random processes ece460 spring, 2012. power spectral density generalities : example: 2
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Random Processes
ECE460Spring, 2012
2
Power Spectral Density
Generalities :
Example: 0, cos 2i iX t A f t
3
Example Given a process Yt that takes the values ±1 with equal probabilities:
Find
2 21 1
1 1 1/ 2
1| 1 1| 1
,21/ 2,
t t
t t t t
P Y P Y
P Y Y P Y Y
TT
T
2 1where t t
1 2,YR t t
4
Ergodic1. A wide-sense stationary (wss) random process is ergodic in
the mean if the time-average of X(t) converges to the ensemble average:
2. A wide-sense stationary (wss) random process is ergodic in the autocorrelation if the time-average of RX(τ) converges to the ensemble average’s autocorrelation
3. Difficult to test. For most communication signals, reasonable to assume that random waveforms are ergodic in the mean and in the autocorrelation.
4. For electrical engineering parameters:
/2
/2
1lim ( ( ; )) [ ( ( ))]
T
iTtg x t dt E g X t
T
X XR x t x t E X t X t R
22
2
22 2
1. is equal to the dc level of the signal
2. equals the normalized dc power
3. 0 is equal to the total avg. normalized power
4. is the avg. normalized ac power
5. is equal to
XX
X
X
x x t
x x t
R x t
x t x t
the rms value of the ac component
5
Multiple Random Processes
Multiple Random Processes• Defined on the same sample space (e.g., see X(t) and Y(t)
above)• For communications, limit to two random processes
Independent Random Processes X(t) and Y(t)
– If random variables X(t1) and Y(t2) are independent for all t1 and t2
Uncorrelated Random Processes X(t) and Y(t)
– If random variables X(t1) and Y(t2) are uncorrelated for all t1 and t2
Jointly wide-sense stationary– If X(t) and Y(t) are both individually wss– The cross-correlation function RXY(t1, t2) depends
only on τ = t2 - t1
Filter( )X t
( )h t
( )Y t
,XY XYR t t E X t Y t R
6
Transfer Through a Linear System
Let X(t) be a wss random process and h(t) be the impulse response of a stable filter.
Find E{Y(t)}
Find the cross-correlation function RXY(t1,t2).
h t X t Y t
7
Transfer Through a Linear System
For a wss X(t) with autocorrelation RX(τ) and a stable (bibo) filter h(t), X(t) and Y(t) are jointly wide sense stationary:
h t X t Y t
8
Example
h t X t Y t
0cos 2
where is a random variable
uniformly distributed on [0,2 ]
X t A f t
differentiatorh t t
:Ym
1 2, :XR t t
:YS f
:X YS f
9
Energy ProcessesRecall that the energy of signal x(t) was calculated by
if Ex < ∞ then this is an energy signal
Define for a random process
Then the energy content of this signal can be given by
2x x t dt
E
2X X t dt
E
X
2
2
X
,
X
X
E E
E t dt
E X t dt
R t t dt
E
10
Power ProcessesRecall that the power of signal x(t) was calculated by
if Px > 0 then this is a power signal
Define for a random process
Then the power of signal x(t) can be given by
2
2
21lim
T
TxT
x t dtT
P
2
2
2
2
2
2
X
2
2
1lim
1lim
1lim ,
T
T
T
T
T
T
X
T
T
XT
P E
E X t dtT
E X t dtT
R t t dtT
P
2
2
21lim
T
TXT
X t dtT
P
11
ExampleShow that SX(f0) ≈ power of X(t) in [f0, f0+Δf]
h t X t Y t
0 01, ,
0, otherwise
f f f fH f
12
Thermal Noise
Because of the wide-band of thermal noise, it is usually modeled as white noise:
R
N t
2 W/HznS f K T R - value of resister in OhmsR - temperature of resister in KelvinT
23 - Boltzmann's constant 1.38 10 J/KK
13
Gaussian ProcessesA random process X(t) is Gaussian if for every t1, t2, …, tn, and every n, the random variables
X(t1), X(t2)…, X(tn)
Are jointly Gaussian.
The Gaussian random process is completely determined by its mean and autocorrelation functions, i. e., by
If a Gaussian process X(t) is passed through a linear filter, the output process is Gaussian
If X(t) is a wss Gaussian process with mean mX(t), autocorrelation RX(τ), and an LTI filter with input response h(t), then Y(t) = X(t)* h(t) is a wss Gaussian process with
1 2 1 2,
X
X
m t E X t
R t t E X t X t
0
*
Y X
Y X
m t m t H
R R h h
14
Zero-Mean White Gaussian NoiseA zero mean white Gaussian noise, W(t), is a random process with
4. For any n and any sequence t1, t2, …, tn the random variables W(t1), W(t2), …, W(tn), are jointly Gaussian with zero mean
and covariances
1. 0
2.2
3. Watt/Hz2
oW
oW
E W t t
NR E W t W t
NS f
cov
2
i j i j
W j i
oj i
W t W t E W t W t
R t t
Nt t
0 for 1,2,...,iE W t i n
15
Bandpass ProcessesSimilar to Chapter 2.5X(t) is a bandpass process
Filter X(t) using a Hilbert Transform:
and define
If X(t) is a zero-mean stationary bandpass process, then Xc(t) and Xs(t) will be zero-mean jointly stationary processes:
0
is a deterministic bandpass signal
and is non-zero about
X
X X
R
S f F R f
1
sgn
h tt
H f j f
0 0
0 0
cos 2 sin 2
cos 2 sin 2c
s
X t X t f t X t f t
X t X t f t X t f t
0
,
,
,
c c
s s
c s c s
c s
X X
X X
X X X X
E X t E X t
R t t R
R t t R
R t t R
16
Bandpass ProcessesThis results in two key formulas for future use:
Note: Xc(t) and Xs(t) are lowpass processes; i.e., their power spectrum vanishes for |f| ≥ W.
Find the power spectrum of the in-phase and quadrature components:
0 0
0 0
cos 2 sin 2
sin 2 cos 2c s
c s
X X X X
X X X X
R R R f R f
R R f R f
17
Bandpass Example 4.6.1The white Gaussian noise process N(t) with power spectrum N0/2 passes through an ideal bandpass filter with frequency response
where W << fc. The output process is denoted by X(t). Find the power spectrum and the cross-spectral density of the in-phase and quadrature components in the following two cases:1. f0 is chosen to be equal to fc.
2. f0 is chosen to be equal to fc-W.
1,
0, Otherwisecf f W
H f
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