psycholinguistics - دانشگاه آزاد اسلامی واحد نجف آباد · 2014. 10....

Psycholinguistics Psychological Mechanisms

Psychological Mechanisms

Information processing system Processing◦ Serial and parallel processing◦ Top-down and bottom-up processing◦ Automatic and controlled processes

Development of the processing system

The Stages of Memory◦ Encoding◦ Storage◦ Retrieval

Information-Processing Model of Memory

◦ A model of memory in which information must pass through discrete stages via the processes of attention, encoding, storage, and retrieval.

MemoryTypes of MemorySensory Memory

Records information from the senses for up to three seconds

Short-Term MemoryHolds about seven items for up to twenty seconds before the material is forgotten or transferred to long-term memory

Long-Term MemoryRelatively permanent, can hold vast amounts of information

Working Memory (Short Term Memory)

A temporary holding place for thecognitive acts on the information.

Size: limited, 7±2 units Duration: limited, 10 to 20 seconds

Working Memory (Short Term Memory)

Continuous rehearsal (rehearing) canmaintain the contents of the memoryindefinitely.

Memory span test participants are given a series of items (words, letters,

numbers, and so forth) and asked to recall the items in the order presented (or in backwards order)

Baddeleys’ Working Memory Model

Central Executive

Visuo-spatial Sketch Pad Episodic Buffer Phonological

Store

Articulatory LoopVisual Scribe

Working Memory Model Articulatory Loop◦ Used to maintain information for a short time and for

acoustic rehearsal

Visuo-spatial Sketch Pad◦ Used for maintaining and processing visuo-spatial

information

Episodic Buffer ◦ Used for storage of a multimodal code, holding an integrated

episode between systems using different codes

Working Memory Model

Central Executive◦ Focuses attention on relevant items and inhibiting irrelevant

ones◦ Plans sequence of tasks to accomplish goals, schedules

processes in complex tasks, often switches attention between different parts ◦ Updates and checks content to determine next step in

sequence of parts

Tests of the model

Word-length effect Stroop task Antisaccade task

The Stroop and antisaccade tasks depend on attention control

Long-term memory

Semantic memoryOur store of general knowledge

Episodic memoryOur personal memory system

Long-term memory

Autonoetic consciousness the type of consciousness of subjectivity

experienced time: past, present, or future

Déjà vu the erroneous feeling that one has

experienced a particular event before

Issues in Language Processing Serial and parallel processing Top-down and bottom-up processing Automatic and controlled processes Modularity

Serial and Parallel Processing Serial processing: deal with one task at a time.

Parallel processing: deal with multiple tasks at atime

Rumelhart’s test shows the context helps decide the identity of the obscured letter. And thus proves the parallel processing (fig. 3-2) .

Parallel Distributed Processing Properties of the tasks that people are good at.◦ A number of different pieces of information must be kept in

mind at once. ◦ Each plays a part, constraining others and being constrained by

them Assumption of PDP model: ◦ interactions of a large number of simple processing elements ◦ each sending excitatory and inhibitory signals to other units.

Elements of model◦ unit, activation, interaction among units

Top-down and Bottom-up Processing Bottom-up processing: from the lowest level to the

highest level

Top-down processing: information at the higher levels may influence processing at the lower levels.

Top-down attention is also referred to as endogenous or sustained attention, and bottom-up attention is commonly typified as exogenous or transient attention (Carrasco, 2011).

Automatic and Controlled Processes Tasks that draw substantially from the limited

resources are controlled tasks and the processesinvolved are controlled processes.

Tasks that do not require substantial resources areautomatic tasks and the processes involved areautomatic processes.

Automatic tasks are not related to the age of theindividual or to the strategy employed.

Automatic and Controlled Processes Certain automatic tasks appear to be biologically

built into our cognitive equipment, e.g.frequency counter.

Other automatic processes are the result ofextensive practice.

Language processing can be automatic (recognition of common words) or controlled (parsing of sentences).

Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development In Children

Features of Piaget’s theory Genetic Epistemology biological approach Structuralism

Mechanisms of development◦ Cognitive adaptation Assimilation Accomodation

◦ Cognitive equilibriation

Stages of Development Piaget’s theory identifies four

developmental stages and the processes by which children progress through them.

The four stages are:1. Sensorimotor Stage (birth to 24 months)2. Preoperational Stage (2-7 years old)3. Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 years old)4. Formal Operational Stage (11-15 years old)(Brainerd, 1978).

Sensorimotor Stage

In this period, intelligence is demonstrated through motor activity without the use of symbols.

Knowledge of the world is limited (but developing) because it is based on physical interactions and experiences.

Some symbolic abilities are developed at the end of this stage.

Preoperational Stage(2-7 years old) In this period, intelligence is

demonstrated through the use of symbols.

Language use matures. Memory and imagination are developed. Thinking is done in a non-logically

nonreversible manner Egocentric thinking predominates

Characteristics of Pre-Operational Stage

Egocentrism◦ It is all about them◦ They can not differentiate between themselves and the

world Rigidity of Thought◦ Centration: focus on one aspect of an object Therefore no addition or subtraction

Semilogical reasoning Limited social cognition◦ Lack of awareness of intentions in others

Concrete operations stage

Seriation◦ mentally arrange items along a dimension (e.g.

height, weight, time or speed)

Classification◦ Sort objects into groups◦ Class inclusion

Number concepts◦ Numbers are arbitrary◦ Invariance of number

Conservation

Formal operations stage

Reasoning about abstractions◦ Hypothetical and abstract notions Future ‘other worlds’

Applying logic◦ Deductive reasoning (“if … then…”)

Advanced problem solving◦ Systematic Pendulum task