professional english and formal structures

CONTEXT AND COMMUNICATION

HIGH CONTEXT

LOW CONTEXT

Professional English and Formal Structures

Sunday, October 14, 2012SHL1013 Professional English

1 . W h a t c u l t u r e s r e q u i r e d i r e c t i n f o r m a t i o n ?2 . W h a t c u l t u r e s r e q u i r e i n d i r e c t i n f o r m a t i o n ?3 . H o w c a n h i g h - c o n t e x t c o m m u n i c a t o r s s e e m t o b e

d i s h o n e s t ? 4 . H o w c a n l o w - c o n t e x t c u l t u r e s s e e m t o b e r u d e o r

u n e d u c a t e d ?

Communication can be affected by contexts such as:

The codes around a code

The formats used in a message

The sender‟s intention or motive

The receiver‟s background

The structure of an organization where a message is received

Context and Communication

NON- PROFESSIONAL COMMUNICATION

PROFESSIONAL COMMUNICATION

HIGH CONTEXT = MORE FOCUS ON SUBTEXTUAL MEANING (sub = under, below, hidden)

LOW CONTEXT = MORE FOCUS ON TEXTUAL MEANING (text = words, written or spoken)

• How does context affect communication?

• How does structure affect communication?

Structural Context

Hierarchy and Communication

HIERARCHIC COMMUNICATION

STRUCTURE IN A FORMAL MESSAGE

STRUCTURE& COMMUNICATION FLOW

1 . W h a t i n f o r m a t i o n g o e s f r o m b o s s t o e m p l o y e e ?2 . W h a t i n f o r m a t i o n g o e s f r o m e m p l o y e e t o b o s s ?3 . W h a t i n f o r m a t i o n g o e s b e t w e e n e m p l o y e e s ?4 . W h a t i n f o r m a t i o n s h o u l d c o m e f i r s t i n a l e t t e r ?5 . W h y d o b o s s e s s o u n d b o s s y ? 6 . W h y d o c o m m a n d e r s s o u n d v e r y c o m m a n d i n g ?

Hierarchical Communication

In a hierarchical structure, upper-level management is on top and lower-level employees are at the bottom.

Formal communication can move upward, downward or horizontally within a company.

However, a great deal of communication can occur informally.

The "grapevine" refers to the informal communication network where unofficial information travels.

From: http://www.ehow.com/about_5449867_structure-communication-organization.html

Structure in a Formal Message

MOST IMPORTANT

LEAST IMPORTANT

MEDIUM IMPORTANCE

Structure and Communication Flow Vertical flow (red arrows)

Lateral flow (green arrows)

Finance Marketing Production

Board of Directors

Finance Officers

MarketingAssistants

FactoryOperatives

Formal Communication

President

Manager Manager Manager Manager

Efforts at coordination

Instru

Formal communication is the process of sharing official information with others who need to know it, according to the prescribed patterns depicted in an organization chart

Formal Communication

Company Structure: Pyramid Type

Decisions pass downward via formal channels from managers to staff

Emperors were higher than kings.

There were no presidents or prime ministers then.

When an emperor spoke, even kings trembled.

Statements can use the imperative tone. (from emperor) which is a commanding tone).

Do this: Write this.

Do that: Read that.

Should: You should use APA.

Must: You must have a smile.

Have to: You have to read that.

Tone for Lateral Downward FlowTHE STRONG TONE

A time element increases the strength of the imperative tone.

Do this: Write this now.

Do that: Read that immediately.

Should: You should smile now.

Must: You must have a smile now.

Have to: You have to read that immediately.

Tone for Lateral Downward FlowHOW TO INCREASE A STRONG TONE

Information, suggestionsflows upwardvia formal channels from staff to management

I T ’ S N O T W H A T Y O U S A Y .

I T ’ S H O W Y O U S A Y I T .

SHL1013 Professional English Sunday, October 14, 2012

POLITE SPEECH

1 . W H A T ‟ S T H E C O R R E C T T O N E F O R A S U P E R I O R ?2 . W H A T ‟ S T H E C O R R E C T T O N E B E T W E E N E Q U A L S ?3 . W H A T ‟ S T H E C O R R E C T T O N E F O R A S U B O R D I N A T E ?4 . W H A T T O N E I S C O R R E C T F O R A L L ?5 . H O W D O Y O U P R O T E C T Y O U R S E L F ?

I T ’ S H O W Y O U S A Y I T .

SHL1013 Professional English Sunday, October 14, 2012

IT’S NOT WHAT YOU SAY.

Use a tone that suggests: might, may, could.

might + want to: Do this. = You might do this.Do this. = You might want to do this.

may + want to: Do that. = You may do that.Do that. = You may want to do this.

+ could: Do this. = You could do this.

Tone for Lateral Upward FlowHOW TO SOFTEN A STRONG TONE

Tentative tone: might, may, could + perhaps.

might + perhaps + want to: Do this. = You might perhaps do this.Do this. = You might perhaps want to do this.

may + perhaps + want to: Do that. = You may perhaps do that.Do that. = You may perhaps want to do this.

could + perhaps: Do this. = You could perhaps do this.

Possibility tone: might, may, could + maybe.

might + maybe + want to: Do this. = You might maybe do this.Do this. = You might maybe want to do this.

may + maybe + want to: Do that. = You may maybe do that.Do that. = You may maybe want to do this.

could + perhaps: Do this. = You could maybe do this.

Information, suggestionsflows upwardvia formal channels from staff to management

Information, suggestions can flow via informal channels from one level to another same level

A tentative (non-deciding) tone: perhaps, maybe, or probably.

perhaps + might: Do this. = Perhaps you might want to do

this.Do this. = Perhaps you might do this.

maybe + can: Do that. = Maybe you can do that.

probably+ could: Do this. = You could probably do this.

Tone for Vertical FlowHOW TO SOFTEN A STRONG TONE

Professional Structure: Matrix Type

Marketing Production Finance

Project A

Project teams created

Includes staff with specialist skills

Project B

Communication Flow in Matrix-type Structures

What tone is best for communication in this type of organized structure?

A tone that does not commit: can (be), could (be), should (be), might (be).This is good. This can be good. This could be good. This should be good. This might be good.

Those are ok. = Those should be ok. I like that. = I could like that.That will work. = That might work.

The Neutral ToneYOU DON’T HAVE TO AGREE OR DISAGREE: HOW TO BE NONCOMITTAL (NO COMMITMENT)

Structure: Entrepreneurial Type

Most small businesses have

this structure

One or two people make

decisions

Much reliance on key workers

to support decision-makers

Quick action but pressure on

decision makers

Decision maker

Key worker

Mostly lateral flow of informationSunday, October 14, 2012SHL1013 Professional English

A neutral tone: remove the imperative tone.Do this. = Doing this is essential.Do that. = Doing that is a requirement.You should do this. = Doing this will

make the project successful.You must complete that. = We look

forward to your completion of that task.

Neutral Tone for Lateral FlowHOW TO REMOVE THE IMPERATIVE TONE

Structure: Independent Type

Dr ADr B

Dr CDr D

Support systems to

professionals such as doctors

Not suited to most businesses due to

lack of control

What tone is best for communication In this structure? Sunday, October 14, 2012SHL1013 Professional English

When it‟s not your own idea or experience, use: appears to (be), seems to (be), it seems that, it appears thatThe sun is shining in Alaska. The sun appears to shine in Alaska. The sun appears to be shining in Alaska. It appears that the sun is shining in Alaska. The sun seems to shine in Alaska. The sun seems to be shining in Alaska. It seems that the sun is shining in Alaska.

The Safe ToneHOW TO PROTECT YOURSELF

What‟s the difference?• Use appear when...• Use seem when...

When it‟s not your own idea or experience, add would or might before appear.

The sun is shining in Alaska. The sun appears to shine in Alaska.

The sun might appear to shine in Alaska.

The sun would appear to shine in Alaska.

The sun appears to be shining in Alaska.

The sun might appear to be shining in Alaska.

The sun would appear to be shining in Alaska.

The Very Tentative Tone: AppearHOW TO PROTECT YOURSELF

• Use appear when...• Use seem when...

When it‟s not your own idea or experience, add would or might before seem.

The sun is shining in Alaska. The sun seems to shine in Alaska.

The sun might seem to shine in Alaska.

The sun would seem to shine in Alaska.

The sun seems to be shining in Alaska.

The sun might seem to be shining in Alaska.

The sun would seem to be shining in Alaska.

The Very Tentative Tone: SeemHOW TO PROTECT YOURSELF

• Use appear when...• Use seem when...

Use appears to (be), seems to (be), it seems that, it appears that Books are useless. Books appear to be useless. Books seem to be useless. It seems that books are useless.

They like your idea. They seem to like your idea. It seems that they like your idea.

We are the best. We seem to be the best. It seems that we are the best.

When it’s not your own idea or experience

TRY IT: PRACTICE

What‟s the difference?• Use appear when...• Use seem when...

When it‟s not your own idea or experience, Add can before a verb. The sun is shining in Alaska. = The sun can shine in Alaska. The sun shines in Alaska. = The sun can shine in Alaska. They like your idea. = They can like your idea.

When it‟s not your own idea or experience, change the verb to be. Instead of (is, are) use can be, could be. The sun is shining in Alaska. = The sun can be shining in

Alaska. The sun is shining in Alaska. = The sun could be shining in

Alaska. We are the best. = We can be the best. Books are useless. = Books can be useless.

The Very Safe ToneHOW TO REALLY PROTECT YOURSELF

IMPERATIVE: We must win. We shouldwin. We have to win.

DEFINITE: We are the best. We will win.

POSSIBLE: We can be the best. We can shine.

PROBABLE: We could be the best. We couldshine.

TENTATIVE: We might be the best. We might shine.

Once again: The TonesHOW TO REALLY PROTECT YOURSELF

IMPERATIVE: We must win now. We should win immediately. We have to win right now.

POSSIBLE: We can probably be the best. We can perhaps win.

PROBABLE: We could perhaps be the best. We could probably win.

TENTATIVE: We might perhaps be the best. It seems that we are the best. We seem to be the best. It would seem that we are the best. We might probably win.

Once again: The Heightened TonesHOW TO REALLY PROTECT YOURSELF

TYPES OF NETWORKS

GATEKEEPERS

CENTRALIZED NETWORKS

DECENTRALIZED NETWORKS

COMMUNICATION FLOW

1 . HOW CA N GA TEKEEPER S HELP YOU ?2 . H O W CA N GA TEKEEPER S HIN DER YOU ?

Four basic structures of communication networks describe how communication flows to employees, groups, or teams in an organization:

wheel network

chain network

circle network and

all-channel network.

Types of Networks

Communication Networks

Chain Wheel All Channels

Gatekeepers control or influence the flow of communication in an organization.

They can help or hinder communication flow.

Gatekeepers

Gatekeepers include:

Secretaries and assistants

Section or department heads

Database or communication manager

Any influential or respected person in a community

Gatekeepers

Central Persons: Gatekeepers

September /2012Formal and Informal Channels of Communication

Y S T R U C T U R E

W H E E L S T R U C T U R E

C H A I N S T R U C T U R E

• O N E C E N T R A L P E R S O N

• U N E Q U A L A C C E S S T O I N F O R M A T I O N

• C E N T R A L P E R S O N I S A T T H E “ C R O S S R O A D S ” O F T H E I N F O R M A T I O N F L O W

Centralized Networks

Y Structure

Some members can communication only with one central person.

Gatekeeper

Wheel Network

Information flows from one central member of the group to the rest of the members.

Other group members need not communicate with each other to perform well. Example: a group of independent makeup

consultants who report to one regional mentor. The independent makeup consultants do not need to interact with one another in order to perform.

Wheel networks do not exist in teams; teams involve intense interaction between all members of a group.

Wheel Structure

Each member can communication only with one central person.

Chain Network

In a chain network, members communicate with each other in a pre-planned sequence.

An example of a chain network is an assembly-line group.

In an assembly line, employees only communicate with those whose work precedes or follows their own.

Like wheel networks, chain networks do not exist in teams.

From: http://www.ehow.com/about_5449867_structure-communication-organization.htmlSunday, October 14, 2012SHL1013 Professional English

Chain Structure

Each member can communicate only with two others. Some members can communicate with a central person.

Gatekeeper

I N F O R M A T I O N C A N F L O W F R E E L Y

N O C E N T R A L P E R S O N

A L L M E M B E R S P L A Y A N E Q U A L R O L E I N T H E T R A N S M I T T A L O F I N F O R M A T I O N

Decentralized Networks

Circle Structure

Each member can communicate only with two others.

No gatekeeper

Circle Network

In a circle network, members communicate if they share something in common, such as experiences, beliefs, areas of expertise, background or office location.

For example, the people who you may informally socialize with in your office area may be a part of your circle network.

Circle networks are not described as teamwork.

Common Communication Structure

Each member can communicate with anyone.

No gatekeeper

All-Channel Network

An all-channel network is found in teams, which is characterized by high levels of intense communication.

Each team member communicates with every other team member.

Information flows in all directions.

For efficiency, software can be often used to maintain effective communication in teams.

Network Performance

September /2012Formal and Informal Channels of CommunicationBehavior in Organizations, p.306

http://www.ehow.com/about_5449867_structure-communication-organization.html http://openacademy.mindef.gov.sg/OpenAcademy/Central/HTML%20Folder/KM/bcp/tools_SocialNetWork.htm#To

p http://www.izix.com/pro/lightweight/video.php http://www.utexas.edu/courses/speclass/courses/350/notes/struc350.html http://www.affordableemployeehandbook.com/SampleEmployeeHandbook.cfm http://www.revisionguru.co.uk/business/communication3.htm http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/0072400722/student_view0/chapter1/chapter_overview.html Kesten, Ulrike (1998): Informale Organisation und Mitarbeiter-Lebenszyklus. Wiesbaden: Deutscher Universitäts-

Verlag. Kraut, Robert E., Fish, Robert S., Root, Robert W., Chalfonte, Barbara L. (1990): Informal Communication in

Organizations: Form, Function and Technology. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications. Mishra, Jitendra (1990): Managing the Grapevine. Public Personnel Management, Vol. 19, No. 2, Summer 1990. Whittaker, Steve; Frohlich, David; Daly-Jones, Owen (1994): Informal Workplace Communication: What is it like and

how might we support it? Human Factors in Computing Systems, Boston, Massachusets, USA. Ball, Philip (2012): E-mail reveals real leaders. Network analysis maps companies„ informal structure. Nature News

Service/Macmillan Magazines Ltd, 20 March 2012. http://www.nature.com/nsu/030317/030317-5.html Beger, Rudolf, Gärtner, Hans-Dieter, Mathes, Rainer (1989):Unternehmenskommunikation. Wiesbaden:Gabler,

Frankfurt(Main):Frankfurter Allgemeine. Böhle, Fritz, Bolte, Annegret (2002): Die Entdeckung des Informellen. München: ISF. Buchanan, David; Huczynski, Andrzej (2000): Organizational Behaviour. An introductory text. London : Prentice Hall. Crampton, Suzanne M.; Hodge, John W.; Mishra, Jitendra M. (1998): The Informal Communication Network: Factors

Influencing Grapevine Activity. Public Personnel Management, Vol. 27, No. 4, Winter 1998. Greenberg, Gerald; Baron, Robert A. (1997): Behavior in Organizations. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

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