psychology
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INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY
Definition of Psychology
Psychology is best defined as the study of mind. It is the science of behavior and a
mental process that seeks to describe and explain aspects of human thought feelings,
perceptions and actions.
It is about understanding people: how they think, what they say, and why they do
what they do. It’s about finding out what motivates people, what is important to us,
and why we are all so individual.
The Goals of Psychology
To describe, explain, predict, and control behavior and mental processes
Describe: tell what occurred
Explain: tells the why
Predict: under what conditions is the behavior/event likely to occur
Control: how is the principle applied or what change in condition is necessary
to prevent unwanted occurrence or to bring about a desired outcome
Research in Psychology
Basic Research: research conducted for the purpose of advancing knowledge
rather than for practical application (typically three goals: description,
explanation, prediction)
Applied Research: research for the purpose of solving practical problems
(typically the fourth goal: to control behavior)
Research Methods
Naturalistic Observation: researchers observe and record behavior without
trying to influence or control it-subjects are not aware of observation
Advantage: study is in natural setting ; good descriptive; can provide
hypothesis to be tested later
Disadvantage: must wait for behavior to occur, researcher has no control
so cause and effect is difficult to determine-potential for observer bias,
presence of researcher may influence situation
Case Study: an in depth study of one or a few participants consisting of
information gathered by observation, interview, or psychological testing to
provide a description of behavior or disorder
Advantage: advances knowledge especially in unusual conditions; can
provide a hypothesis to be tested later
Disadvantage: cannot establish cause of observed behaviors; don't know
if the cases studied generalize to larger population; may not be
representative of condition, event; subject to misinterpretation by
experimenter
Surveys: a research technique in which questionnaires or interviews are
administered to a selected group of people.
Advantage: large quantity of information; It’s fast, cheap, easy and more
flexible than some other methods.
Disadvantage: can be affected by an unrepresentative sample or poor
survey questions
Co relational Research: a research technique based on the naturally
occurring relationship between two or more variables.
Advantage: efficient, study things that can’t be controlled/manipulated in
laboratory, description and prediction possible
Disadvantages: no control over variables and cannot imply causality
Experimental Method: A research technique in which an investigator
deliberately manipulates selected events or circumstances and then measures
the effects of those manipulations on subsequent behavior
Independent variable: the variable that is manipulated by the
experimenter to test its effects
Dependent variable: the variable that is measured to see how it is
changed by the independent variable
Advantages: conclusions about causality can be made
Disadvantages: more ethical considerations, behavior is constrained
to laboratory and artificiality of lab
Subfields of Psychology
Biopsychology: is a branch of psychology that analyzes how the brain and
neurotransmitters influence our behaviors, thoughts and feelings. This field
can be thought of as a combination of basic psychology and neuroscience.
Clinical Psychology: is concerned with the assessment, diagnosis, and
treatment, and prevention of mental disorders.
Cognitive Psychology: is the branch of psychology that focuses on internal
states, such as motivation, problem solving, decision-making, thinking, and
attention.
Community Psychology: is the application of psychology to the study of
social organizations such as neighborhoods, and the development of methods
for evaluating and initiating changes in social policy
Counseling Psychology: maintains an emphasis on the positive aspects of
human development and are focused on exploring and facilitating the
strengths and assets of individuals, groups, and organizational units
Developmental Psychology: is the study to how people grow and change
over the course of a lifetime.
Environmental Psychology: is the study of how changes in physical space &
related physical stimuli can affect behavior of individuals; relationships
between humans & the physical environment
Experimental Psychology: is a broad area concerned with a variety of basic
topics, including cognition, memory, learning, and language in humans or
animals. Most experimental psychologists are in academia and work in a
variety of areas during their career
Forensic Psychology: is the branch of psychology that studies possible
relationships between psychopathology and criminal behavior. Sometimes
work within court systems and conduct psychological evaluations on
individuals accused of committing a crime, particularly juveniles
Health Psychology: is the study of the effects of psychological matters on
physical well being. Often focus on developing programs to help individuals
break physically unhealthy habits, or to reduce the likelihood of participation
in such an activity.
I/O Psychology: is the Study of the behavior and mental processes that take
place in organizational settings (typically work situations), and the human
factors that influence the work environment
Personality Psychology: Attempts to identify the factors that cause one
person to think, feel, and behave differently from another person within a
given situation. The study of how people differ.
Positive Psychology: is the study of the conditions & processes that
contribute to the flourishing or optimal functioning of people, groups, &
institutions. Attempts to help people learn to live lives filled with greater
health & well-being as well as the absence of illness & disease. Recognizes an
imbalance in clinical psychology, where research focuses on mental illness.
Psychometric Psychology: is the study of the development of methods and
research designs used to measure behavior. Requires a strong background in
statistics and a general knowledge of matters related to testing personality and
intelligence.
School/Educational Psychology: is the study of learning, & the conditions
under which it happens best.
Social Psychology: is the study of how our attitudes, beliefs, social
perceptions, culture, cognitions, and relationships effect, and are effected by,
our behavior and the behavior of others.
What is I/O Psychology?
Psychology is the science of human behavior and I/O psychology is the science of
human behavior at work. This field focuses on increasing workplace productivity and
related issues such as the physical and mental well being of employees. Industrial
organizational psychologists perform a wide variety of tasks, including studying
worker attitudes and behavior, evaluating companies and conducting leadership
training.
Specific Areas of Concern
Recruiting and selecting employees for jobs
Training employees
Assessing performance
Defining and analyzing jobs
Determining people feel about work
Determining why people act as they do at work
Effects work has on people
Effects people have on one another
How organizations are structured and function
Designing work
Designing tools and equipment
Employee Health and Safety
History of I/O
The "industrial" side of I-O psychology has its historical origins in research on
individual differences, assessment, and the prediction of performance. This branch of
the field crystallized during World War I, in response to the need to rapidly assign
new troops to duty stations. After the War the growing industrial base in the US
added impetus to I-O psychology. Walter Dill Scott, who was elected President of the
American Psychological Association (APA) in 1919, was arguably the most
prominent I-O psychologist of his time, although James McKeen Cattell (elected
APA President in 1895) and Hugo Munsterberg (1898) was influential in the early
development of the field. Organizational psychology gained prominence after World
War II, influenced by the Hawthorne studies and the work of researchers such as Kurt
Lewin and Muzafer Sherif.
Measurement and Statistics
Measurement: means assigning numbers or other symbols to characteristics
of objects according to certain prespecified rules.
One-to-one correspondence between the numbers and the characteristics
being measured.
The rules for assigning numbers should be standardized and applied
uniformly.
Rules must not change over objects or time.
Scaling: It involves creating a continuum upon which measured objects are
located. Consider an attitude scale from 1 to 100. Each respondent is
assigned a number from 1 to 100, with 1 = Extremely Unfavorable, and 100 =
Extremely Favorable. Measurement is the actual assignment of a number
from 1 to 100 to each respondent. Scaling is the process of placing the
respondents on a continuum with respect to their attitude toward department
stores.
The first and most fundamental issue to resolve is the type of scale data to be
obtained
The type of scale data collected determines the type of analysis which can be
used.
Nominal-level data (identity)
found in dichotomous categories (e.g., male=1, female=2) and
multichotomous categories (1=marketing, 2=finance, 3=economics)
Measure of average is the mode.
Chi-square is a common test used with nominal-level data.
Ordinal-level data (order)
Categories are in some type of order, but the distance between points
is not known.
Ex: Very Good = 5, Good = 4, Neutral = 3, Poor = 2, Very Poor = 1
Measures of the average are the median and the mode.
Chi-square is a common test used with nominal-level data.
Interval-level data (comparison of intervals)
The categories are not only in order, but the distance between each
category is known and has a numerical meaning.
Ex: a 1-7 scale, anchored only by bi-polar adjectives (Good/Bad,
Agree/Disagree)
Interval-level data (comparison of intervals)
Anchoring the intermediate points converts the scale into an ordinal
scale.
There is no absolute zero to an interval scale.
Measure of the average is the mean.
z-tests, t-tests, ANOVA, factor analysis, regression, bivariate
correlations are a common with interval-level data.
Ratio-level data (absolute magnitudes)
Categories are in order, a distance between items is known, and an
absolute zero exists.
Ex: Sales (an absolute zero exists)
Tip: If a number doubles, does it mean there’s twice as much of it? If
yes, it’s ratio data. If no, it’s internal (or less).
Measure of the average is the mean.
z-tests, t-tests, ANOVA, factor analysis, regression, bivariate
correlations are a common with ratio-level data.
Primary Scales of Measurement
Scale Basic Characteristics
Common Examples
Marketing Examples
Nominal Numbers identify & classify objects
Social Security nos., numbering of football players
Brand nos., store types
Percentages, mode
Chi-square, binomial test
Ordinal Nos. indicate the relative positions of objects but not the magnitude of differences between them
Quality rankings, rankings of teams in a tournament
Preference rankings, market position, social class
Percentile, median
Rank-order correlation, Friedman ANOVA
Ratio Zero point is fixed, ratios of scale values can be compared
Length, weight Age, sales, income, costs
Geometric mean, harmonic mean
Coefficient of variation
Permissible Statistics Descriptive Inferential
Interval Differences between objects
Temperature (Fahrenheit)
Attitudes, opinions, index
Range, mean, standard
Product-moment
A Comparison of Scaling Techniques
Comparative scales involve the direct comparison of stimulus objects.
Comparative scale data must be interpreted in relative terms and have only
ordinal or rank order properties.
In noncomparative scales, each object is scaled independently of the others in
the stimulus set. The resulting data are generally assumed to be interval or
ratio scaled.
Relative Advantages of Comparative Scales
Small differences between stimulus objects can be detected.
A Classification of Scaling Techniques
Likert Semantic Differential
Stapel
Scaling Techniques
NoncomparativeScales
Comparativ
e ScalesPaire
d Comparison
Rank Order
Constant Sum
Q-Sort and Other Procedures
Continuous Rating Scales
Itemized Rating Scales
Same known reference points for all respondents.
Easily understood and can be applied.
Involve fewer theoretical assumptions.
Tend to reduce halo or carryover effects from one judgment to another.
Ordinal nature of the data
Inability to generalize beyond the stimulus objects scaled.
HUMAN COMMUNICATION
Definition
Communication is the process of exchanging information by the use of words, letters,
symbols, or nonverbal behavior.
Process of Communication
Here, the person who is the source of the communication encodes it into a message,
and transmits it through a channel. The receiver decodes the message, and, in one
way or another, feeds back understanding or a lack of understanding to the source.
Elements in Communication
Context
Culture
Channel
Noise
Sender
Receiver
Feedback
Types of communication
Intrapersonal: Communicating with oneself
Interpersonal: Communication that takes place between two people
Dyad- two persons interacting
Small Group: Communication that takes place between more than two
members. Group members usually communicate equally
Public: Communication that takes place in a large group. Too large for all
members to communicate equally.
Mass communication: Consists of messages that are transmitted in large
quantities to several people at one time. Transmitted through several sources:
electronic, print, television, radio, magazines, etc. No personal contact
between sender and receiver.
Needs of Communication
Physical needs: Communicating with others benefits our physical
health/well-being.
Identity needs: We define who we are through communicating with others.
Impressions of who we are formed according to the ways in which others
respond to us.
Social needs: Several social needs are met through communication:
Pleasure
Escape
Affection
Relaxation
Inclusion
Control
Practical needs: Communication is used in order to achieve our everyday
needs
to get where we need to go
to accomplish what we need to accomplish
to better understand our environment and what is expected of us
Communication competence
Communication competence is the ability to communicate effectively.
Effective communication
Communication that maintains or enhances the relationship in which it occurs is
effective communication.
Characteristics of Competent Communicators
Empathy: Ability to put yourself in another’s shoes and understanding
another’s perspective.
Cognitive Complexity: The ability to analyze the behavior of others in a
variety of ways .Looking at the situation from a variety of angles (rather than
just your perspective).
Self-Monitoring: Observing your own behaviors as if you are outside
yourself. Imagining how others are interpreting your behaviors. Being aware
of how your behaviors affect others.
Commitment to the relationship: Level of commitment to a relationship
determines willingness to communicate effectively. We work harder at
communicating in relationships we genuinely care about.
Models of Communication
Linear Model: In this model communication only goes one way.
How It Works
Sender – person sending the message
Receiver – person receiving the message
Sender encodes a message, chooses a channel by which to send the
message, and then sends the message to a receiver who then decodes the
message.
Channel – the way the message is conveyed (face- to-face, telephone, e-
mail, etc.) depends on the situation
Encode – when the sender consciously attaches meanings to symbols from
feelings and ideas, creating the message sent
Decode – when the receiver interprets and creates an understanding of
what the message sent means
Transactional Model: Similar to the linear model with added elements.
Represents two-way communication.
Feedback is the scene and understood response of a receiver to a sender’s
message
Both parties involved are sending and receiving messages simultaneously
Noise and environment are also elements involved with the transactional
model
Modes of Communication
i. Verbal Communication
ii. Non-Verbal communication
Understanding Verbal Communication Styles
Passive Communication: Allowing our own rights to be violated by failing
to express our honest feelings. The goal of being a passive communicator is to
avoid conflict no matter what. Little risk involved – very safe. Little eye
contact, often defers to others’ opinions, usually quiet tone, may suddenly
explode after being passive too long.
Aggressive Communication: Protecting one’s own rights at the expense of
others’ rights – no exceptions. The goal of the aggressor is to win at all costs;
to be right. Does not consider actions a risk because this person thinks they
will always get their way. It is risky in terms of relationships. Eye contact is
angry and intimidating; lots of energy; loud and belittling; never defers to
others, or at least does not admit to; manipulative and controlling. Often uses
violence or verbal abuse.
Assertive Communication: Protecting your own rights without violating the
rights of others. The goal of the assertive person is to communicate with
respect and to understand each other; to find a solution to the problem. Takes
a risk with others in the short run, but in the long run relationships are much
stronger. Eye contact maintained; listens and validates others; confident and
strong, yet also flexible; objective and unemotional; presents wishes clearly
and respectfully.
Non-Verbal Communication
The study of non-verbal communication examines how messages are communicated
through physical behavior, vocal cues and spatial relationships.
Barriers of Effective Communication
Hearing what you want to hear called selective listening
Thinking of what you are going to say next
Distractions such as co-workers, noise, side conversations etc.
Thinking about the previous customer call
Worrying about the next customer call or work in general
Stress
Getting involved emotionally (instead of logically)
Holding preconceived ideas about the caller’s inquiry
Thinking about personal issues
Boredom
Making assumptions rather than asking questions
CONFLICT IN ORGANIZATION
Introduction
Basically, an organization in its simplest form is a person or group of people
intentionally organized to accomplish an overall, common goal or set of goals.
Business organizations can range in size from one person to tens of thousands. There
are several important aspects to consider about the goal of the business organization.
These features are explicit (deliberate and recognized) or implicit (operating
unrecognized, "behind the scenes"). Ideally, these features are carefully considered
and established, usually during the strategic planning process. Organizations by
definition require people to work together and communicate with one another. Ideally
these interpersonal relationships should be productive, cooperative and satisfying.
However, almost every working relationship produces some degree of conflict across
time. Whether the conflicts will be destructive or constructive depends on the
attitudes and skills of the participants.
Conflict
Conflict refers to any situation in which two or more parties feel themselves in
opposition. Conflict is an interpersonal process that arises from disagreements over
goals to attain or the methods to be used to accomplish these goals.
Sources of Conflicts
Although a variety of causes contribute to the emergence of organizational conflict,
most conflicts boil down to several basic types or of combinations of them.
These include
Dispute over goals
Dispute over facts
Dispute over methods
Conflict also arises due to
Task interdependence
Ambiguity of roles, policies and rules
Personality clashes
Ineffective communications
Organizational change
Threats to status
Lack of trust
The competition over scare resources
Differences in perceptions, beliefs, attitudes, values, & experiences
Types of Conflict
i. Interpersonal Conflict
ii. Intra-group Conflict
iii. Intergroup Conflict
iv. Inter-organizational Conflict
Conflict Process
What begins as a problem of interdependence, ambiguity, or scarcity quickly
escalates to the point that the conflict process itself becomes an additional problem.
The conflict continues to cycle “on its own steam”
Consequences of Conflicts
Positive or Functional
People are stimulated to search for improved approaches that lead to better
results.
Energizes to be more creative and to experiment with new ideas.
Once-hidden problems are brought to the surface, where they may be
confronted and solved.
Negative or Dysfunctional
If conflict lasts long, at the interpersonal level, cooperation & teamwork
may deteriorate.
“Winning” the conflict becomes more important than developing a good solution to a problem
The parties began to conceal information from each other or to pass distorted information
Each group becomes more cohesive. Deviants who speak of conciliation are punished, and strict conformity is expected
Contact with the opposite party is discouraged except under formalized, restricted conditions
While the opposite party is negatively stereotyped, the image of one’s own is boosted
On each side, more aggressive people who are skilled at engaging in conflict may emerge as leaders
Distrust may grow among people who need to coordinate their efforts.
At the individual level, some person may feel defeated, while the self-
image of others will decline and personal stress levels will arise.
The motivation level of some employees will be reduced
Effect of Conflict on Performance
SituationLevel of
conflict
Types of
conflict
Unit’s internal
characteristics
Unit
performance
ALow or
NoneDysfunctional
Apathetic
Stagnant
Non-responsive to change
Lack of new ideas
Low
B Optimal Functional
Viable
Self-critical
innovativeHigh
C High Dysfunctional
Disruptive
Chaotic
Uncooperative
Low
Conflict-Handling Style
1. Avoiding
2. Competing/Dominating — I win, you lose
3. Accommodating/Obliging — I lose or give in
4. Compromising — We both get something
5. Collaborating/Integrating — We both win
Effect of Conflict on Performance
Competing/Dominating
Con fli c t- H
an d li ng Sty le C
o n t’ d
Conc ern fo r S
elf
Concern for OthersLow
Com
pro mi sin g
High
Low
Hig h
Plus
The winner is clear
Winners usually experience gains
Minus
Establishes the battleground for the next conflict
May cause worthy competitors to withdraw or leave the organization
Accommodating/Obliging
Plus
Curtails conflict situation
Enhances ego of the other
Minus
Sometimes establishes a precedence
Does not fully engage participants
Compromising
Plus
Shows good will
Establishes friendship
Minus
No one gets what they want
May feel like a dead end
Collaborating/Integrating
Plus
Everyone “wins”
Creates good feelings
Minus
Hard to achieve since no one knows how
Often confusing since players can “win” something they didn’t know they
wanted
Conflict Management Strategies
Strategies focused on individuals
Increasing awareness of the sources of conflict
Increasing diversity awareness and skills
Practicing job rotation
Using permanent transfers or dismissals when necessary
Strategies focused on the whole organization
Changing an organization’s structure or culture
Altering the source of conflict
Negotiation
A method of conflict resolution in which two parties of equal power try to
find an acceptable solution by considering various alternatives to allocate
resources to each other.
Third-party negotiator – an impartial individual with expertise in handling
conflicts. Helps parties in conflict reach an acceptable solution.
Mediators – facilitates negotiations but no authority to impose a solution.
Arbitrator – can impose what he thinks is a fair solution to a conflict that
both parties are obligated to abide by.
Tips for Managing Workplace Conflict
Build good relationships before conflict occurs
Do not let small problems escalate; deal with them as they arise
Respect differences
Listen to others’ perspectives on the conflict situation
Acknowledge feelings before focusing on facts
Focus on solving problems, not changing people
If you can’t resolve the problem, turn to someone who can help
Remember to adapt your style to the situation and persons involved
JOB ANALYSIS
Definition
Job is a Group of related activities and duties made up of task. And job analysis is a
method for describing jobs and the human attributes necessary to perform them
Two approaches:
Job oriented: Systematically collects, evaluates, and organizes
information about jobs.
Person oriented: Identifies knowledge, skills, abilities, and other personal
characteristics (KSAOs) that are critical to a job
Uses of Job Analysis
Purpose of JA
Career Development: JA contributes to career development by providing a
picture of the KSAO requirements for jobs at each level of the career ladder
Legal Issues: JA ensures system is legally defensible and perceived as fair
Performance Appraisal: Job analysis establishes performance standards
Selection: Selection system developed to assess key KSAOs. Ensures that it
is job-related
Training: Gaps in KSAs of new hires represent training needs
Methods of Job Analysis
The Job Components Inventory
Recruitment/Selection
Training & Development
Performance Appraisal
Compensation
PerformanceImprovementPrograms
EmployeeDisciplineSafety & Health
Job AnalysisFoundations
Tools and equipment
Perceptual and physical requirements
Mathematical requirements
Communication requirements
Decision making and responsibility
Functional Job Analysis (FJA)
Fine & Wiley (1971)
Tasks are rated on scales reflecting varying degrees of involvement with
Things, Data, and People as well as math, language, etc. requirements
Each scale is arranged hierarchically
Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ)
McCormick, Jeanneret, & Mecham (1972)
Developed because of criticism that JA relied on observation – not
quantifiable
Detailed questionnaire (194 tasks)
Determines extent to which each task is applicable to target job
Using a 5-point scale
Task Inventories
Time spent on task
Importance of task, difficulty of learning
Critical Incident Technique (CIT)
Flanagan (1949)
Identifies behaviors that indicate success or failure on the job
Effective vs. ineffective behaviors
Critical Incidents include:
Context - in which the incident occurred
Behavior - exactly what the individual did that was effective or
ineffective
Consequences - of the behavior and whether or not consequences
were in the employee’s control
Job Evaluation
Job Evaluation refers to a family of quantitative techniques used to determine the
salary levels of jobs.
Ranking - rank order the jobs according to each jobs relative worth or value to
the organization.
Classification - placing all jobs into a predetermined taxonomy of grades or
classes (like the DOT).
Point systems - assign points to various levels of skill, knowledge,
responsibility, working conditions, then summing the points.
PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL
Performance appraisal is a powerful tool to help the supervisor meet the
objectives of the department and organization.
The benefits of conducting performance appraisals include providing
information necessary for improving performance and motivating
employees.
Performance appraisals also provide important records for the
company.
Managers use this information for decisions on raises,
promotions, and discipline.
There are systematic steps in appraising performance.
First, performance and results expectations and standards of
performance are established and communicated to employees.
The supervisor then observes behavior and performance results,
comparing them to the standards set.
Finally, the supervisor provides reinforcement for acceptable or
excellent performance and works with employees to develop remedies
for inadequate performance.
It is impossible for different supervisors to evaluate employees in exactly the
same way.
A supervisor may have a tendency to select some specific ratings or
identify certain behaviors as problematic over others.
Biases about specific people and groups of people can affect the
appraisal process.
For example, supervisors who fail to keep good records may
rely on recent events when evaluating an employee.
A supervisor may give a more favorable appraisal to someone
who is similar to the supervisor and appraise more negatively a
person who is different from the supervisor.
Another bias comes from the halo effect, which leads people to
generalize one positive or negative trait to a person’s entire
performance.
There are several types of appraisals used to evaluate performance.
Supervisors usually do not choose the type of form to use, rather it is
selected by the human resources department or upper management.
The goal of some appraisal forms is to make the process easy and consistent
for all employees.
Ideally, the form focuses on behavioral performance and results to
reduce bias and increase objectivity.
The graphic rating scale is an example of this type of appraisal
form.
However, this type of form is susceptible to lack of consistency
from supervisor to supervisor.
Another type of appraisal is the paired-comparison approach, which measures
the relative performance of employees in a group.
This form rank orders all employees to find the best employees.
Therefore, it reflects negatively on other employees.
The appraisal interview provides feedback to the employee and allows the
employee to join in the process of performance improvement.
The interview should follow careful and thoughtful completion of the
appraisal form, and should be in a private place with plenty of time for
the employee to discuss issues raised in the interview.
The final outcome of the interview should be agreement between the
supervisor and employee about what improvements need to be made and the
method for achieving the improvement goals.
Uses of Performance Appraisals
Training and development needs.
Career planning and development.
Deficiencies in staffing process.
Informational inaccuracies.
Job design error.
Avoidance of discrimination.
External challenges
Benefits of Conducting a Performance Appraisal
Performance Appraisal: Formal feedback on how well an employee is
performing his or her job.
Performance appraisals may be accomplished with the use of a
standard form, which includes questions or items to guide the process.
On the other hand, performance appraisal can be accomplished without
a standard form.
In either case, the evaluation should be based on predetermined
performance expectations that are communicated to employees.
Performance appraisals provide information necessary for employees to
improve the quality of their work.
It can help motivate employees.
Employees like to hear how they are doing, and behaviors that
are evaluated or measured tend to get more attention from
individuals.
Therefore, when it is useful to the organization to have special
attention directed at a goal, it is useful to have that item on a formal
appraisal.
For example, if the quality of a product or service is important,
it is worthwhile to have a section on the performance appraisal
on quality.
Another reason for conducting performance appraisals is that they provide
important records for the organization.
They are a useful source of information when deciding on raises,
promotions, and discipline, and they provide evidence that these were
administered fairly.
In the case of employee behavior or performance problems, an
appraisal documents the problem.
Systematically Appraising Performance
For appraisals to deliver their potential benefits, they must be as fair and
accurate as possible.
Supervisors should be systematic in appraising performance.
Appraisal Process
Establish and Communicate Expectations: During the planning process and
related action plans, the supervisor spells out who is to do what in order to
accomplish the department objectives. This information will indicate what
each employee must do in order to help the department or work group meet its
objectives. One approach is to list three to five major responsibilities of each
position; then focus on these responsibilities.
Observe and Measure Individual Performance: Through the control
process, the supervisor should continuously gather information about each
employee’s performance. This is an ongoing process, not something the
supervisor saves to do when filling out appraisal forms.
Reinforce Performance: To keep employees motivated and informed, the
supervisor needs to tell them when they are doing something right, not just
when they are making a mistake. Reinforce good performance by pointing out
to employees the areas in which their performance is good.
Avoiding Discrimination in Performance Appraisals
The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) is the government agency
charged with enforcing federal laws against discrimination. The EEOC has published
the Uniform Guidelines of Employee Selection Procedures, which include guidelines
for designing and implementing performance appraisals.
Types of Appraisals
Types of commonly used performance appraisal techniques include:
Graphic rating scales.
Paired-comparison approach.
Forced-choice approach.
Essay appraisal.
Preparing for a Performance Appraisal
Preparation for the interview begins with completing the appraisal form.
The supervisor should allow enough time to complete the form
carefully and thoughtfully.
The supervisor should think about how the employee is likely to react
to the appraisal and should plan how to handle the employee’s
reaction.
Also be ready with some ideas for how to correct problems noted in
the appraisal.
Notify the employee ahead of the time of the interview.
Arrange for a private place to hold the interview.
Make arrangements to prevent interruptions.
This is a very important event for both the supervisor and the
employee--treat it as such.
In preparation for the appraisal interview, it is also useful for the supervisor to
review for himself or herself why appraisals are important for the
organization, department, and most of all for the supervisor to be competent at
the job.
When the supervisor is convinced the performance is a positive enterprise and
that it can be a win-win situation, it will be easier to do the interview.
Guidelines for Conducting the Interview
Begin the interview session by an attempt to put the employee at ease.
A refreshment and small talk may help break the ice.
Review the employee’s self-evaluation first, if there is one.
Ask for reasons for the various ratings.
Then the supervisor describes his or her evaluation of the employee.
Start with an overall impression, then explain the contents of
the appraisal forms.
Most employees are waiting for the “bad news,” so it is
probably most effective to describe areas for improvement
first.
Then describe the employee’s strengths.
Allow time for the employee to respond to the performance appraisal.
The employee should be allowed to agree or disagree with the
supervisor’s conclusions, as well as to ask questions.
It is important for the supervisor to keep an open mind and listen to the
employee.
When the supervisor and employee understand each other’s point of view,
they should reach a decision on how to solve problems described in the
appraisal.
At the end of the interview, the supervisor and employee are usually
required to sign the appraisal form.
By doing so, they acknowledge that the interview has been conducted
and that the employee has read and understood the form.
After the interview is over, the supervisor continues to appraise performance.
Training and coaching for improvement should ensue.
The follow-up is an ongoing process.
ASSESSMENT METHOD OF SELECTION
Reliability
Reliability is the degree to which a measure of physical or cognitive abilities,
or traits, is free from random error.
The correlation coefficient is a measure of the degree to which two sets of
numbers are related.
A perfect positive relationship equals +1.0
A perfect negative relationship equals - 1.0
Knowing how scores on the measure at one time relate to scores on the same
measure at another time refers to test-retest reliability.
Validity
Validity is the extent to which a performance measure assesses all the relevant
—and only the relevant—aspects of job performance.
Criterion-related validation is a method of establishing the validity of a
personnel selection method by showing a substantial correlation between test
scores and job-performance scores. The types include:
Predictive validation
Concurrent validation
Content Validation
Content validation is a test-validation strategy performed by demonstrating
that the items, questions, or problems posed by a test are a representative
sample of the kinds of situations or problems that occur on the job.
Best for small samples
Content validity is achieved primarily through a process of expert
judgment
Generalizability
Generalizability is the degree to which the validity of a selection method
established in one context extends to other contexts.
Three contexts include:
different situations
different samples of people
different time periods
Utility
Utility is the degree to which the information provided by selection methods
enhances the effectiveness of selecting personnel in organizations.
It is impacted by reliability, validity, and generalizability.
Legality
All selection methods must conform to existing laws and legal precedents.
Three acts have formed the basis for a majority of the suits filed by job
applicants:
Civil Rights Act of 1964 and 1991
Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967
Americans with Disabilities Act of 1991
Techniques for the Assessment
1. Psychological Tests
2. Biographical Inventory
3. Interview
4. Work Sample
5. Assessment Center
6. Electronic Assessment
Characteristics of Psychological Test
1. Group Versus Individually Administered Tests
2. Objective Versus Open-Ended Tests
3. Paper-and-Pencil Versus Performance Tests
4. Power Versus Speed Tests
5. Ability Tests
Cognitive Ability Tests
Psychomotor Ability Tests
6. Knowledge and Skill or Achievement Tests
7. Personality Tests
8. Integrity Tests: Overt Versus Personality
9. Vocational Interest Tests
10. Emotional Intelligence: Trait Versus Information Processing
11. Drug Testing
Biographical Information
Biographical Inventory
Detailed information about a person’s background
Empirical vs. Rational
Predictive of job performance
Interviews
Used in almost every hiring situation
Most acceptable to college students in US and France (Steiner & Gilliland,
1996
Relates to cognitive ability (Huffcutt et al., 1996)
Structured vs. Unstructured
Structured much more valid in predicting performance
Work Samples
Simulation of actual job tasks
Good predictors of future job performance
Acceptability by applicants because of obvious job relevance
High face validity
Assessment Centers
Simulation of management and other white collar jobs
44% of British employers who hire college students use (Keenan, 1995)
In US used mainly for promotion and selection of managers
Can also be used for employee development
Overall scores valid predictors of performance
Dimension scores often not valid
Assesses how person fits role (Russell & Domm, 1995)
Electronic Assessment
Electronic administration of psychological test
Web-based assessment
Can administer customized test
Makes scoring easier and quicker
Tailored testing
Trend or wave of the future?
SELECTING EMPLOYEES
What is selection?
The process of collecting and evaluating information about an individual in
order to extend an offer of employment
Either a first position for a new employee
Or a different position for a current employee
Performed under legal and environmental constraints
Addresses the future interests of the organization
Basic objective of selection
Separate, from a pool of applicants for a job, those that have the appropriate
knowledge, skills, and abilities (KSAs) to perform well on the job.
To do so, the selection specialist must systematically collect information from
the applicants about how much of the necessary KSA each possesses.
Crucial Issue in Selection
The crucial issue is not whether an organization can collect information from
applicants and then decide which are to be given employment offers.
The issue is whether the organization can collect information from applicants
about individual characteristics that are closely related to job performance and
effectively use these data to identify the best applicants for employment offers
Steps in the Development of Selection Program
1. Job analysis:
The gathering of information about a job in an organization
Information should describe:
Tasks or activities engaged in
The results of those tasks or activities
The equipment and materials used
The individuals
The environment
2. Identification of relevant job performance dimensions:
What constitutes successful job performance?
What do the workers need to know and be able to do upon entering the
job to be successful at the job?
Some things can be learned on the job and therefore are less
critical in the selection process
3. Identify the KSAs necessary for the job:
These are the prerequisites to performance
What must a worker know?
What skills and abilities must he or she possess to perform the critical
job tasks?
4. Development of assessment devices to measure KSAs
Once you’ve identified the KSAs needed, you have to measure those
KSAs in applicants for the job
Tests
Interview questions
Demonstrations of skills
Etc.
5. Validation of assessment devices
Validation is the steps taken to collect and evaluate information to
determine whether the worker characteristics thought to be important
to job performance are, in fact, related to successful job performance
If not, you need to revise
So that you get the best people
Legal reasons
6. Use of assessment devices in processing of applicants
Once you’re sure your assessment methods work, use them.
Why not more information?
Better selection decisions can be made when the data collected are
accurate and complete.
The greater the amount of accurate data collected, the more complete
the assessment will be.
So, why do selection specialists only obtain limited information?
Measurement
Why are numbers necessary in the selection process?
Because they facilitate comparison of people
Gives you information better than words alone
Permit statistical manipulation, which provides even more information
about the selection program
Problem of measurement
The problem for selection specialists is to ensure that the numbers generated
are actually accurate descriptions of the characteristics of the applicant, job, or
job performance
Can measure anything
But should only measure what’s important
Analyze measurements in a meaningful way
Legal issues with selection
Very important for a company to adopt clear, effective, measurable selection procedures that do not unfairly discriminate between groups of individuals
Those procedures should measure only the person’s ability to do a job
Must be able to prove that your procedures are measuring only that
Otherwise, organization is very vulnerable if discrimination charges are brought against them
Two major objectives of every selection program
To maximize the probability of making accurate selection decisions about applicantsTo ensure that these selection decisions are carried out in such a manner as to minimize the chance of a judgment of discrimination being made against organizationEqual Employment OpportunityEEO regulation is directed at addressing social and economic problemsIt is directed toward the solution of national issues such as employment inequalities
EEO Regulations
Two components:
The laws and executive orders that state general principles and empower regulatory agencies (EEOC, OFCC, federal courts, state courts, state agencies)
Court decisions that interpret these general principles in specific situations
EEO Laws and Executive Orders
EEO laws are federal laws whose purpose is the elimination of discrimination in HR management decisions
EEO executive orders are statements made by the executive branch of the government intended for the same purpose, but aimed at organizations that do business directly with the government
ADA of 1990
Americans with Disabilities Act
Prohibits pre-employment inquires about a person’s disability.
Places the responsibility on the disabled person to bring any relevant disability to the employer’s attention.
Many applications will specifically ask if you have a disability that would interfere with your ability to perform a job. This is illegal.
Disparate treatment / impact
EEO laws and executive orders prohibit discrimination in selection. But what precisely is discrimination? One of two things:
Disparate treatment
Disparate impact (adverse impact)
Disparate Treatment
Refers to those situations in which different standards are applied to various groups of individuals, even though there may not be an explicit statement of intentional prejudice
Example: Not hiring women with young children but hiring men with young children
Example: Hiring minorities for cleaning positions in a restaurant and hiring whites with similar qualifications for wait staff or cashiering
Disparate Impact
When selection standards are applied uniformly to all groups of applicants, but the net result of such standards is to produce differences in the selection of various groups.
Example: requiring a high school diploma, which unfairly limits the % of minority applicants
Example: height requirements, which unfairly limit women, Asian Americans and Latin Americans
Evidence
In both types of discrimination there must be evidence that the discrimination has occurred.
But the way in which evidence is presented differs depending on whether it is a case of disparate treatment or disparate impact.
Title VII discrimination cases
In a Title VII discrimination case (discrimination on the basis of race, color, religion, sex, or national origin) the following steps are involved in presentation of evidence (see table 2.2)…
Disparate Treatment Step 1
Plaintiff
Demonstrates that he or she belongs to a protected class
He or she applied and was qualified for a job for which the company was seeking applicants
Despite these qualifications, he or she was rejected
After this rejection, the position remained open and the employer continued to seek applicants from persons with the complainant’s qualifications
Disparate Treatment Step 2
Defendant
Provides a clear and specific job-based explanation for actions
Disparate Treatment Step 3
Plaintiff
Proves that the defendant’s argument is a pretext and the true reason for rejection was prejudice
Disparate Impact Step 1
Plaintiff
Demonstrates statistically that this HRM practice affects various groups differently in comparison to their distribution in the relevant labor market
Disparate Impact Step 2
Defendant
Demonstrates at least one of the following:
• Business necessity
• Bona fide occupational qualification (BFOQ)
• Validation data
Disparate Impact Step 3
Plaintiff
Proves that an alternative practice is available that has less adverse impact
BFOQ
One way of fighting a discrimination charge is by demonstrating bona fide occupational qualification.
A BFOQ defense means that no person of a particular sex, race, color, religion, or national origin can adequately perform the given job.
This has mainly been related to sex or religion cases
Legally, it is impossible to frame a BFOQ defense for race, color, or national origin
Statistics
With both forms of discrimination, statistics become important in helping to show the discrimination either did or did not occur
Disparate treatment: statistics are mainly used to assist the plaintiff in rebutting the defendant’s explanation of the selection practice under question
Disparate impact: statistics are most often used by the plaintiff in demonstrating that a pattern of adverse effect has occurred
Uniform Guidelines on Employee Selection Procedures (1978)
These guidelines show how you should set up your selection program.
Prior to this time, both the EEOC and the Department of Labor had issued separate guidelines that conflicted with respect to certain procedures.
Problem was that you could not conform to both sets of guidelines.
Therefore, you could not avoid the threat of trouble from both agencies.
Later the courts ruled that the joint guidelines will be used almost as a checklist for any court cases. Therefore they are very significant.
Unacceptable Skills and Abilities
According to the joint guidelines, skills and abilities easily learned during a brief training program are not acceptable as selection requirements
Affirmative action programs
An affirmative action program (AAP) applies to a set of specific actions taken by an organization to meet the objectives of EEO law.
Typically an affirmative action plan is created to explicitly state the steps the organization will take in selection.
Three situations to adopt AAP
Being a government contractor
Having lost a court discrimination case or having signed a consent decree
Voluntarily attempting to implement EEO principles
Government Contractors
Most of the EEO laws and executive orders require AAPs for government contractors with contracts of at least $10,000
So, they have good reason to adopt AAPs (they have to)
Losing a discrimination case
Often a part of losing the case entails that the organization legally has to adopt an AAP
So, they also have a good reason to adopt AAPs (they also have to)
Voluntary adoption
An organization may decide, on its own, to implement an AAP to promote diversity
However, this can get tricky
In the process of being fair to traditional victims of discrimination, the company may bend over backwards and end up discriminating other groups.
By discriminating against those other groups and thus violating parts of Title VII, the organization opens itself to charges reverse discrimination.
Griggs v. Duke Power (1971)
13 African American employees filed a class-action suit against Duke Power.
They were charging discriminatory employment practices
The claim was based on newly implemented selection requirements (high school diplomas, passage of a mechanical aptitude test, and an IQ test)
According to the plaintiffs, these tests unfairly screened out a much higher percentage of African Americans than whites.
The requirements did not affect current employees, just future employees (applicants)
Duke Power made no attempt to determine the job relatedness of the selection requirements
A lower district court found in favor of the company on the grounds that there was no discriminatory intent.
An appellate court agreed district court
However, the Supreme Court, in an unanimous decision, reversed the previous decisions
The court ruled that a lack of discriminatory intent was not a sufficient defense against the use of employment devices that exclude on the basis of race.
The court held that tests and other measuring devices must be related to job performance.
Duke Power had workers who did not meet the selection requirements (the ones who had been hired before the requirements were put into place).
Those workers had performed their jobs successfully
Therefore, Duke Power had no evidence relating the selection requirements to job performance
Important precedents set by Griggs v. Duke Power
The applicant has the burden of proving the adverse impact of a particular selection device
Once adverse impact has been established, the burden of proof shifts to the employer
The employer must prove the validity or job relatedness of the device
Selection Problem: Choose the Best Person For the Job
Best performer
Best social fit (team player)
Best person job fit (worker adjustment/well-being)
Empirical process: Data based and objective
Legal process: Government regulation and law
Utility: Benefit of using a selection procedure
Hiring Process
Planning and Recruitment
Planning: Anticipating needs for human resources
Expansion vs. replacements
Labor markets
Recruitment
Advertising
Employee referral
Employment agencies
School recruiters
Walk-ins
Web (Monster website)
Preliminary Concepts
Reliability
Test-retest
Internal consistency: Multiple items required
Validity
Criterion related
Concurrent vs. predictive
Content
Face
Convergent vs. Discriminant
Construct: Overall case necessary for legal defense
Making Selection Decisions
Human judgment: Hire whoever seems best
I/O approach: Use empirically (research-based) proven assessment methods
Steps involved in I/O method
1. Analyze job
2. Define criteria
3. Define abilities needed
4. Choose potential predictors
5. Validate (determine equation)
6. Cross-validate
Multiple cutoff option: Must meet each selection requirement
Multiple regression: Must achieve a certain total score regardless of
performance on each requirement
Validity generalization: Effective selection devices work in all settings
Utility
Value of selection system to the organization
Cost/benefit ratio
Utility is maximized by
1. Validity of selection device—should be high
2. Selection ratio (hired/applicants)—should be low
3. Baseline for success—should be 50%
4. Cost of selection program—should be low
5. Cost of bad selection (recruitment, training, low productivity)—
should be high
Hunter-Schmidt programmer aptitude test for federal government
Cost: $6000/year
Estimated gain: $5.6 million to 97.2 million
If universally adopted could save $1.5 billion in U.S.
However, this assumes unlimited supply of applicants and no
constraints on performance in organizations
TRAINING EMPLOYEES
Training in Organizations
Training can be very valuable by
Increasing employee competence and performance
Increasing employee motivation
Increasing employee adjustment and well-being
Not always effective because training
is for the wrong thing
given to the wrong people
uses the wrong methods
Steps to Developing Training
Needs Assessment
Determining which employees need training
Determining what training should be done
According to Goldstein (1986, 1991), needs assessment should focus on three
levels:
i) Organization ii) Job iii) Person
Major methods
Job analysis: KSAO's necessary for the job
Critical incidents: E.g., hospital incident reports
Performance appraisal: Can be part of a performance management system
Employee surveys
Setting Objectives
The objectives of training are based on criteria and include a statement of
what a trainee should be able to do or know after training
The training criteria is a statement of how achievement of the training
objective can be assessed
Criteria serve as the basis for the design of organizational training
Training Design
Goal: Transfer of training to job
Factors to Consider
Trainee characteristics
Design factors that affect transfer of training
Feedback
General principles
Identical elements
Over learning (Practice)
Sequencing of Training Sessions part versus whole and massed
versus spaced
Work Environment
Training Methods
Training Methods
1. Audiovisual Instruction
2. Auto instruction
3. Conference
4. Lecture
5. Modeling
6. On-the-Job Training
7. Role Playing
8. Simulations
Delivery of A Training Program
In most organizations specialists who are skilled in training deliver the
program
They may or may not be experts in the content of the training or in training
design
Evaluation
Set Criteria
Training criteria
Reactions
Learning
Performance criteria
Behavior
Results
Choose Design
Pretest-posttest
Control group
Pretest-Posttest Design
Control Group Design
Pretest Assessme
nt of
Criteria
TrainingDelivery
Posttest Assessme
nt of
Criteria
Choose Measures of the Criteria
Collecting Data
Data Analysis and Interpretation
Random Assignment of People to Groups
Deliver No Training
To Control Group
Assess Trained
Group on Criteria
Deliver Training
To Trained Group
Assess Control
Group on Criteria
JOB SATISFACTION & ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT
Job satisfaction
Job satisfaction is an attitudinal variable that reflects how people feel about their jobs overall as well as various aspects of them.
Organizational commitment
It is attachment to the job and another popular attitudinal variable in the work domain.
Nature of Job Satisfaction
Global approach: Overall satisfaction with work
Facet approach: Satisfaction with aspects of the job
Pay
Promotion
Supervision
Nature of work
Most people like the job overall
Facet satisfactions vary
Highest: Nature of work
Lowest: Pay and Promotion opportunities
Mean levels of U.S. Satisfaction On the Job Satisfaction Survey
Assessment
Self-report survey
Easy to use
Can be anonymous
Person best judge of own feelings
Standard scales exist
Job Descriptive Index (JDI)
5 facets of job satisfaction
Job In General (JIG)
Global job satisfaction
Scales exist for commitment and emotion
Antecedents of Job Satisfaction: Environmental
Job characteristics
Hackman & Oldham
Characteristics à Psychological States à Job satisfaction
Strong research support linking perceptions of characteristics to job satisfaction
Weak research support linking objective characteristics to job satisfaction
Pay
Salary compared to people in same job more important than different jobs
Justice
Distributive and Procedural related to global and facet satisfaction
Job Characteristics Theory
Antecedents of Job Satisfaction: Environmental
Personality
Negative affectivity (high NAs less satisfied)
Locus of control (externals less satisfied)
Gender
Few gender differences
Age
Curvilinear—satisfaction lowest age 26 to 31
Culture and Ethnicity
Few racial differences within the U.S.
Western countries score higher than Asians
Could be due to response styles rather than true feelings
Person-Job Fit
Match between individual and the job
People differ in reactions to same situation
Characteristics of the person is a moderator
Moderator: Variable that affects relationship between two other variables
Growth need strength (GNS)
People high on GNS are more satisfied with high scope jobs
People low on GNS are not more satisfied with high scope jobs
Effects of Job Satisfaction
Job Performance
Small correlation
More evidence that performance causes satisfaction than reverse
Turnover
Dissatisfied people more likely to quit
Moderated by labor market—people quit when they find another job
Absence
Very small correlation—other factors more important
Health and Well-Being
Job satisfaction relates to health variables such as anxiety and depression
Life Satisfaction
Job satisfaction important component of life satisfaction
Spillover
Organizational Commitment
One commitment, three components
Mowday, Steers, Porter
Acceptance of organization goals
Intention to stay on the job
Willingness to work hard
Three commitments
Meyer and Allen
Affective: Like the job
Continuance: Need the job
Normative: Feel obligated to stay on the job
Commitment and Other Variables
Similar correlations as job satisfaction
High commitment associated with
High job scope
High job satisfaction
Low job stressors
Job Scope
Emotions and Work
Emotion state: How you feel now
Emotion mood: How you have been feeling lately
Positive emotions: Feeling good
Greater creativity
Higher job satisfaction
More contextual performance
Negative emotions: Feeling bad
Lower job satisfaction
Higher absence
More turnover
Emotional Labor
Requirement at work to express or inhibit emotional display
Smiling at customers
Not showing anger toward clients
Some studies showed that acting happy can lead to job satisfaction
Emotional dissonance: Expressing emotion you don’t feel
Leads to dissatisfaction and stress
WORK GROUPS &WORK TEAMS
Work Group
A work group is a collection of two or more people who interact with one another and
share some interrelated task goals.
Work Team
A work team is a type of work group, but a team has three specific properties (Baker,
1991):
1. The actions of individuals must be interdependent and coordinated.
2. Each member must have a particular, specified role.
3. There must be common task goals and objectives.
Group/Team Concepts
Roles: Specialization of function within positions
Formal: position title and description define with job analysis
Informal: Emergent behavior in group
Status
Power & influence, prestige, respect
Partially inherent in role
Norms
Expected & accepted behavioral standards
Productivity norms
Dress norms
Group Cohesiveness: Attraction of group members toward staying in group
High cohesive groups
Lower turnover
Stronger adherence to norms (homogenizer of behavior)
Greater satisfaction
Greater group influence
Team Commitment
Strength of an individual’s involvement in team and acceptance of
team goals
Team Mental Model
Shared understanding of task by team members
Process Loss
Effort/time spent by team members on non-task activities
Stages in Team Building
Stages in Team Building
Stage I: Forming – Provide clear direction to establish the team’s purpose, setting goals, etc.,
Stage II: Storming – Provide strong, hands-on leadership to keep people talking and task-focused
Stage III: Norming – Codes of behaviour becomes established and an identifiable group culture emerges. People begin to enjoy each other’s company and appreciate each other’s contributions
FormingStormingNorming
PerformingAdjourning
Stage IV: Performing – Teams that reach this stage achieve results easily and enjoyably. People work together well and can improve systems, solve problems and provide excellent customer service.
Stage V: Adjourning – Temporary project team reaches this stage; celebrate their team’s achievements.
Types of Teams
1. Problem-solving teams – groups of 5-12 employees from the same department who meet for a few hours each week to discuss ways of improving quality, efficiency, and the work environment.
These teams are rarely given the opportunity to unilaterally implement any of their suggested actions, i.e. lack of employee involvement in decision-making process.
2. Self-managed work teams – groups of employees (typically 10-15) who perform highly related or interdependent jobs (e.g. planning, assigning tasks to members, making operational decisions, and taking action on problems) and take on many of the responsibilities of their previous supervisors.
Members report higher job satisfaction but also higher absenteeism and turnover rates – situation dependent.
3. Cross-functional teams – employees from about the same hierarchical level, but from different work areas, who come together to accomplish a task. Examples include ‘Task force’, ‘Committees’.
It takes time to build trust and teamwork, especially among people from different backgrounds, with different experiences and perspectives.
4. Virtual teams – that use computer technology to tie together physically dispersed members in order to achieve a common goal.
Allow people to work together who might otherwise never be able to collaborate.
Suffer from less social rapport and less direct interaction among members.
Considerations Before Deciding To Use Teams
Teams are not always preferable to individuals. Three conditions favor teams:
(a) The work is complex and can be done better by more than one person;
(b) The work has a common purpose or set of goals that is more than the aggregate of individual goals; and
(c) There is interdependence between tasks.
Key Factors to Successful Performance of a Team S.C.O.R.E.
Strategy
Clear Roles and Responsibility
Open Communication
Rapid Response
Effective Leadership
S.C.O.R.E.
Strategy:
Shared purpose
Clearly articulated values and ground rules
Understanding of risks and opportunities facing the team
Clear categorization of the overall responsibilities of the team
Clear Roles and Responsibilities:
Clear definition of roles and responsibilities
Responsibility shared by all members
Specific objectives to measure individual results
Open communication:
Respect for individual differences
Open communication environment among team members
Rapid response:
Rapid response to the team’s problems
Effective management to change in the internal and external environment
Effective Leadership:
Team leader who is able to help members achieve the objective and build the team
Team leader who can draw out and free up the skills of all team members, develop individuals
Components of Effective Teams
1. Context – adequate resources, leadership and structure, climate of trust, performance evaluation and reward systems.
2. Composition – abilities of members, personality, allocating roles, diversity, size of teams, member flexibility, member preferences.
3. Work design – autonomy, skill variety, task identity, task significance.
4. Process – common purpose, specific goals, team efficiency, conflict levels, social loafing.
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