project final (f).pdf

EFFECTS OF EARTHQUAKES ON ENVIRONMENT

2012

11/15/2012

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

GROUP MEMBERS: WAQAS

LATIF,MUHAMMAD AWAIS CHEEMA,MUHAMMAD

JUNAID,MUHAMMAD BILAL,MUHAMMAD

ABDULLAH,USMAN NAEEM,ATIF SOHAIL

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SR NO. CONTENTS PAGE NO.

1- SUMMARY 3

2- INTRODUCTION TO EARTHQUAKES 3

3- INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENT 4

4- EFFECTS OF EARTHQUAKES ON ENVIRONMENT

POLLUTION

LIQUIFACTION

LANDSLIDES

TSUNAMI

FAULTS

DAMAGE TO STRUCTURES

FLOODS

TRANSPORT NETWORK

ELECTRICITY AND COMMUNICATION

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5- STATISTICS 12

6- GENERAL METHODOLOGY 12

7- CASE STUDY

REPORT ON KASHMIR

REPORT ON HAITI

REPORT ON GREECE

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8- CIVIL ENGINEERING APPROACH 20

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Summary:

In this project we have tried to cover the information about earthquakes and their possible

consequences on our environment. First we have given introduction about earthquake including its

definition and explanation then about environment. After this impacts of earthquakes have been

discussed including effects on structures, ecosystem and our networks. Then there is a discussion

regarding earthquake tackling and some reports regarding the main topic are also discussed. In the end

civil engineering approach regarding the topic is discussed.

Introduction to Earthquakes:

Definition:

An earthquake (also known as a quake, tremor or temblor) is the result of a sudden release of

energy in the Earth's crust that creates seismic waves. The seismicity, seismism or seismic

activity of an area refers to the frequency, type and size of earthquakes experienced over a

period of time

Terms ralated to Earthquakes:

Aftershock Secondary tremors that may follow the largest shock of an earthquake sequence. Such tremors

can extend over a period of weeks, months, or years.

Epicenter The point on the Earth’s surface vertically above the point (focus or hypocenter) in the crust

where a seismic rupture nucleates.

Fault Plane

The surface on which the earthquake movement takes place. Intensity

A subjective numerical index describing the severity of an earthquake in terms of its effects on

the Earth’s surface and on humans and their structures. Several scales exist, but the ones most

commonly used in the United States are the Modified Mercalli’s scale and the Rossi-Forel scale.

Magnitude

A number that characterizes the relative size of an earthquake. Magnitude is based on

measurement of the maximum motion recorded by a seismograph (sometimes for earthquake

waves of a particular frequency), corrected for attenuation to a standardized distance. Several

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scales have been defined, but the most commonly used are (1) local magnitude(ML), commonly

referred to as Richter magnitude, (2) surface-wave magnitude (Ms), (3) body-wave magnitude

(Mb), and (4) moment magnitude (Mw). ML, Ms and Mb have limited range and applicability

and do not satisfactorily measure the size of the largest earthquakes. The moment magnitude

(Mw) scale, based on the concept of seismic moment, is uniformly applicable to all sizes of

earthquakes but is more difficult to compute than the other types. In principal, all magnitude

scales could be cross calibrated to yield the same value for any given earthquake, but this

expectation has proven to be only approximately true, thus the need to specify the magnitude

type as well as its value.An increase of one unit of magnitude (for example, from 4.6 to 5.6)

represents a 10-fold increase in wave amplitude on a seismogram or approximately a 30-fold

increase in the energy released. In other words, a magnitude 6.7 earthquake releases over 900

times (30 times 30) the energy of a 4.7 earthquake – or it takes about 900 magnitude 4.7

earthquakes to equal the energy released in a single 6.7 earthquake! There is no beginning nor

end to this scale. However, rock mechanics seem to preclude earthquakes smaller than about -1

or larger than about 9.5. A magnitude -1.0 event releases about 900 times less energy than a

magnitude 1.0 quake. Except in special circumstances, earthquakes below magnitude 2.5 are

not generally not felt by humans.

Mainshock The biggest earthquake in a series is termed the

mainshock.

Seismicity

1) The geographic and historical distribution of

earthquakes. 2) A term introduced by Gutenberg

and Richter to describe quantitatively the space,

time, and magnitude distribution of earthquake

occurrences. Seismicity within a specific source

zone or region is usually quantified in terms of a

Gutenberg-Richter relationship.

Tsunami

An impulsively generated sea wave of local or distant origin that results from large-scale

seafloor displacements associated with large earthquakes, major submarine slides, or exploding

volcanic islands.

Introduction to environment: Definition: The surroundings or conditions in which a person, animal, or plant lives or operates.

Explanation:

General Scale Table Figure 1. General Scale Table[1]

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Environment means the surroundings. Land, water, air, plants, animals, solid wastes and other

things that are surrounding us constitute our environment. Man and environment are closely

intertwined with each other, to maintain a balance or equilibrium in nature.

Different groups of people working in different areas express it in various ways. When physical

scientists talk about environment they generally refer to the physical environment that

comprises the three inter locking systems the Atmosphere, the Hydrosphere and the

Lithosphere.

Effects of Earthquakes on Environment:

1. Pollution caused due to earthquake:

What is pollution?

Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into the

natural environment that cause adverse change.

Pollution due to earthquakes:

One of the major problems that the world is facing is the

environmental pollution. Among these,

the appropriate management of the

hazardous and special wastes is

significantly important especially for the

economically developing countries.

Another problem that the authorities in

the waste management are combating is

the wastes of natural disasters such as

flooding, earthquake and fire.

Thus new technologies have been

developed to process/recover/recycle

these materials after earthquakes.

Figure 2. Polluted water pond[2]

Figure 3.Pollution due to earthquake (JAPAN)[3]

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Types of pollution generated by

earthquakes:

Types and composition of the wastes

generated at the earthquake region is

completely different from the waste

generated at daily life. People will be

generally consuming canned food

consequently generating wastes of tin,

aluminum and plastic cups/containers.

Besides, due to the short-cuts of the

electricity, food will be easily spoiled at

homes. Municipalities cannot accomplish the

collection of wastes properly, thus these wastes

will be a threat to public health. Therefore people should be trained about keeping this kind of

food at cool places at their homes burying them in the gardens to convert them into compost.

Air pollution caused by the fires at the

inhabited areas will reach to significant levels

by mixing with toxic and carcinogenic gases

emitted from the damaged factories.

Also irritating odors and spread of epidemic

diseases take place due to the dead bodies

which are not buried immediately.

Contamination of the environment and the

drinking water sources with the various

chemicals from the demolished and damaged factories cause significant disasters both for the

public health and the deterioration of the environment.

It is important to group the necessary precautions to be taken to minimize the negative impacts

and the environmental pollution/public health threats consequences of earthquakes into two

groups as “Necessary Preparation Activities to be realized before Earthquakes” and “Necessary

Activities to be realized after Earthquakes”. Also “Disaster Management Plan” should be

prepared and updated continuously.

Pollution action and effects:

A huge amount of waste is accumulated by the demolishing of the buildings, bridges, etc. during

the natural disasters. Demolishing wastes contain high amount of minerals, construction

materials and small amount of hazardous materials. The composition of the demolishing wastes

has been continuously changing due to the developments in the field of the construction

materials. They generally contain iron, steel, aluminum, glass, bricks, asphalt, paper, lime,

Figure 5.Air and water pollution[5]

Figure 4.People buried under rubble being rescued[4]

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wooden materials, roof materials and some organics which contain non-hazardous synthetic

materials. Thus, new technologies have been developed to process/recover/recycle these

materials/wastes after the earthquakes.

Minimization of the negative impacts of

earthquakes:

It is very difficult both for the public and

the authorities to make sound decision

under the negative physical conditions

of the earthquake. Therefore, it is

necessary to group the necessary

precautions to be taken to minimize the

negative impacts and the environmental

pollution consequence of the

earthquakes into two groups as

“Necessary Preparation Activities to be

realized before Earthquakes” and

“Necessary Activities to be Conducted after Earthquakes”. This is important especially for

countries such as Turkey, which are located on the earthquake zone. Turkey has experienced 90

significant (Magnitude>5.0) earthquakes between 1903 and 2004. Among them, the earthquake

occurred at Erzincan in 1939 caused the death of 32,968 people and the one took place at

Kocaeli in 1999 caused the loss of 17,480 lives. The earthquakes which caused the demolishing

of more than 20,000 buildings are presented at Table 1 (KOERI, 2009).

The activities to be conducted before and after the earthquakes are explained in detail in the

following sections.

Activities to minimize pollution: The activities related to the environmental pollution and the

removal/disposal of the wastes properly are summarized below:

Figure 6.Demolished waste of earthquake[6]

Table 1. Damage due to earthquakes in some parts of Turkey[7]

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The wastes accumulated at the temporary storage areas should be sorted and

transported to the final treatment/disposal areas without causing soil pollution.

Recycling/recovery of wastes are much more economic than burying them in sanitary

landfills. The economy of this process depends on many factors such as applied solid

waste management policies in the country, contract specifications, applied

recycling/recovery projects. Recycling/recovery processes involve sorting and treatment

of these wastes according to the demand of the market. There are some companies

establishing recycling/recovery plants with capacity of 500-1500 tons per day at

economically developing countries.

The construction and demolishing wastes are generally used as concrete aggregates due

to the lack of sufficient land area for the storage of these wastes and the diminishing of

the natural aggregate sources.

The wooden materials in the construction and demolishing wastes should be used in

the adjustment of the parks, animal beds, and for burning as fuels in boilers and stoves.

The asphalt wastes generated from the demolishing of roofs of buildings should be used

in filling the holes.

The plastic construction materials in the wastes should be recovered to be used as

construction materials and aggregates. The tires mixed with cement can be used in the

repair of roads, filling holes around bridges and construction of retaining walls and

foundations.

Special care should be taken in the usage of special materials such as asbestos

generated from the demolished buildings. Asbestos should be mixed with glass and

heated to be encapsulated in the glass.

2. Liquefaction

Strong ground shaking during an earthquake can cause water-saturated, unconsolidated

soil to act more like a dense fluid than a solid; this process is called liquefaction.

Liquefaction occurs when a material of solid consistency is transformed, with increased

water pressure, in to a liquefied state. Water saturated, granular sediments such as silts,

sands, and gravel that are free of clay particles are susceptible to liquefaction. Imagine

what would happen to a building if the soil beneath it suddenly behaved like a liquid.

This potential for liquefaction to occur is present in many parts of the United States and

in other parts of the world. Liquefaction occurred during the 1811-1812 New Madrid,

Missouri, the 1989 Loma Prieta, California, the 1964 Niigata, Japan, and the 1967

Caracas, Venezuela, earthquakes.

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Figure 7. Venenzula Earthquake[8]

3. Landslides

Ground motion also can trigger landslides. Careful consideration should be made before

developers place a building in a location that could be affected by a landslide. A fire

department in California found that out the hard way. During an earthquake in their

community, a landslide blocked the exits to the firehouse, and, while the fire equipment

was blocked inside, the town suffered millions of dollars in damage from fires caused by

the earthquake. Figure shows a railroad track that was left hanging on the side of a

mountain after the land beneath it slid away.

Figure 8. A view of twisted railway line due to Earthquake[9]

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4. Tsunamis and Seiche

Tsunami (pronunciated “Soo na me”) is Japanese for tidal wave. A tsunami is caused by

an earthquake, landslide, or volcanic eruption on the sea floor. During an earthquake,

seismic waves can produce powerful ocean waves. These waves tend to be very deep,

with long distance between the peaks. In deep water there may be no noticeable

evidence of the tsunami at the surface. However, when the wave enters shallow waters,

the energy is forced to the surface and produces a tall wave that travels at high speed

and moves far inland. Seaside communities are usually ravaged twice—first, when the

water crashes in from the sea and, second, when the water recedes and carries loose

objects out to sea. Though tsunamis are not as common as earthquakes, they can cause

much more damage. Here in the United States, we can experience tsunamis on the

West Coast, Alaska, and Hawaii. “Seiche” refers to the oscillation (sloshing back and

forth) of water in a closed space, such as a lake, reservoir, or swimming pool. This

oscillation can cause overtopping of dams and damage to structures near water.

Figure 9. A tsunami tidal wave [10]

5. Faults

We saw in the previous unit that ruptures along fault planes or zones sometimes reach

the surface. If a building stands on a fault line, little can be done to protect it during an

earthquake. It is extremely important to select sites for new buildings that are away

from known fault lines.

6. Damage to Structures Collapsing of structures is one of the principal dangers during an earthquake since the

impact of large, heavy objects can be fatal to human beings. Earthquakes sometimes

cause glass windows and mirrors to shatter and this is also quite dangerous. Earthquake

aftershocks can result in the complete collapse of buildings that were damaged during

an earthquake.

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Figure 10. A collapsed structure [11]

7. Floods Earthquakes can cause dam walls to

crack and eventually collapse, sending

raging waters into surrounding areas

and causing severe flooding.

8. Transport network Earthquakes cause severe damage to

roads, rail tracks and runways.

9. Electricity and Communication Towers, transponders and transformers are also damaged due to earthquakes.

Conclusion:

Earthquakes badly affect our environment and disturb our ecosystem. It causes pollution including water

pollution and dust pollution. It causes landslides, tsunamis and floods that badly destroy the balance of

our environment. The major damage is to lives and properties of people such as buildings. In the nutshell

earthquakes damage our environment severely.

Figure 11. Flooding [12]

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STATISTICS:

STATISTICS OF EARTHQUAKES WORLDWIDE:

A comprehensive information about other earthquakes showing loss and damages in the world

is given in the underlying table:

Table 2. Statistics of the earthquakes worldwide [13]

* Of 13 November 2012

General Process and Methodology to overcome the rots of

Earthquake: In this section we will try to summarize some methods and ways to estimate losses of an earthquake and mode of recovery. After a critical discussion of relevant earthquake loss estimation methodologies, the essential features and characteristics of the available loss estimation software are summarized. Currently operating near-real-time loss estimation tools can be classified under two main categories depending on the size of area they cover: global and local systems.

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Recommendations:

While the sensitivity analysis using more disaggregated input-output model and more detailed

set-up and assignment of the production mode is required for drawing any policy implications

from the case study results, the following two points can be addressed. First, recovery and

reconstruction activities after an earthquake need to be planned and phased so that no

significant supply constraints of intermediate goods to construction sector occur. Different stage

of reconstruction activities requires different intermediate inputs, such as equipments,

machines, materials, different type of labor (skilled or non-skilled, for example). Hence, a policy

toward smooth recovery requires prioritizing the reconstruction activities and scheduling to

distribute them to different stages of construction phase in order not to create severe supply

constraints of intermediate goods and primary inputs. Secondly, with the rich information on

Inter-industry relationships embedded in interregional input-output table, temporal key sector

analysis can be accomplished under a disaster situation for illustrating which sectors are more

crucial for economy-wide recovery, in a particular stage of reconstruction. Although it may be

difficult to concentrate on the recovery of particular sectors after a catastrophic disaster, this

type of information can be utilized for creating retrofit priority to make the key sectors less

vulnerable.

EIA reports containing core information and records should also be established and published

because experts find these reports very useful while starting to carry on a certain project at a

specific site. Experienced scientists and engineers should also be asked to do research upon why

Figure 12. A simple preliminary approach towards general steps [14]

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and how that damage occurred and how can it be prevented if another disaster like that or

worse than that happens in the future, it helps improve the structure of the construction

buildings and thus a new innovation in construction field take place continuously.

Conclusion:

In this topic we have discussed some methods by which we can recover our environment methods and

ways to estimate losses of an earthquake, which are very helpful understanding the knowledge

about earthquakes.

REPORTS REGARDING EARTHQUAKES

IUCN Field Mission Report

1. Introduction On 8 October,2005 an earthquake having magnitude 7.5 struck Azad Jammu and Kashmir (AJK).

Over 58,000 people died and more than 77,000 were injured. Shocks were also felt in other

areas of Pakistan and Indian administrated Kashmir.

2. General Observations IUCN team was too much worried on this sad event and it was not the time to discuss causes or

environmental effects but to discuss the loss of their lives and properties. Most of the houses were

destroyed and the rest not in condition to live in. RCC structures were badly damaged but in some areas

traditional structures sustained the shocks.

3. Earthquake - Environmental Management Nexus

There is not yet any reliable scientific reason of the cause of such massive earthquake and its

destruction but there were some evidences like slopes with thick forest protected houses and

roads from landslides caused by earthquake.

4. Potential Environmental Risks

4.1 Landslides, Mudslides and Flashfloods

Soil has lost its stability so there is a chance of further landslides caused by aftershocks

or rain causing a constant threat to temporary residences.

Kunhar, Jhelum and Neelum are now filled with mud caused due to landslides thus

increasing turbidity.

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4.2 Water Contamination

Water bodies are contaminated due to this earthquake because there was no proper

sanitation system.

4.3 Debris and Waste

Debris created due to demolished buildings, medical waste and hazardous chemicals

generated due to warehouses, shops and hospitals are great. So this one is a big

challenge for Government agencies to deal with.

4.4 Health Risks

There is strong risk of epidemic due to contaminated water and environment.

Plus there is a risk of destruction of ecosystem(deforestation), destruction of their cultural

heritage and damage to their livelihood earning options.

5. Course of Action

Government should take big step for reconstruction and rehabilitation of destroyed cities and

villages. There should be taken a step to make assessment report regarding causes of the

earthquake and the methods to tackle these situations in the current regions. Steps have been

taken by Earthquake Rehabilitation and Reconstruction Authority (ERRA) for rehabilitation and

reconstruction. Likewise UNO has given funds to Government for this massive destruction and

Government of Pakistan has given funds to affected people.

Summary of Rapid EIA Report of Haiti Earthquake (2010) The 2010 Haiti earthquake led to 230,000 deaths and destruction and damage to the buildings

and geophysical changes. Recognizing that environmentally unwise relief and recovery decisions

would lead to further negative impacts on disaster survivors, USAID commissioned a Rapid

Environmental Impact Assessment (USAID REA) from 16 February to 5 March 2010.

The assessment identified a range of major (life threatening) issues, and actions to address

these issues.

The critical issues and recommendations are summarized below.

1. Coordination, Management and Information:

The need for an environmentally sound response is generally accepted in Haiti, but the scale

and scope of earthquake impacts and assistance far exceed existing coordination and

management mechanisms, leading to general inefficiencies, a weak focus on environmental

issues and poor sharing of information.

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2. Geophysical and Hydro-Meteorological Hazards Monitoring:

Geological and hydro-meteorological hazards have become more dangerous since the

earthquake, with the likelihood of increased landslides and flooding. These hazard events will

be affecting populations without basic shelter.

3. Debris Management: Between 20 and 25 million cubic yards of debris need to be managed to avoid damage to the

environment. This effort has received an environmental review, but further monitoring and

reviews are needed as operations expand to deconstruct thousands of buildings.

4. Sanitation and Waste:

Sanitation is poor in many of the 400+ camps occupied by earthquake survivors. Sewage is not

properly managed. The safe-to-drink water is being contaminated due to improper household-

level handling. Vector numbers and vector-related disease (e.g., malaria) increased. Liquid and

solid waste disposal is anarchistic and contributes to environmental degradation and health

issues.

The Earthquake Of 7th September 1999 in Athens:

According to estimations of the Ministry of Public Works, in cooperation with the Technical Chamber of

Greece, the total economic loss for Greece, exclusive of the social cost, was: € 3.77 billion, which

amounts to 3% of Greece’s GDP.

The toll was considerable, as the figures below indicate:

• 143 people killed,

• 7,000 people injured, of which 300 seriously,

• 90,000 buildings damaged,

• 80,000 families were made homeless temporarily,

The vast majority of the buildings that suffered damage were of reinforced concrete. Never before had

so many R-C buildings been damaged by an earthquake, in Greece. The government’s estimate for the

distribution of the rehabilitation funds was as follows:

• 67.1 %: Restoration of damages in (private) buildings

• 11.5 %: Living Expenses for the affected

• 5.4 %: Restoration and urban development planning

• 5.2 %: Primary and secondary schools

• 0.3 %: Higher education buildings

Approximately 80% of the specific state funds were spent for the reconstruction and repair of buildings.

It must be pointed out that in general, public buildings suffered less damage than residential and

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industrial buildings. This may perhaps be attributed to the better quality control applied in the

construction of public buildings or to the construction quality of private owned buildings in the area

affected. In general, structures built according to the upgraded national regulations performed

satisfactorily in response to that quake.

Damage assessment:

The assessment of damages of buildings was made by inspection teams (formed by individual engineers,

etc.), which were directed by 24 especially established Offices of Earthquake Rehabilitation in the

affected area. According to the severity of damages, the buildings were classified into three categories

(color-coded), based on guidelines of the Earthquake Planning and Protection Organization (OASP, 1999).

Immediate relief - Financial assistance (a) every household in a house judged uninhabitable at the first

inspection (Yellow or Red-tagged), was eligible for a grant of 590 Euro, as an emergency assistance or the

immediate period after the event. More than 100,000 such grants were issued. (b) All households that

had a life loss or an injury that caused permanent disability, or lived in a building that collapsed, were

entitled to a grant of 5,900 Euro. (c) Monthly subsidies were accorded to families, whose houses were

judged as uninhabitable at the second inspection, ranging from 170 to 300 Euro, for a duration up to 2

years (for home-owners ) and up to 6 months (for renters).

Repair process of the buildings:

In order to get the financial assistance from the government, the following steps had to be followed.

i) Detailed assessment of damages - Proposed method of repair by an engineer hired by the owners.

ii) Submission of a study of the proposed repairs, followed by an analysis of the expected cost of repairs

(calculate d according to values fixed by the government, given for each type of specific damage).

iii) If the proposal was approved, it was forwarded to a higher authority (Sector for Earthquake

Recovery).

iv) Site visit.

v) Issue of works permit.

vi) Execution - Completion of the works.

vii) Site visit to check if the works were accomplished according to the study proposed and approved.

viii) “De-characterization” of the damaged building (safe to live in). The recovery process, as sited above,

proved to be extremely slow, given the urgent housing needs. This, combined to the fact that the

Table 3. Building codes during the earthquake rehabilitation services.[15]

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economic allowance accorded for the repair of specific damages was lower than the actual cost, and

furthermore that the 15-year interest-free loan presupposed mortgaging of the entire property resulted

in many owners choosing to self-finance the repairs and applying to the Sector for Earthquake Recovery

only in order to have their house “de-characterized” (so as to be considered safe to live in).

Post-earthquake damage estimation:

A program for Post-Earthquake Assessment of Damaged Buildings, funded mainly by the European

Commission/DG Environment/Civil Protection Unit, is about to be accomplished in the University of

Patras. The main aims of this program are:

-to objectively assess the degree of damage, decide how safe the building is to live in, take measures of

emergency intervention if needed, and to make a first estimation if the building can be repaired, or has

to be demolished.

-the creation of a computer system for recording all useful data from the process of the damage

assessment, which will facilitate and systematize the recording of damage, but which will also be useful

as a database for practical research and studies.

This program, when it is accomplished, is meant to be a useful tool for the process of damage

assessment in all European earthquake-prone countries.

Methodology employed:

• So, for each kind of disaster, a common EU methodology for damage assessment should be

formulated. Towards this end, the program, funded by the European Commission/DG Environment/Civil

Protection Unit, is aimed: a common methodology for Post-Earthquake Assessment of damaged

buildings, equally applicable to all countries suffering from earthquakes.

• Secondly, common criteria should be adopted, in order to facilitate conversion into monetary terms

the damage caused by the specific type of disasters.

• Of utmost importance, is the formulation of commonly accepted definitions of what “direct costs”,

“indirect costs”,etc, mean. And then, how each of them can be economically assessed. In this evaluation

procedure, many questions, sometimes controversial, arise.

Indicatively, here below are a few:

- How can the value of earth (rural, industrial, urban, etc) be normalized across EU?

- How can the indirect consequences to different establishments, such as dwellings, schools,

museums, military plants, etc, be assessed?

- How to quantify in economic terms life loss and injuries?

• Furthermore, in order to assess the economic loss, other decisions ought to be made, which vary,

depending on the type of disaster. In particular, in the case of earthquakes, the following, question is of

vital importance.

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• To what level of safety should the buildings be repaired?

- To the level of safety before the Earthquake occurred?

or

- To the level of safety according to current regulations?

The question is crucial, because the modern tendency is to strengthen existing buildings, if according to

current regulations are shown to be unsafe. In addition, an existing building that has suffered damage

from an earthquake and has been re paired, is prone to be more vulnerable in a future earthquake,

especially if the repair work was inadequate (most often due to low repair-budget), than a similar

building which has suffered no damage at all.

In the 1999 Athens earthquake, the government assisted the owners only to bring their property to the

pre-earthquake condition.

It is worth noting, though, that a six-storey building that collapsed in the 1999 earthquake had suffered

damage in the 1981 earthquake and had been repaired. Furthermore, in the process under question,

and mostly for prevention policy, it would be useful to have, if available, for each country comparable

maps depicting:

(a) the risk of the appearance of a certain natural disaster.

(b) the vulnerability of the area in question.

In case of an earthquake, type (a) map is the zonation map showing the seismicity, while type (b) map

should depict the quality of structures and their vulnerability to the expected earthquake, according to a

rough estimation of their bearing capacity. Type (b) map does not exist currently for Greece, but an

effort is being made towards this end.

Conclusion of Report

In conclusion, it seems that the achievement of a common methodology for damage assessment and

loss estimation is not an easy task. Nonetheless, it is a highly desirable target, from which EU countries

would benefit, so it is worth trying to realize it.

Towards this aim, the co-operation between the countries in the EU and the contribution of their

individual experiences is essential.

REFERENCES

A. Pomonis, ″The Mount Parnitha (Athens) Earthquake of September 7, 1999: A

Disaster Management Perspective″, Natural Hazards 27, 2002.

Recommendations: 1. Conduct a strategic environmental impact assessment of recovery plans.

2. Increase the number of properly managed and designed latrines and toilets.

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3. Develop and implement site specific warning and evacuation plans for all new and

existing settlement sites.

4. All shelter sites should have a fire management plan.

5. Identify and promote environmentally-positive livelihood strategies.

6. Drainage at and near shelter sites should be improved to reduce flooding and post-storm

standing water.

Conclusion:

The topic includes the reports discussed above regarding impacts of earthquakes on two areas

including Kashmir, Haiti and Greece. We have summarized some reports that have been made

on these two major earthquakes. Considering these reports a reasonable amount of knowledge

can be gathered and understood in order to take in accounts the precautionary and post-

disaster measures whenever there is a certain incident.

Civil engineering approach to project

Bringing the discussion to next level we have now to discuss what were the type of structures

that failed to sustain earthquakes and caused massive effects on our environment and what are

the solutions to overcome such problems, Structural engineering gives us answers

Area description of earthquake affected structures:

Mostly the structures we found in those areas were present on slopes. That either fell apart

because of land failures or because of land sliding. Also the structures that got grounded were

near the rivers and were placed on alluvial soils and some damages were directly relating

themselves to fault ruptures.

Structure description:

-Type of structure: Non engineered, Non framed, Unreinforced masonry.

-Type of foundations: Foundations were mostly made by stones locally available and bricks on

native soil.

-Type of walls: Mostly walls were load bearing and were constructed by unreinforced stone,

solid bricks.

-Type of roofs: In rural areas mostly roofs are made up of wood (non-machined), lightly

reinforced slabs (tyaar ch’hat) and GI sheets.

-Load bearing structures: beams were not present in most of the structures, and if they were

the bond between beams and columns was not much good to sustain shocks.

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Conclusion:

This topic includes the general discussion regarding civil engineering approach towards our

main topic. We have discussed that which types of structures are badly damaged due to

earthquakes and how can we build structures so as to minimize the loss.

Figure 13. Non-reinforced concrete wall (flickr.com)

Structure requirement in such seismic zones (remedies): Area description: A proper geological survey should be done before making structures in seismic zones to make

sure that we are not building our structure on fault line or so. Ground should be well

compacted. Structures should not be made on slopes to prevent them get slide off by

landslides.

Structure description:

-Type of structure: Framed structure, reinforced structure.

-Type of foundation: should be designed according to requirement and proper materials e-g

reinforced concrete should be used in foundations too.

-Type of walls: framed structures have to be made so the walls should be just to fill e-g filler

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walls to be used.

-Type of roofs: proper mesh of steel bars should be used i-e full reinforcement should be

provided.

Figure 14. Concrete framed structure showing beams and columns [16]

Other framed structures we can also use

are:

-wood framed structures

Figure 15. A wood structure being constructed [17]

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-steel framed structures

REFERENCES:

www.sciencedirect.com

www.google.com , EERI report on 05’ Kashmir earthquake.

www.usgs.gov

www.icun.org

www.usaid.gov

[1]- Scale table of magnitude < www.geo.mtu.edu/UPSeis/magnitude

[2],[3],[4],[5],[6]- richardlstansfield.wordpress.com/2010/05/24/natural-disasters

[7]- earthquake-report.com/2011/10/26/shelter-report-for-eastern-turkey-earthquake-status

[8]- www.makli.us/tag/earthquake

[9]- google - images.com

[10]- wikipedia.com>tsunami

[11]- civilstructures.com

[12]- wikipedia.com

[13]- reports <US geological survey

[14]-sciencedirect.com<photos<figure 2

[15]- Marina L. MORETTI Univ. of Thessaly, 4 Meleagrou str., 10674 Athens, GREECE< The Greek

Experience from estimating Natural Disaster Losses (with emphasis in Earthquakes)

Figure 16. Steel structure [18]

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[16]-photos>civilstructures.com

[17],[18]- http://www.ciiwa.com/outstanding-earthquake-proof-houses3