS), National Institute of Standards and Technology. Gaithersburg, Maryland, USA, September 14-17, 1998, 846-851
Clarke, R. J. (1999) “Systemic Semiotic relations between Workpractice Actions and Texts” Sign Processes in Complex Systems: 7th International Congress of the IASS-AIS: International Association for Semiotic Studies/ Association Internationale de Sémiotique Dresden, University of Technology, October 6-11, 1999 forthcoming
Clarke, R. J. (2000) “An Information System in its Organisational Contexts: A Systemic Semiotic Longitudinal Case Study” Unpublished PhD Dissertation, University of Wollongong
Freadman, A. and A. Macdonald (1992) What is this thing called “Genre”? Four Essays in the Semiotics of Genre Mount Nebo, Queensland, Australia: Boombana Publications
Halliday, M. A. K. (1978) Language as social semiotic: The social interpretation of language and meaning Melbourne: Edward Arnold
Clarke, R. J (2002) Staffordshire: 75
Kling, R. and W. Scacchi (1982) “The Web of Computing: Computer Technology as Social Organisation” Advances in Computers 21, New York: Academic Press
Scacchi, W. (1987) "Models of Software Evolution: Life Cycle and Process" Carnegie Mellon University: Software Engineering Institute SEI Curriculum Module SEI-CM-10-1.0, October
Schirato, T. and S. Yell (1996) Communication and Cultural Literacy: An Introduction Australian Cultural Studies Series, St Leonards, Australia: Allen & Unwin
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