reading and writing critically the art and science of critical thinking

Reading and Writing Critically

The Art and Science of The Art and Science of Critical ThinkingCritical Thinking

© Martha J. Bianco, Ph.D.

Previewing Text Can Help You Plan to Read Efficiently

How much material do I have to read?How much material do I have to read? Can I divide the material into Can I divide the material into

manageable chunks per day (e.g., 10 manageable chunks per day (e.g., 10 pages/day)?pages/day)?

Are there titles and subtitles I can skim? Are there titles and subtitles I can skim? What do the introduction and What do the introduction and

conclusion say?conclusion say?

© Martha J. Bianco, Ph.D.

Previewing Text Can Improve Critical Reading Am I already familiar with the material?Am I already familiar with the material? Do I have biases one way or another?Do I have biases one way or another? Is there a useful bibliography, and Is there a useful bibliography, and

should I follow up?should I follow up?

© Martha J. Bianco, Ph.D.

Distinguish Between Fact and Opinion

© Martha J. Bianco, Ph.D.

FACT Reliable piece of informationReliable piece of information

Reliability = provable & unbiasedReliability = provable & unbiased Can be tested or provedCan be tested or proved

Verifiable through independent sourcesVerifiable through independent sources

© Martha J. Bianco, Ph.D.

OPINION

Assertions or inferencesAssertions or inferences May or may not be based on factsMay or may not be based on facts Can be challengedCan be challenged

© Martha J. Bianco, Ph.D.

Distinguish Between Absolute and Moderate Claims

AbsoluteAbsolute

University Studies University Studies courses are a courses are a complete waste of complete waste of time.time.

ModerateModerate

Some University Some University Studies courses are Studies courses are not very challengingnot very challenging..

It’s impossible to It’s impossible to get an A from Dr. get an A from Dr. White.White.

Dr. White gives very Dr. White gives very few A’s.few A’s.

© Martha J. Bianco, Ph.D.

Inductive vs. Deductive Reasoning

InductiveInductive

Moves from Moves from smallsmall

to to BIGBIG..

Goes from facts to Goes from facts to generalizations.generalizations.

DeductiveDeductive

Moves from Moves from BIGBIG to to smallsmall..

Applies Applies generalizations to generalizations to specific specific situations.situations.

© Martha J. Bianco, Ph.D.

Inductive ReasoningUses Scientific

Method

HypothesizeHypothesize

Gather DataGather Data

Must be researchableMust be researchable

Must be sufficient, Must be sufficient, unbiased & unbiased & representative representative

Analyze Data Analyze Data

Draw Conclusions Draw Conclusions

Method must be Method must be appropriate appropriate

Must avoid logical fallaciesMust avoid logical fallacies

© Martha J. Bianco, Ph.D.

Biggest Dangers:

Relying on anecdotes or small Relying on anecdotes or small case-study “evidence” case-study “evidence”

The “inductive leap” The “inductive leap” sweeping generalizationssweeping generalizations

© Martha J. Bianco, Ph.D.

Deductive ReasoningRelies on Syllogisms

MAIN PREMISE (Generalization):

All PSU undergrads must take a Freshman Inquiry course.

MINOR PREMISE:

Robert Glenn is a PSU undergrad.

CONCLUSION:

Therefore, Robert Glenn must take Freshman Inquiry.

© Martha J. Bianco, Ph.D.

Biggest Dangers:

The premises must be The premises must be truetrue::Not Not allall PSU undergrads must take Freshman PSU undergrads must take Freshman Inquiry.Inquiry.

The syllogism must be The syllogism must be validvalid (logical)(logical):: All horses are animalsAll horses are animals A dog is an animal.A dog is an animal. Therefore, a dog is a horse.Therefore, a dog is a horse.

© Martha J. Bianco, Ph.D.

Qualifiers Help Moderate Syllogisms

CLAIMTherefore, Robert Glenn might have to take Freshman Inquiry.

(Again, qualify w ith "might," "possibly," etc. )

DATARobert Glenn is a PSU undergrad.

WARRANTMost PSU undergrads must take a Freshman Inquiry Course

(Qualify w ith "most," "usually," "generally," etc.)

Avoid Logical FallaciesFaulty Premises, Misuse of Faulty Premises, Misuse of

Data, Distortion of EvidenceData, Distortion of Evidence

Ad hominem

Personal attack, with Personal attack, with negative values, unrelated to negative values, unrelated to

thesis.thesis.

““George W. Bush is a bully, George W. Bush is a bully, waging war at all costs.”waging war at all costs.”

Appeal to Tradition

Relying on tradition as an Relying on tradition as an explanation.explanation.

““Marriage has always been Marriage has always been between a man and a between a man and a

woman.”woman.”

Bandwagon Argument

Justifying an argument because Justifying an argument because “everyone” thinks or acts that “everyone” thinks or acts that

way.way.““Everyone knows that 90 percent of Everyone knows that 90 percent of

Americans believe in God and in Americans believe in God and in prayer.”prayer.”

Begging the Question

Assuming what needs to be proved – Assuming what needs to be proved – or answered – before action is taken.or answered – before action is taken.

““Campus search engines should be Campus search engines should be filtered to stop students’ viewing of filtered to stop students’ viewing of

porn and other unacceptable porn and other unacceptable content.”content.”

Equivocation

Explaining or describing a word by Explaining or describing a word by using the same word.using the same word.

““Understanding communities is Understanding communities is complicated because communities are complicated because communities are

complicated.”complicated.”

False Analogy

Assuming that two things that are Assuming that two things that are similar in one way are similar in other similar in one way are similar in other

ways.ways.““Homosexuals should not be given the Homosexuals should not be given the

same rights as pedophiles.”same rights as pedophiles.”

False Authority

Assuming that someone who is an Assuming that someone who is an expert in one field is an authority in expert in one field is an authority in

other fields.other fields.““My children’s pediatrician doesn’t My children’s pediatrician doesn’t think that Jane Doe was truly brain think that Jane Doe was truly brain

dead.”dead.”

False Causepost hoc, ergo propter hoc

Arguing that because one event Arguing that because one event follows another or because the two follows another or because the two

events are correlated, the first events are correlated, the first causedcaused the second.the second.

““As the number of new immigrants to As the number of new immigrants to Portland has increased, so has the Portland has increased, so has the percentage of people on welfare.”percentage of people on welfare.”

False Dilemmathe “either/or fallacy”

Insisting that there are just two Insisting that there are just two possible solutions or alternatives, possible solutions or alternatives, when in fact there may be many.when in fact there may be many.

““Either we allow mothers to bring their Either we allow mothers to bring their preschoolers to class or we don’t allow them preschoolers to class or we don’t allow them to take classes until their kids reach school to take classes until their kids reach school

age.”age.”

Guilt by Association

Unfairly criticizing or accusing Unfairly criticizing or accusing someone because of the beliefs or someone because of the beliefs or

actions of others.actions of others.““The new mayor must be gay, because I The new mayor must be gay, because I

saw him and his two assistants at a lesbian saw him and his two assistants at a lesbian bookstore.”bookstore.”

Hasty / Sweeping Generalizations

“Leaping to Conclusions”Generalizing or inferring to a Generalizing or inferring to a larger population based on a larger population based on a

personal anecdote or very little personal anecdote or very little or biased evidence.or biased evidence.

““She’s Italian, so you She’s Italian, so you know she must love know she must love

garlic!”garlic!”

OversimplificationAn argument that provides a very An argument that provides a very simple explanation or solution for simple explanation or solution for a very complex problem or issue.a very complex problem or issue.

““We can solve the health We can solve the health care crisis by encouraging care crisis by encouraging

private medical savings private medical savings accounts.”accounts.”

Dodging the IssueIgnoring the Question / Red Herring

Diverting attention away from the real Diverting attention away from the real problem or question by focusing on problem or question by focusing on

something unrelated.something unrelated.

““We should be celebrating free, democratic We should be celebrating free, democratic elections in Iraq rather than quibbling over elections in Iraq rather than quibbling over

who had what weapons where.”who had what weapons where.”

The Slippery Slope Argument

Arguing that doing one thing will just lead Arguing that doing one thing will just lead to a cascade of other events.to a cascade of other events.

““If we allow gays to marry, should we also If we allow gays to marry, should we also allow grown men to marry underage girls, allow grown men to marry underage girls,

or brothers to wed their sisters?”or brothers to wed their sisters?”