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Katherine Azucena Guerrero Abad
Trabajo Final para la obtención del Título de Magíster en Educación Superior:
Investigación e Innovaciones Pedagógicas
CONESUP RCP. S09.No189.09
Guayaquil, October 2014
Perceptions of English
Teachers on the Use of
Blogs as a Strategy to
Enhance Reflective
and Metacognitive
Learning
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 1
Running Head: BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE
Perceptions of English Teachers on
the Use of Blogs as a Strategy to
Enhance Reflective and
Metacognitive Learning
Katherine Azucena Guerrero Abad
Thesis Director: Nicola Wills
Trabajo Final para la obtención del Título de Magíster en Educación Superior:
Investigación e Innovaciones Pedagógicas
CONESUP RCP. S09.No189.09
Guayaquil, October 2014
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 2
Perceptions on the Use of Blogs as a Strategy to Enhance Reflective Learning
Index
Abstract .................................................................................................................................... 11
Resumen Ejecutivo .................................................................................................................. 12
Glossary ................................................................................................................................... 13
Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 14
Literature Review..................................................................................................................... 19
Lifelong learning .......................................................................................................... 19
Reflection in education ................................................................................................ 20
Metacognition in education.......................................................................................... 21
Education and ICT ....................................................................................................... 23
Web 2.0 and education ................................................................................................. 25
Figure 2. Conceptual model of a Web 2.0 community of inquiry, illustrating
relationships ................................................................................................................. 27
Blogs in education........................................................................................................ 28
Perceptions and educational research .......................................................................... 33
Research Question: ...................................................................................................... 35
Methodology ............................................................................................................................ 36
Research Design........................................................................................................... 36
Methodological Design ................................................................................................ 36
Population. ................................................................................................................... 36
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 3
Sample.......................................................................................................................... 37
Study variables. ............................................................................................................ 37
Data Collection. ........................................................................................................... 41
Pilot-test. ...................................................................................................................... 44
Reliability and validity of the instruments. .................................................................. 46
Data Analysis. .............................................................................................................. 48
Results ...................................................................................................................................... 49
Introduction .................................................................................................................. 49
Response Rate .............................................................................................................. 49
Descriptive Statistics .................................................................................................... 49
Teaching Experience. ................................................................................................... 52
Teaching Area .............................................................................................................. 53
Perceptions on Reflection ............................................................................................ 54
Data Analysis and Crossed Variables .......................................................................... 89
Discussion ................................................................................................................................ 91
Main Findings .............................................................................................................. 91
Conclusions and Recommendations ............................................................................ 93
Limitations ................................................................................................................... 95
Recommendations for Future studies........................................................................... 96
References ................................................................................................................................ 98
Appendix A ................................................................................................................ 109
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 4
Appendix B ................................................................................................................ 110
Appendix C ................................................................................................................ 114
Appendix D ................................................................................................................ 115
Appendix E ................................................................................................................ 123
Appendix F................................................................................................................. 124
Appendix G ................................................................................................................ 132
Appendix H ................................................................................................................ 141
Appendix I ................................................................................................................. 166
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 5
List of Figures
Figure 1. Metacognitive Strategies (Gani & Abdullah, 2009) ................................................. 22
Figure 2. Conceptual model of a Web 2.0 community of inquiry, illustrating relationships
between teacher, student and the integrated use of Web 2.0 tools (den Exter, Rowe, Boyd, &
Lloyd, 2012) ............................................................................................................................. 27
Figure 3. Sample by Teaching Experience and Type of Institution. ....................................... 53
Figure 4. Impact of Reflective Practice on Student Achievement (Total and by Institution
Type) ........................................................................................................................................ 59
Figure 5. Strategies Used to Make Students Reflective (Total and by Institution Type) ....... 60
Figure I1. Sample Distribution by type of Institution ........................................................... 166
Figure I2. Sample Distribution by Sex and Type of Institution ............................................ 166
Figure I3. Sample Distribution by Age Categories (Total and by Institution Type) ............ 167
Figure I4. Sample Distribution by Education Level (Total and by Institution Type)........... 167
Figure I5. Sample by Educational Background (Total and by Institution Type).................. 168
Figure I6. Sample by Teaching Experience (Total and by Institution Type) ....................... 168
Figure I7. Sample by Type of Teaching (Total and by Type of Institution) ........................ 169
Figure I8. Frequency of Reflection by Type of Institution ................................................... 169
Figure I9. Purpose of Using Reflective Practice (Total and by Institution Type) ................ 170
Figure I10. Impact of Reflective Practice on Teaching (Total and by Institution Type) ...... 170
Figure I11. Skill for Life Beyond School by Institution Type .............................................. 171
Figure I12. Beliefs on metacognition .................................................................................... 171
Figure I13. Blog Use (Total and by Institution Type) .......................................................... 172
Figure I14. Means and modes for Attitudes towards Blogging for Reflection ..................... 172
Figure I15. School Support of Blog Integration ................................................................... 173
Figure I16. Training for Blog Use ........................................................................................ 173
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 6
Figure I17. School Support of other ICT Forms .................................................................... 174
Figure I18. Training for Other ICT Forms ............................................................................ 174
Figure I19. ICT Used by Teachers ........................................................................................ 175
Figure I20. Blog Use for Reflective Learning (Total and by Institution Type) .................... 175
Figure I21. Reasons to use Blogs for Reflective Learning ................................................... 176
Figure I22. Reasons not to use Blogs for Reflective Learning ............................................. 176
Figure I23. Blog Use for Metacognitive Learning (Total and by Institution Type) ............. 177
Figure I24. Ways to Use Blogs for Metacognitive Learning ................................................ 177
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 7
List of Tables
Table 1. Summary of Studies Regarding Use of Blogs ........................................................... 29
Table 2. Research Methodology .............................................................................................. 39
Table 3. Questionnaire Framework and Corresponding Questions from Tsai (2009)…...….40
Table 4. Reliability Statistics for Perceptions on Metacognition ............................................ 47
Table 5. Reliability Statistics for Perceptions on Blogging ..................................................... 47
Table 6. Frequency of use of Reflective Practice (Total and by Institution Type) .................. 55
Table 7. How Reflective Practice is Used (Total and by Institution Type) ............................. 56
Table 8. Impact of Reflection on Teaching (Total and by Type of Institution) ....................... 58
Table 9. Skills Required for Life Beyond School (Total and by Institution Type) ................. 62
Table 10. Beliefs on Metacognition by Institution Type ......................................................... 63
Table 11. Frequencies for Importance of Metacognition as a Tool to Enhance Learning ....... 64
Table 12. Importance of Metacognition by Institution Type ................................................... 65
Table 13. Descriptive Statistics for the Usefulness of the Strategies Required for
Metacognitive Learning ........................................................................................................... 66
Table 14. Descriptive Statistics for Importance of Strategies to Teach Metacognition .......... 68
Table 15. Descriptive Statistics for Importance of Strategies to Teach Metacognition by
Institution Type ........................................................................................................................ 69
Table 16. Purpose of Blog Use Frequencies ............................................................................ 71
Table 17. Purpose of Blog Use by Institution Type................................................................. 72
Table 18. Reasons not to Use Blogs Frequencies .................................................................... 73
Table 19. Reasons not to Use Blogs by Institution Type ......................................................... 74
Table 20. Descriptive Statistics for Attitudes towards Blogging and Reflection .................... 75
Table 21. Descriptive Statistics for Attitudes towards Blogging and Reflection by Institution
Type ......................................................................................................................................... 76
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 8
Table 22. Student Reaction towards Using Blogs for Reflection Frequencies ........................ 77
Table 23. Reasons for Student Reaction towards Using Blogs for Reflection by Institution
Type ......................................................................................................................................... 78
Table 24. Descriptive Statistics for Willingness to Use Blogs by Institution Type ................ 79
Table 25. Reasons for Willingness or Lack of Willingness to Use Blogs, by Institution Type
.................................................................................................................................................. 80
Table 26. Crosstabulation between Reflection Improves Learning and Sex. .......................... 82
Table 27. Crosstabulation between Reflection Improves Learning and Age .......................... 83
Table 28. Crosstabulation between Reflection Improves Learning and Education Level. ...... 84
Table 29. Crosstabulation between Reflection Improves Learning and Teaching Experience.
.................................................................................................................................................. 84
Table 30. Crosstabulation between Reflection Improves Learning and Teaching Area. ........ 85
Table 31. Independent Samples T-test for Importance of Metacognition, Willingness to Use
Blogs, and Student Reaction to Blogs for Reflection .............................................................. 88
Table H1. Crosstabulation between Teachers’ Willingness to Use Blogs and Reasons for the
Willingness to Use Blogs – for Very Willing and Willing Categories .................................. 141
Table H2. Crosstabulation between Teachers’ Willingness to Use Blogs and Reasons for the
Willingness to Use Blogs – for Neutral Category ................................................................. 141
Table H3. Crosstabulation between Teachers’ Willingness to Use Blogs and Reasons for the
Willingness to Use Blogs – for Not Willing and Not Willing at All Categories ................... 142
Table H4. Crosstabulation between Students’ Reaction to Use Blogs for Reflection and
Reasons for the Reaction ....................................................................................................... 143
Table H5. Crosstabulation between Students’ Reaction to Use Blogs for Reflection and
Reasons for the Reaction – for Very Enthusiastic and Enthusiastic Categories .................... 144
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 9
Table H6. Crosstabulation between Students’ Reaction to Use Blogs for Reflection and
Reasons for the Reaction – for Neutral to Not Enthusiastic at All Categories ...................... 145
Table H7.Crosstabulation between school support of blog integration and training for blog
use .......................................................................................................................................... 146
Table H8. Crosstabulation between School support of blog integration, willingness to use
blogs, and Training for blog use ........................................................................................... 146
Table H9. Crosstabulation between School support of other forms of ICT and Training for
other forms of ICT ................................................................................................................. 147
Table H10. Central Tendency Measures for Importance of Metacognition .......................... 148
Table H11. Count Impact of Reflection on Teaching by Education Level ........................... 149
Table H12. Central Tendency Measures for Willingness to Use Blogs by Education Level 150
Table H13. Central Tendency Measures for Willingness to Use Blogs by Teaching
Experience.............................................................................................................................. 151
Table H14. Central Tendency Measures for Willingness to Use Blogs by Teaching Area ... 152
Table H15. Central Tendency Measures for Willingness to Use Blogs by Reflection Impact
on Learning ............................................................................................................................ 152
Table H16. Central Tendency Measures for Willingness to Use Blogs by Sex .................... 153
Table H17. Central Tendency Measures for Willingness to Use Blogs by Age .................... 154
Table H18. Central Tendency Measures for Willingness to Use Blogs by Area of Degree.. 155
Table H19. Central Tendency Measures for Importance of Metacognition by Sex .............. 156
Table H20. Central Tendency Measures for Importance of Metacognition by Age ............. 156
Table H21. Central Tendency Measures for Importance of Metacognition by Education Level
................................................................................................................................................ 157
Table H22. Central Tendency Measures for Importance of Metacognition by Teaching
Experience.............................................................................................................................. 158
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 10
Table H23. Correlation between Reflection Improves Learning and Sex ............................. 159
Table H24. Correlation between Reflection Improves Learning and Age ............................ 159
Table H25. Correlation between Reflection Improves Learning and Education Level ......... 160
Table H26. Correlation between Reflection Improves Learning and Teaching Experience . 161
Table H27. Correlation between Reflection Improves Learning and Teaching Area ........... 162
Table H28. Descriptive Statistics for Student Reaction to Blogs for Reflection by Institution
Type ....................................................................................................................................... 162
Table H29. Descriptive Statistics for Usefulness of Metacognitive Strategies by Institution
Type ....................................................................................................................................... 163
Table H30. Reasons for Student Reaction towards Using Blogs for Reflection Frequencies
................................................................................................................................................ 164
Table H31. Willingness to Use Blogs Frequencies ............................................................... 164
Table H32. Reasons for Willingness to Use Blogs ................................................................ 165
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 11
Abstract
This study explores and describes the perceptions of 57 English teachers working in
private secondary and higher education institutions in Guayaquil, Ecuador on the use of
blogs as a strategy for enhancing reflective and metacognitive learning in the classroom
through a research question divided in two parts: (a) What are teachers’ perceptions towards
the roles of metacognition and reflection in teaching and learning, and (b) what are their
perceptions towards blogs as a tool for metacognition and reflection? It used a quantitative
method, through a questionnaire designed for the specific purpose of this research. Data was
collected using Google Forms and analyzed for statistical frequencies. The results of the
study show that the teachers that were surveyed have very positive perceptions towards the
use of reflection and metacognition. More specifically, they reported that proper feedback
and adequate questioning are required for reflection and they considered metacognition
fundamental to shape students’ learning. Regarding the use of blogs for reflective and
metacognitive learning, most of the sample teachers reported using them but acknowledged
that time and lack of technological ability are considerable issues. Due to the way this study
was conceived, its results may not be valid for the international community but may give
insight to educational stakeholders in contexts similar to those of the research.
Keywords: Reflection, metacognition, blogs, ICT, higher education, secondary education,
English teachers
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 12
Resumen Ejecutivo
El presente estudio explora y describe las percepciones de 57 profesores de Inglés de
institutos de educación secundaria y superior privados en Guayaquil, Ecuador, con respecto al
uso de blogs como estrategia para desarrollar el aprendizaje reflexivo y metacognitivo. Se
utilizó una pregunta de investigación dividida en dos partes: (a) ¿Cuáles son las percepciones
de los profesores acerca del papel que juegan la reflexión y metacognición en la enseñanza y
el aprendizaje, y, (b) cuáles son sus percepciones con respecto al uso de blogs para
metacognición y reflexión? Se empleó un método cuantitativo, usando un cuestionario
diseñado específicamente para esta investigación. Los datos fueron recolectados utilizando
Google Forms y se analizaron las frecuencias estadísticas. Los resultados muestran que los
profesores encuestados tienen percepciones muy positivas acerca de la reflexión y la
metacognición. Así, reportaron que proporcionar retroalimentación y hacer preguntas
adecuadas son fundamentales para desarrollar el pensamiento reflexivo. Por otra parte,
mostraron considerar a la metacognición como un factor importante para moldear el
aprendizaje de los estudiantes. Con respecto al uso de blogs para estos fines, la mayoría de
los profesores de la muestra expresó utilizarlos y reconoció que la falta de tiempo y de
habilidad en el uso de herramientas tecnológicas son cuestiones que se debe considerar.
Debido al diseño de esta investigación, sus resultados podrían no ser válidos para la
comunidad internacional. Sin embargo, pueden proporcionar visión para los agentes
relacionados a la educación en contextos similares a los del estudio.
Palabras clave: Reflexión, metacognición, blogs, TICs, educación superior, educación
secundaria, profesores de Inglés
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 13
Glossary
Blog: A Web log or publicly accessible journal that is kept online
IBO: International Baccalaureate Organization
ICT: Information and Communication Technology
ISTE: International Society for Technology in Education
EBP: Evidence-Based Practice
ECP: Escuela de Capacitación Pedagógica
EFL: English as a Foreign Language
ESL: English as a Second Language
P-12: Prekindergarten through grade 12 education; primary and secondary education
SPSS: Statistical Package for the Social Sciences
TESOL: Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages
UIS: UNESCO Institute for Statistics
UNESCO: United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 14
Introduction
For more than a decade, the use of blogs in education has been an innovative method
used to address many educational levels, ranging from primary to graduate, and within a
whole scope of academic areas. This is because they are one of the most accessible means of
online publication and are considered a pedagogical strategy. According to Knobel and
Lankshear (2006), blogs are small learning communities. They can also be an effective aid
for teaching and learning, offering a high level of autonomy and interaction with peers
simultaneously; giving students full control and ownership over their online content, fostering
the development of unique voices, and empowering students to become more analytical and
critical (Pascarella, 2009). In fact, a study conducted to explore the use of blogs as learning
environments in higher education found that blogging has the potential to be a
transformational technology for teaching and learning by providing a space for academic
discussions beyond the scope of a classroom (Williams & Jacobs, 2004).
For the specific context of Ecuador, studies on the use and integration of information
and communication technology (ICT) are rather scarce. Information available comes from the
results of a study involving teachers from twelve different private bilingual high schools in
Guayaquil, conducted as part of a thesis, in order to identify the ways in which these schools
were using technology. The study indicated that blogs were mainly used to inform, notify or
share information, assignments or events. In fact, only one of the surveyed schools had
started to use it for pedagogical purposes. Respondents mentioned that the schools used
websites, e-mails, platforms, blogs, online quizzes, wikis, and cell phones (Velasco, 2010).
Another case study described the use of blogs and other ICT in a tenth grade history
class at a school in Quito as a positive experience and also the creation of a blog for a
university department designed to take advantage of the blog’s communication potential
(Rodriguez, 2012). Rodriguez explained that there is a trend in schools and universities to
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 15
train their teachers and students in ICT use. Finally, Sevilla (2010) described the use of ICT
in a university in Ambato and concluded by recommending the creation of virtual
environments for students of the English as a Foreign Language (EFL) degree (Sevilla,
2010).
Despite a move towards ICT integration in the local context of private schools, there
are other aspects that need to be considered; for real learning to take place, blogging or the
integration of other forms of ICT are not the only requisites. Students, as well as teachers,
must elaborate what has been taught and relate it to their previous knowledge, and to then
create their own knowledge structures as well; that is, to construct knowledge. For this to
take place, the use of metacognitive strategies or higher order executive skills that enable
students to approach learning in a systematic, efficient, and effective way by planning,
monitoring and evaluating, is necessary. Teachers must know what teaching is about and the
different strategies they can use to foster authentic learning. Finally, teachers must be able to
self-regulate by reflecting upon their own mental processes to apply the best strategies for
each learning situation (Carrasco, Javaloyes & Calderero, 2008).
This focus on self-regulation and metacognition is encouraged by the international
community and are highlighted in the curricula in both Western and Asian educational
systems, as research states (Li, 2012). In fact, organizations such as the International
Baccalaureate Organization (IBO), the International Society for Technology in Education
(ISTE), the Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL), UNESCO, and
the European Union, recognize and emphasize a metacognitive approach to language learning
to encourage students to monitor and take control of their own learning processes (European
Union, 2006; IBO, 2012; ITSE, 2008; TESOL, 2010, p. 65; UNESCO, 2012). Reflection, the
complex process where the person who reflects connects ideas to better understand
experiences around him, plays a central role in language learning since it makes the learner
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 16
conscious of his/her life and the reality in front of him/her and allows for connections. In
addition, reflection promotes and reinforces objectivity and critical thinking (Carrasco,
Javaloyes & Calderero, 2008).
Due to their special characteristics, blogs support the use of many of the theories
required for language learning. For example, they promote scaffolding as described by
Bruner, Ausubel’s theory of meaningful learning by placing the learner at the center of the
process, Vygotsky’s social constructivism by establishing learning communities online,
among others (Yang, 2009). As a result, twenty-first century teachers face the challenge of
creating learning environments online that foster meaningful learning. One way to do it is to
create learner-centered, collaborative environments that support reflective and experiential
processes through the use of blogs. These constructivist environments engage learners in
knowledge construction through collaborative activities that embed learning in a meaningful
context and through reflection on what has been learned through conversation with other
learners (Jonassen et al, 1995; TESOL, 2010).
Even though the use of blogs has been widely disseminated, there is no extensive
research basis that helps teachers, especially language teachers, in designing learning spaces
that take advantage of the potential these tools could offer (Davison & Hall, 2007). Few
studies have examined the perceptions English teachers have on these matters. In fact,
research on the uses of blogs and other forms of digital media in teacher education remains
scarce (Pascarella, 2009). Nevertheless, there are some specific studies on the benefits of
using blogs and whether these help promote understanding and meaningful learning. For
instance, Davison & Hall (2007) found that environments that used blogs in Library and
Information Science motivated positive and productive exchanges in an educational context
(Davison & Hall, 2007). Another study conducted with students of English as a second
language in Malaysia found that the students were capable of applying their second language
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 17
skills, increasing self-confidence, developing critical thinking skills and reflection skills, and
using language in a new environment when using blogs (Abu Bakar, Latif & Ya’Acob,
2010). Blogs also constitute an essential tool for reflective learning, even when used in
environments with very little authenticity, such as when posts are graded as part of the
course. In fact, the study conducted by Davison and Hall identified that comments that
contributed in greater proportion to learning among peers were directly proportional to the
degree of reflection in such comments (Davison & Hall, 2007). In other words, the deeper
the reflection level in the comments, the more learning that was taking place. In an
autoethnographic study conducted by Pascarella in 2009 with pre-service teachers, the
benefits of using blogs far overshadowed those of keeping a traditional journal or chat rooms.
Other scholars contend whether the use of blogs produces a significant change in
students. Carnoy (2004), for example, evaluated ICT’s change potential and indicated that
although there is greater access to ICT, its integration to teaching methodology is rather
scarce due to the lack of teacher knowledge and their preference for traditional methods.
Atwell, in another study, discussed how major implementations of educational technology
have not been carried out to promote the creation of networks and creativity, but rather to
manage learning and isolate networks. As he explained, new technologies are used to
perpetuate the old education paradigm in a new format (Atwell, 2007). Another question
refers to the actual amount of learning that takes place when students are collaborating and
participating in social networks. It seems that learning may become irrelevant for the culture
of the youth and the way in which they conduct themselves.
Research appears to have focused either on how to operate blogs themselves or on
providing only qualitative accounts of weblog use and its impact (Du & Wagner, 2005).
Only a few studies have been published investigating their effectiveness in educational
settings, and even fewer in the realms of the language learning classroom (Tan, 2005). Nor
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 18
have researchers concentrated on blogs’ effectiveness when used by teachers to reflect about
professional practice. In fact, how teachers use blogs remains vague, even though the number
of users is on the rise (Ray & Hocutt, 2006).
Due to the fact that the author could find no studies that look at the perception of
English language teachers on the use of blogs as a strategy to foster reflection and
metacognition, this study intends to explore and describe the perceptions of English language
teachers on the use of blogs as a strategy for enhancing reflective learning in their classroom.
To fully understand this research question, it was necessary to determine teachers’
perceptions towards reflections and metacognition in teaching and learning first. This
responds to the needs established by the UNESCO (2010), TESOL Research Agenda (2005),
and IBO (2012), which encourage researchers to provide as much contextual information as
possible about their investigation and suggest that using technology to facilitate instruction is
one aspect to be further analyzed. More research is needed that can serve as a guide for how,
when, and to what degree technology should be incorporated into a given context (Borg,
Curtis, Davison, Hong Han, Reynolds & Scovel, 2004).
Using a quantitative method, this exploratory and descriptive study used a
questionnaire designed for the specific purpose of this research to determine the perceptions
of English language teachers on the use of blogs as a strategy for enhancing reflective
learning in their classroom. Data were collected and analyzed for statistical frequencies. The
results of the study will benefit school administrators by providing information about how
teachers are integrating technology in their schools in response to current needs. In addition,
English teachers may profit from the results by reflecting upon common teaching and
technology integration practices and the areas of their teaching practice that could be
improved. Finally, policy makers may benefit from the use of the study as a basis for further
research to inform policy.
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 19
This study does not intend to propose a new methodology or professional
development to train teachers on how to use this strategy; rather, it aims to explore and
describe the perceptions of the teachers. It does not seek to predict future action, nor to
generalize results, but rather to reveal perceptions for further research and any particular
interventions planned using the results. Its results may not be valid for the international
community but may provide insights for English teachers in a situation similar to that of the
schools where the surveyed subjects are employed in Guayaquil, Ecuador.
Literature Review
To understand how blogs, reflection and metacognition affect educational practices,
the subsequent literature review explores the following topics. First, the issue of lifelong
learning is discussed, as it serves as the goal toward which those educational objectives
aspire. Reflection and metacognition are then reviewed as means to create lifelong learners.
Finally, the role of ICT’s in education, and that of blogs more specifically, is analyzed.
Lifelong learning
Currently, there is rising interest in research concerning what makes learning
activities effective (Ingvarson, Maier, & Beavis, 2005). A necessity for teachers to improve
their professional practice has emerged, so that they can model and transfer the constant
learning skills necessary for a learner’s proper development and practice. This requires a
shift in focus to lifelong learning rather than a knowledge update (Bransford, 2000). The
European Union has determined that in order for someone to become a lifelong learner, eight
key competences must be fulfilled. These competences include aspects related to
communicative competence in different languages, digital competence, and learning to learn
(European Union, 2006). To become lifelong learners, both students and teachers must be
reflective, becoming actively involved in their own learning processes. This practice
becomes especially important in becoming an effective teacher; it is imperative to revise and
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 20
expand one’s understanding (Gaible & Burns, 2005). One way to achieve such a goal is to be
knowledgeable about oneself and to then become constantly curious, systematic when
analyzing, critical, diligent when making connections, and evaluative to determine the results
of one’s own practices (Thorpe, 2004). The aim is to acquire self learning skills permanently
throughout life (Meza, Pérez & De la Barreda, 2002).
Reflection in education
From the previous discussion, it can be inferred that reflection is of vital importance
for the development of real learning both for students and teachers. Research shows that to
make meaning, articulation and reflection on what is known are required (Jonassen, 1995).
According to Dewey, reflection is a complex, thorough, intellectual, and emotional task that
takes time to be done properly and profoundly. When analyzing Dewey’s work, Rodgers
(2002) identified four different criteria to refer to reflective thinking. First, reflection is a
meaning making process that helps to connect ideas to previous knowledge and ensures the
continuity of learning. Second, reflection is rooted in scientific inquiry; this means that it is a
systematic and rigorous activity. Third, reflection must occur in interaction with others.
Fourth, reflection requires attitudes that value personal and community growth (Rodgers,
2002). It can also be said that reflection is a high-level cognitive thinking process (Kaune,
2006). To Fendler (2003), reflection is “a demonstration of self consciousness, a scientific
approach to planning for the future, a tacit and intuitive understanding of practice, a
discipline to become more professional, a way to tap into one’s authentic inner voice, a
means to become …more effective … and a strategy to redress injustices in society” (Ross,
2011). To Richards, Sylvester, and Farrell (2005), reflection is the process of critical
examination of experiences that can lead to a better understanding of the pedagogic practices
and routines of the person who reflects. Critically reflective practice allows teachers to
become better in their profession, create more meaningful learning activities, design more
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 21
effective curriculum, and make better informed educative decisions (Pascarella, 2009). Moon
(1999), identified reflection as a simple mental process that purposefully considers complex
ideas, occurring at different reflection levels which go from the superficial to profound
(Moon, 1999). Research indicates that the deepest reflection levels are more likely to become
quality learning. (Jafari & Kaufman, 2006). For the purpose of this research, reflection is
considered a complex task that helps the individual understand the different aspects of
educational endeavors. It is a process that can be enhanced by interaction with peers or
tutors.
One means to spark reflection is through the use of feedback. Comments given by
teachers are critical to help students reach deeper reflection levels and to create metacognitive
situations (Sun, 2009). Feedback serves two roles; it facilitates students’ learning and deep
thought and it is a model for students to follow. As a consequence, teachers must go beyond
questioning, limited not only to asking and answering questions, but rather leading to greater
understandings, questions, and possibilities (Yang, 2009). As teachers scaffold students’
reflective skills and practice through the use of proper feedback, they will ideally lead the
learners to become metacognitive. Once teachers have started using reflective practice,
metacognitive processes can take place.
Metacognition in education
Even though metacognition and reflection may be synonymous for some scholars, for
the purpose of this research, reflection is considered a skill that leads to metacognition; that
is, the greater and deeper the reflective capacity of the learner, the better metacognitive skills
he may have. What exactly is metacognition, then? Metacognition in the simplest expression
can be defined as thinking about thinking. It can be considered as a form of evaluation, only
that this one looks inward, since the learner’s ideas and practice are assessed as part of the
metacognitive process (Martinez, 2006). It describes a complex process that can result in a
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 22
subtle view of oneself as a thinker and learner. To Osman and Hannafin (1992),
metacognition refers to the self-awareness about their knowledge and self-understanding,
self-control and self-manipulation of their own cognitive processes (in Tsai, 2009).
There are three components of learning processes in metacognitive strategies:
planning, monitoring, and evaluation. These concepts are graphically represented in Figure 2
(Gani & Abdullah, 2009).
Figure 1. Metacognitive Strategies (Gani & Abdullah, 2009)
Learners who are metacognitively aware know what to do when they do not know what to do;
that is, they have strategies for finding out or figuring out what they need to do (Carrasco,
2004). Metacognitive learners, thus, become aware and take control of their own learning.
It could thus be said that the metacognitive has cognitive elements, but cognition does not
necessarily include metacognition (Avila & Baetiong, 2012). For any metacognitive strategy
to be effective, students must understand the strategy, understand why they need to know it
and why it will benefit them, be able to think about the strategy process aloud, see examples
of the strategy in use, know when and where it is appropriate to use it, and be able to monitor
themselves. Metacognition helps children (and adults) make the most of their mental
capacity (Fisher, 1998). The use of metacognitive strategies ignites one’s thinking and can
lead to more profound learning and improved performance (Anderson, 2002). In addition,
Metacognitive strategies
Learning Processes
Planning for own learning
Monitoring of own learning
Evaluation of own learning
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 23
when students’ metalearning capacity is raised, their personal growth and commitment to
learning increase as well (Tsai, 2009).
Research shows that metacognition is a critical skill for learning languages and
employed by skilled readers of any language (New Teacher Center, 2005). TESOL
Standards for the Recognition of Initial TESOL Programs in P-12 ESL clearly indicate a
metacognitive approach to language learning in Domain 4, regarding assessment. Standard
4c asks teachers to “understand the interdependent relationship between teaching and
assessment, and develop instructional tasks and assessment tools that promote and measure
student learning.” The standards emphasize the importance of assessing language skills in an
integrative way. A way to do this is through performance assessments, since they promote
complex thinking. Students who know what to do, know how to do it, and are capable of
identifying when to use the different strategies and to adapt their use to different situations, as
is implied in standard 4c, are using metacognitive strategies (Carrasco, 2004).
Education and ICT
As years go by, there are greater and faster advances in technology and
communications. The world is in the midst of a digital era, in which information and
communication technologies (ICT) are constantly being developed and innovated. Their
existence implies changes and growth opportunities in different areas of human development.
The power of ICT as change agents is undeniable (Wagner, 2005).
ICT offer a huge potential to develop the lifelong learning skills that are inherent to
the current time; thus, they are especially adequate to facilitate learning in students who are
not intrinsically motivated to learn and do not know how to use information presented with
such ease (Margalef, 2007). New technologies allow for the creation of learning
environments that extend the use of old technologies such as books and blackboards. The
implementation of ICT in the educational arena has been considered to contribute to change,
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 24
better prepare students, improve learning results, and ameliorate the skills of learners (Assar,
El Amrani, & Watson, 2010). A connection between ICT and reflective practices has been
identified as well. Rowe, Frantz and Bozalek (2012) explain that there is evidence that
integrating technology can facilitate the student’s development by encouraging reflection,
and by enhancing communication and reasoning (Rowe et al., 2012). ICT enables learners to
use the computer, the Internet, and other synchronous and asynchronous applications to keep
either learning journals in a word processor, an e-portfolio, or a blog. ICT also enables the
giving of feedback by different users through chats, video conferences, and instant
messaging. Once individuals start using the feedback provided through ICT by both teachers
and peers to consider aspects related to their own learning processes and ways to improve
them, metacognitive practice will take place. Records of this practice can be kept by using
ICT as well (Rowe et al., 2012).
It must be understood that technology in itself does not guarantee effective learning,
but rather that its use could even stop effective learning from taking place (Bransford, 2000).
It must not be forgotten that no amount of ICT can compensate for high quality pedagogy and
that it must be relevant to teachers’ needs (Gaible & Burns, 2005). The real challenge is thus
to inspire and prepare teachers to implement rich curricular activities, using the pertinent
tools for the context in which they work (McKenzie, 2001).
In the context of teaching foreign languages, using ICT has many advantages. It can
increase interaction among students and create a wider audience online outside the classroom.
It can also address the different learning styles of students; make learning authentic through a
positive learning environment that is supportive and open (Moqbel & Rao, 2013).
Based on these assumptions, it is imperative that educators, researchers, and policy
makers study alternative methods and tools that will ameliorate teaching practices while
allowing for regular activities to take place. One such way to do it is to integrate ICT into
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 25
their academic program, both for teachers and students. In fact, according to Wagner (2005)
policymakers and parents in many developing countries are making increasing demands for
the use of ICT in education. ICT have had a tremendous impact on teacher professional
development in countries around the world (Gaible & Burns, 2005).
When referring specifically to the context of Ecuador, information on ICT use is
rather scarce. Nevertheless, a study conducted by the UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS,
2012), collected data for the Latin American and Caribbean region from administrative
sources and found that Ecuador, despite having a formal commitment to ICT initiatives and
e-readiness, has only 4% of teachers currently teaching basic computer skills or computing.
Data is missing or not available to the researchers in the study about ICT-qualified teachers
and teachers trained to teach subject(s) using ICT facilities or currently teaching them, as is
shown in Appendix A (UIS, 2012). Even though this gives a rough idea of what takes place
in primary and secondary schools in general, there are no conclusive studies that describe
Ecuador’s situation regarding the use of ICT and what teachers think about it.
Web 2.0 and education
Among the different ICT, the Internet plays a prime role. Special attention should be
given to Web 2.0 tools. When the World Wide Web was initiated, it was in the form of Web
1.0, which gave access to unimaginable quantities of one-way only information. In other
words, real time interaction with other users was not possible; one had to rely on the use of
tools such as electronic mail. Web 2.0, on the other hand, introduces substantial changes in
that it allows for social interaction in a two-way communication channel. It “refers to the
social use of the Web which allows people to collaborate, to get actively involved in creating
content, to generate knowledge, and to share information online” (Grosseck, 2009, p.1). The
interlocutor and the receptor are able to share in both an asynchronous and synchronous
manner, which makes it especially remarkable for the educational field. This is due to four
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 26
basic characteristics of online learning environments: flexible time and space, indirect social
interactions, abundant information resources, and dynamic learning interfaces (Tsai, 2009).
Some examples of Web 2.0 tools and applications include social networks such as
Facebook, Twitter, Flicker; and blogs, such as wikis and rinks, among others. Each of them
serves a specific purpose. Flicker, for example, allows for image exchange. Facebook allows
the user to create social, academic, or even business networks and groups (Guy, Zwerdling,
Ronen, Carmel, & Uziel, 2010). Given the possibilities that Web 2.0 tools confer, the web
becomes not only an informational or social resource, but a learning environment where
understanding is built and shared socially as well. It is in this medium that learning becomes
part of doing and creating knowledge (Brown, 2000). Thanks to Web 2.0, learning becomes
as social as cognitive, more concrete than abstract, and in the midst of judgments and
exploration (Lombardi, 2007).
Den Exter, Rowe, Boyd, and Lloyd, (2012), summarize the opportunities for learning
using Web 2.0, as opposed to Web 1.0, technologies into six categories. First, these
technologies enable students to engage with learning. Second, they support learning
interaction in the learning process. Third, they enable students to work at a conceptual level
of understanding. Fourth, they enable students to develop critical thinking skills. Fifth, they
allow students to collaboratively build knowledge. Sixth, they enable students to construct
their own knowledge. All these considerations come from the study of the implications
considered in figure 2.
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 27
Figure 2. Conceptual model of a Web 2.0 community of inquiry, illustrating relationships
between teacher, student and the integrated use of Web 2.0 tools (den Exter, Rowe, Boyd, &
Lloyd, 2012)
Regarding the use of Web 2.0 applications for educational purposes, studies suggest
the lines between different online environments are constantly shifting and blurring, so it is
hard to define one specific tool for each use. Nevertheless, it is common practice to use blogs
and e-portfolios for reflection, forums for discussion, and wikis for collaboration (Miyazoe &
Anderson 2012; Ross, 2011). Referring more specifically to blogs and wikis, which are the
most relevant applications for the context of this study, both can be useful depending on the
teaching contexts and the intentions of the users. It could thus be said that blogs and wikis
are structurally very similar. The key difference is that blogs organize information in a
temporal manner, whereas wikis do it spatially (Bruns, 2006). In addition, a blog has a single
author, while everyone is a writer on wiki pages. On the blog, visitors can send their
comments to the author’s message, but they cannot alter the posted content. Blogs are the
critical reflection platforms where the students can often feel relaxed and communicate with
each other (Avci & Askar, 2012).
As a result, it can be said that blogs are of use for continuous personal or group
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 28
reflection or for the incremental development of skills, gathering of information, provision of
feedback. Wikis, on the other hand, can be used for gathering information in an improvised
form as it is gathered.
Richardson (2010) explains that blogs are controlled and owned by the bloggers and
are primarily centered on and identified with their author or authors, rather than organized
around specific topics. Blogs invite users to share, create, and interact in a virtual space and
create knowledge. Such continuous collaboration fosters the interconnectivity between
bloggers and encourages reflection and meaning negotiation. Different studies in the
language learning field have made use of blogs as tools to enhance reflection and
metacognition. For instance, Sun and Chang’s study (2012) examined how blogs helped
seven graduate students undertaking the Master’s program in TESOL and Linguistics process
academic writing knowledge and make sense of their writer identity. They found that the blog
activity encouraged active and reflective engagement in knowledge sharing and generation,
and the development of strategies to deal with problems along the learning process. In
addition, blogs were found to provide a sense of authorship and knowledge of what such a
role entails (Sun & Chang, 2012).
Blogs in education
Among the different Web 2.0 applications that could be of assistance in the
educational arena, blogs are of increasing interest and use. Blogs are part of the read/write
web; they are interactive in nature. Godwin (2003) argued that a weblog (or blog) is a web-
based space for writing where all the writing and editing of information is managed through a
browser and is immediately and publicly available on the Internet. This means that there is
no need of programming knowledge in order to keep a blog; it is as simple as sending an e-
mail to an acquaintance. As Sevilla (2010) noted, it is an open source of communication and
a virtual communication channel, where exchange of ideas takes place with ease and
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 29
rapidness. Thus, blogs have a great potential in education since writing to the web is easy
and there is an audience for one’s ideas (Richardson, 2010).
In regard to pedagogy, the effective use of blogs enables knowledge sharing through
connecting learners to contexts beyond the classroom. As described by Du & Wagner (2005),
this facilitates the development of individual and critical voices and prompts individual
accountability in learning. Blogs are a teaching strategy in and of themselves (Zhang, 2009).
Because of their nature and features, blogs can be used as communication and/or cognitive
tools for disciplines, such as medicine, language learning, journalism and communication
studies, academic research, law, higher education in general, and teachers’ professional
development. Table 1 summarizes some of the studies that have been conducted regarding the
use of blogs.
Table 1
Summary of Studies Regarding Use of Blogs
Author Field Study Results
Chu, Chan, &
Tiwari, 2012
Information
management and
nursing
Analyzed the behavior,
perceptions, and processes of
blogging
Perceived as useful for knowledge
construction, problem solving,
collaborative learning, reflection,
and communication and social
support
Chu, Kwanm
& Warning,
2012
Information
management
Use of three different blogging
platforms during internships
Positive perceptions on blogging as
a tool to facilitate information
management and mutual support,
self-reflection, and communication
Wetmore et al,
2010
Dental higiene Use of blogs as a tool for
reflecting on clinical experiences
and for promoting critical
thinking.
No significant change in
performance, but statistically
significant improvements in levels
of reflection
Krogstie, 2010 Software
Engineering
Lightweight collaboration tools
used in daily project work;
reflection through retrospective
reflection workshops
Conceptualize a general model of
reflection as distributed cognition
Syvanen &
Beale, 2010
Teacher
education
Mobile blogging tool for smart
phones used by teachers of
teacher-trainees
Positive views towards using the
devices to support reflective
learning and process and portfolio
activities.
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 30
Yang, 2009 Teacher
education
Use of blogs as a reflective
platform in the training of (EFL)
student teachers
All were reflective, and some
critically reflective; considered
technology a useful platform for
reflecting and communicating
Sharma & Xie,
2008
Instructional
Design
(Doctoral Level)
Interviews of graduate students
using Weblogs
Found as helpful for learning,
reflecting, and building a sense of
community, but expressed concerns
over the lack of structure public
nature of the reflective process
Duda &
Garrett, 2008
Physics Course blog for physics students
discussing real-world applications
outside of class.
Initial positive attitudes towards
physics; response to blog
overwhelmingly positive
Du & Wagner,
2005
Information
Systems
Keeping of on-going (web based)
learning logs throughout a
semester
Weblog performance was a
significant predictor for learning
outcome, while traditional
coursework was not; a positive
learning effect for weblog authoring.
Frantz &
Rowe, 2013
Physiotherapy Use of reflective blogging to teach
the process of Evidence-Based
Practice in physiotherapy
Movement from assisted to
independent performance; blogging
found to be a valuable tool for
promoting meaningful learning
activities and in teaching the process
of EBP.
Different studies agree that among the many characteristics of blogs there are four
main features that make the role of blogs special among other Web 2.0 tools and applications.
These are the individual (or group) ownership of the blog content and comments posted,
which gives authority to one particular voice; reversed chronological order that is culturally
understood; automatic archiving to revise previous posts easily; and adaptability to the users
(Davison & Hall, 2007; Richardson, 2010; Sim & Hew, 2010; Zhang, 2009; Moqbel & Rao,
2013). These unique characteristics have made it one of the greatest tools in communication
media due to its “use strength;” in fact, two new blogs are created every second (Richardson,
2010). This rapid extension is mainly because blogs, unlike other media, are culture: they are
conversation developed in an asynchronous way through which the immediacy and style of
the bloggers are shared and extended. Blogs promote individual voice, ease of address, and a
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 31
blurred distinction between public and private spheres (Rodriguez, 2012; Ross, 2011). In
contrast to other Web 2.0 applications and tools, blogs integrate the personal and the public,
which may be thought as the basis for establishing their importance for reflective practice
(Davison & Hall, 2007). The idea that the blog as a whole is a reflection of who the blogger
actually is, is of great importance for those in the blogosphere (Ross, 2011). The blog as a
learning journal is a way of evidencing learning and collecting information for metacognition
and reflection, taking students to deeper levels of learning. Virtual environments, such as
blogs, are conducive to reflection and metacognition. To illustrate, Johnson (2004)
concluded that virtual environments are conducive to reflection in the English writing class.
Weblog environments can promote reflective activities in learners since they shorten the
distance between learners and the content to be learned (Zhang, 2009).
The utilization of blogs as learning tools that scaffold both teacher and student
reflective skills will be specifically explored in this study. Weblogs allow for the exchange
of information between people to expand their knowledge and satisfy needs and personal
interests at the same time, without considering time and place limitations. A blog is typically
built by people who share mutual interests and who set objectives, regulations, and formats
collaboratively, which essentially differentiates blogs from other types of webpages. It can
thus be stated that a blog is a small learning community (Knobel & Lankshear, 2006). A blog
environment may be used to monitor and evaluate student work, as well as to motivate
interaction among students and between teachers and students (Bransford, 2000). In a study
conducted by Rowe (2012), for example, blogs were found to be the tool that was understood
best by most of the participants (23%) compared to applications such as wikis and podcasts.
In addition, participants deemed it important to engage in common online activities such as
watching videos and creating blog posts (Rowe, Frantz, & Bolazek, 2012). This engagement
is due to the multiple functions blogs allow.
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 32
As previously stated, the use of blogs enables the application of many learning
theories. Blogs allow for implementation of Bruner’s conception of the social and
interpersonal nature of language, Ausubel’s theory of meaningful learning, and Vygotsky’s
social constructivist principles, among others (Yang, 2009). There are a range of potential
applications of blogging in education and training including for student and teacher
communication, delivery of learning materials, the provision of mentoring to students,
collaboration and professional development for teachers and knowledge management (Zhang,
2009). Blogs can thus enable teachers to develop lesson plans, plan online collaborative
projects, discuss pedagogy, post experiences, lessons learned, or self-assessments, and
engage in peer mentoring, among other activities. The benefits of these endeavors increase
when teachers are also engaged in structured Teacher Professional Development programs
(Gaible & Burns, 2005).
Based on the study review by Sim & Hew (2010), some of the effects of the use of
blogs for include collaboration and interaction whether it is among peers or between teacher
and learner as in Kuzu (2007), Leslie and Murphy (2008), Loving et al. (2007), Makri and
Kinigos (2007), among others (Appendix B). In addition, there is the use and improvement of
reflective skills (Xie et al., 2008, Xie & Sharma, 2005; Zeng & Harris, 2005; Dickey, 2004).
Another aspect that is considered is the consolidation of knowledge and learning processes as
in Coutinho (2007), Davi et al (2007), Stiler and Philleo (2003). Negative aspects that were
found in these studies include time constraints, procrastination, limited technological ability,
and privacy issues (Sim & Hew, 2010). Other studies focus on the effect of blogging on
autonomous learning, increasing writing fluency, as a place for completing writing
assignments, posting class materials, and as a way to open communication in a positive
manner (Ross, 2011).
There are studies that question whether or not the use of blogs produces a significant
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 33
change in students. For instance, Carnoy (2004) evaluated ICT change potential and found
that despite ICT’s enormous capability, little actual change takes place. Atwell (2007)
explained how technology implementation has been used to isolate networks and bring about
the traditional education using different media (Atwell, 2007).
Another question of importance refers to the actual amount of learning taking place.
It seems that learning may become irrelevant for the culture of the youth and the way in
which they conduct themselves (Rodriguez, 2012). Ross (2011) argues that blogs have
become a space for personal branding that may take learners away from any academic
purpose (Ross, 2011).
Other studies have had inconsistent results in terms of the effectiveness of blog use in
education. Opposing findings were obtained regarding the adoption rate of blogs among
students. Some argued that blogs were successful motivational tools for students, while
others found that students do not maintain continuing blogging practice. More specifically,
Kim (2008) discovered that a shared blog was less appealing than keeping a personal one
(Kim, 2008). This could be explained by the loss of personal authorship that is one of the
distinguishing features of blogs. Other issues that constantly show up in research concern
privacy and technical constraints.
From a simple search of the Internet, however, it is clear that much blogging is
occurring and simply not being reported in English language learning literature. Research
focusing on blog use in English language classes is still relatively scarce in the literature
(Zhang, 2009). The increasing use of blogs in education demands a better understanding of
the phenomena. Learning more about the way teachers use blogs and their purpose in so
doing it will be beneficial to the whole learning community.
Perceptions and educational research
Perception is the process of recognizing and interpreting sensory stimuli. It not only
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 34
implies interpretation, but also the way individuals respond to the information. Perception can
be thought of as a process where sensory information from the surroundings is captured and
then used to interact with such surroundings. Through the perceptual process, individuals take
information in and give it meaning (Williams, 2013). It can thus be said that perceptions are
the way people make sense of their world (Lewis, 2001).
Perception is critical because it influences the information that enters the working
memory; however, background knowledge resulting from prior experience also affects the
perceptual process and learning (Adediwura & Tayo, 2007). Perception is influenced by a
variety of factors, including the stimulus itself, the activities of the sensory organs, the
subject's past experience; attention factors, and the motivation and emotions of the subject
(Henson, 2003). This explains why people will always have different interpretations of what
they perceive, even if the stimulus is exactly the same. Perceptions are constantly evolving.
Previous and current perceptions that seem correct, may be altered due to the appearance of
new and valid sensory information (Lewis, 2001)
When trying to understand other people and their behavior, the perceptual process
becomes known as social perception (Henson, 2003). In the educational field, social
perceptions are important since the way teachers perceive students and the learning
environment where they interact, affects student performance and actual learning. These
social perceptions are of extreme significance since they shape the way both teachers and
learners interact and construct knowledge; thus, differences in perception are key to the
education field and educational stakeholders should be understanding and sensitive to others'
perspectives, in order to ensure that learning is taking place in the best way possible.
Among the underlying implications of perceptions in education is the power that
perception has to shape the kinds of people learners will become. As noted by Henson
(2003), teachers have tremendous power to shape their students' behaviors and futures,
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 35
including the way they treat them. Interestingly, teachers usually are not very aware of such
treatment.
For the purpose of this research, the perceptions of English teachers regarding the use
of blogs as tools for reflection and metacognition will be studied. This is significant since by
understanding the way teachers make sense of the blogosphere and its implications for
metalearning and reflective practice, an actual change in the way technology is integrated into
teaching can take place (Moqbel & Rao, 2013). Considering there is little technology use in
the context of the study, if teachers’ use of technology is to change then their perceptions
about technology have to change. It is clear that the adoption of any new technology depends
on the importance teachers give to ICT for learning (Donnelly, McGarr, & O’Reilly, 2011).
Their perceptions of ICT as important for learning will allow for the constructivist use of new
tools and applications to enhance learning, proper modeling and transfer of the lifelong
learning skills learners should be acquiring. As expressed by Fullan (2007), “Change is
dependent on what teachers do and think – it’s as simple and as complex as that.”
Transformations in the student learning process in the end depend on teachers. (in Donnelly,
McGarr, & O’Reilly, 2011).
Research Question:
What are English teachers’ perceptions regarding the use of blogs as a tool for
enhancing reflective learning in the foreign language classroom?
In order to fully understand the answer of the research question, teachers’ perceptions
towards metacognition and reflection in teaching and learning must be determined first. The
research question is divided in two parts: (a) What are teachers’ perceptions towards the roles
of metacognition and reflection in teaching and learning, and (b) what are their perceptions
towards blogs as a tool for metacognition and reflection?
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 36
Methodology
Research Design
To respond to the research question, this study used a quantitative non-experimental
research design. A quantitative approach aims to explain phenomena by collecting numerical
data that are analyzed using mathematically based measures and statistical analysis in order
to establish behavioral patterns and prove theories (Hernández, Fernández, & Baptista, 2010;
Salkind, 2010). In this study, numerical data was collected using a questionnaire.
Methodological Design
To find out about the perceptions of English teachers working in secondary and higher
education regarding the use of blogs for reflection and metacognition this study used a cross-
sectional exploratory/descriptive research design. This design was chosen since the study did
not intend to manipulate any variables, but to rather describe a situation in a specific moment
of time for a specific sample of teachers in a specific location. It aims to describe how the
sample of teachers makes sense of blogging in relation to reflection and metacognition. An
exploratory research design intends to provide a better understanding of a situation. It is not
designed to result in final answers but on gaining ideas and insights. A descriptive research
design places the major emphasis on determining the frequency with which something occurs
or the extent to which two variables covary (Brown & Suter, 2011). This study thus aimed
to gather data regarding the perceptions English teachers have regarding the use of blogs for
reflective practice and metacognition.
Population.
The population for this study was comprised of English language and content area
teachers involved in higher education and secondary education levels in Guayaquil, Ecuador.
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 37
Sample.
The participants of this study were fifty-seven English teachers from various private
universities and secondary schools in Guayaquil, Ecuador, which offer EFL courses and in
which the major specific subjects are taught in English. It was a non-probabilistic sample, in
which the researcher selected the sample elements not based on a predetermined probability
but on the specific nature of the study to be undertaken (Salkind, 2010). Sample teachers
who work in universities and secondary schools offering courses in English were chosen
from the referrals made by teachers in the researcher’s sphere of contacts. This particular
subgroup was selected because it had specific characteristics that fulfilled the purpose of the
study and allowed for the collection of answers to the research question (Lund Research Ltd,
2012). Thus, a convenience sampling method, which is commonly used in social sciences,
was used, since the teachers in the sample were available to the researcher due to their
accessibility (Bryman, 2012; Mertens, 2014). In some cases, snowball sampling was also
used, since some teachers initially contacted forwarded the survey to teachers in their own
spheres of contact.
As stated by Rayford (2010), in quantitative studies, sampling should be based more
on the judgment of the researcher to select participants who provide information to better
address the purpose of the research; that is, to answer the research questions. Nevertheless, it
must be considered that the sample being studied cannot be assumed to be representative of
the population (Bryman, 2012; Lund Research Ltd, 2012; Mertens, 2014).
Study variables.
The variables to be explored are demographics, perceptions on reflection, perceptions
on metacognition, and perceptions on blogging.
Demographics are conceptually defined as particular characteristics of a population
or sample. Demographic variables are independent variables by definition because they
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 38
cannot be manipulated. (Lee & Schuele, 2010). For this study, they are operationally defined
as responses given to items one to eight in the questionnaire. Categories for this variable
include sex, age, educational level, degree, teaching experience, and type of teaching, either
English language, content area, or both.
Perceptions on reflection: Conceptually, reflection is defined as a complex task that
helps the individual understand the different aspects of educational endeavors; it is a process
that must be scaffolded by interaction with peers and tutors. It is a skill that leads to
metacognition. For this study, perceptions on reflection are operationally defined as responses
given to items nine to fifteen in the questionnaire. Categories for this variable include basic
beliefs on reflection and reflective practice, purpose of using reflective practice as a
teaching/learning tool, impact of reflection on teaching, impact of reflection on student
learning, and strategies used to make students reflective.
Perceptions on metacognition: Conceptually, metacognition refers to the self-
awareness about their knowledge and self-understanding, self-control and self-manipulation
of their own cognitive processes (in Tsai, 2009). For this study, perceptions on metacognition
are operationally defined as responses given to items sixteen to twenty in the questionnaire.
Categories for this variable include the fundamental skills/strategies required for life, beliefs
on metacognition, perception of the importance of metacognition as a tool to enhance
learning, perceptions of the usefulness of the fundamental strategies required for
metacognitive learning, and perceptions of the importance of strategies to teach
metacognition.
Perceptions on blogging: Conceptually, a blog is a web-based space for writing. It is
an open source of communication and a virtual communication channel, where exchange of
ideas takes place with ease and rapidness (Godwin, 2003; Sevilla, 2010). The blog is a way
of evidencing learning and collecting information for metacognition and reflection, taking
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 39
students to deeper levels of learning (Zhang, 2009). For this study, perceptions on blogging
are operationally defined as responses given to items twenty-one to thirty-nine in the
questionnaire. Categories for this variable include purpose of blogs, attitudes towards
blogging and reflection, student attitudes towards reflective blogs, willingness to use blogs,
and school’s support of blog and ICT integration. Table 2 summarizes the aspects to be
developed in the research methodology.
Table 2
Research Methodology
Variable Conceptual
Definition
Operational
Definition Indicators / Dimensions
Scale / Values
Demographics Particular
characteristics
of a population
or sample. (Lee
& Schuele,
2010).
Responses given to
items one to eight
Sex
Age
Educational level
Degree
Teaching experience
Type of teaching
Male, female
Open-ended
Bachelor, masters,
teacher certification,
doctorate, specialty
Open-ended
Years
English language,
content area, both
Perceptions
on reflection
Reflection is a
complex task
that helps the
individual
understand the
different
aspects of
educational
endeavors
(Kaune, 2006);
it is a skill that
leads to
metacognition.
Responses given to
items nine to
sixteen in the
questionnaire.
Basic beliefs on
reflection and reflective
practice,
Purpose of using
reflective practice,
Impact of reflection on
teaching,
Impact of reflection on
student learning,
Strategies used to make
students reflective
Yes
No
Class description, idea
generation, situation
identification,
analysis, evaluation,
planning,
improvement
Meaningful learning,
curriculum design,
decision making
Planning,
understanding, self-
assessment,
professionalism
Questions, feedback,
models
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 40
Perceptions
on
metacognition
Metacognition
refers to
student self-
awareness
about their
knowledge and
self-
understanding,
self-control and
self-
manipulation of
their own
cognitive
processes (in
Tsai, 2009).
Responses given to
items seventeen to
twenty-one in the
questionnaire.
Skills/strategies required
for life,
Beliefs on
metacognition,
Perception of the
importance of
metacognition as a tool
to enhance learning,
Perceptions of the
usefulness of the
fundamental strategies
required for
metacognitive learning,
Perceptions of the
importance of strategies
to teach metacognition.
Languages, learning,
digital competence,
planning, critical
thinking,
collaboration,
processing, problem-
solving, proactivity,
culture
Open-ended
Very important to not
important at all
Very useful to useless
Very important to
unimportant
Perceptions
on blogging
A blog is a way
of evidencing
learning and
collecting
information for
metacognition
and reflection,
taking students
to deeper levels
of learning
(Zhang, 2009)
Responses given to
items twenty-two
to forty in the
questionnaire.
Purpose of blogs,
Attitudes towards
blogging and reflection,
Student attitudes towards
reflective blogs,
Willingness to use blogs
School’s support of blog
and ICT integration,
Blogs for reflection
Blogs for metacognition
Posting, contact,
information, reflection
Scales for interesting,
pleasant,
comprehensible,
worthwhile, success
promoting, easy,
important
Very enthusiastic to
not enthusiastic at all
Very willing to not
willing at all
Yes, no, which ones,
training
Yes, no, why
Yes, no, usage
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 41
Data Collection.
To respond to the research question, data collection was conducted using quantitative
methods. A questionnaire was administered using Google Forms to the sample of English
teachers. Internet-based surveys are easy to build and easy to analyze, and in theory, easy to
administer (Bernard, 2013). Given the nature of the study and the research question, the use
of such design allowed the researcher to present data and then analyze descriptive statistics,
such as frequencies, percentages, and measures of central tendency (Toprac, 2006). The
following instruments were used during the study:
Questionnaire (See Appendix D) was used to explore perceptions teachers have on
reflection, metacognition, and the use of blogs for such a purpose. Questionnaires were
distributed through e-mails using Google Docs. The participants were assured on the cover
page of the instrument of the confidentiality of the information they would be providing
(Appendix C).
Tsai’s study (2009) was organized using a framework where potential elements and
domains were established prior to thinking of questions. Following this example, a
framework for the quantitative questionnaire in this study follows. It has been organized by
variables. Some potential elements have been identified and explained. Then questions have
been thought of as a means to organize information in a better way. Such a framework of the
questionnaire follows:
Table 3
Questionnaire Framework and Corresponding Questions Adapted from Tsai (2009)
Variable Potential Element Explanation Questions Question #
Reflection Reflective Practice
Basic beliefs on
reflection and
reflective practice
How do you define
reflection? What is
reflective practice? Do
you engage in using it?
9
Usage Purpose to use Why do you use reflective 10
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 42
reflective practice as
a teaching/learning
tool
practice? 11
12
Teaching
Perception of the
impact of reflection
on teaching
How has reflection
improved your teaching
performance?
13
14
Student
achievement
Perception of the
impact of reflection
on student learning
How has reflection
improved student
achievement?
15
Planning
Strategies used by
teacher to make
students reflective
How can you help your
students to become more
reflective?
16
Metacognition
Lifelong learning
Fundamental
skills/strategies
required for life
What are the skills that
will help prepare students
for life beyond school?
17
Metacognition Beliefs on
metacognition What is metacognition?
18
Attitude
Perceptions of
metacognition as a
tool to enhance
learning
How important is it for
the development of your
classes?
19
Metacognitive
strategies
Fundamental
strategies required for
adequate performance
in their own classes
Which metacognitive
strategies will be more
useful for your class?
20
Planning
Strategies used be
teacher to help
students
How can you help your
students acquire
metacognitive strategies?
21
Blogging
Usage Purpose of blogs
Have you ever used
blogs? What have you
used them for? Why not?
22
23
24
Attitudes
Attitudes towards
blogging and
reflection
How do you feel about
using blogs for reflection?
25
Transference into
classroom
How do you think your
students would react if
you asked them to use
blogs for reflection?
Why?
26
27
Integration In school and
personal practice
How willing are you to
use blogs in class? Why?
Does your school support
the integration of blogs?
Have you received any
28
29
30
31
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 43
training regarding blogs
in in-service professional
development programs?
Does your school support
the integration of other
forms of ICTs? Which
ones? Have you received
any training regarding
other forms of ICTs in in-
service professional
development programs?
What kind?
32
33
34
35
Blogging and
reflection
Do you use blogs for
reflective learning?
Why? Why not?
36
37
38
Blogging and
metacognition
Do you use blogs for
metacognitive learning?
How do you use them?
39
40
The questionnaire is comprised of four sections:
Section one compiles demographic data from the sample, including gender, age,
teaching experience, educational background, subjects and levels taught.
Section two refers to perceptions on reflective practice. It is made up of seven closed
items. Item # 11 was adapted from a questionnaire that was used in a study on reflective
practice conducted under the sponsorship of the University of Nevada (Rayford, 2010, p. 96).
Section three refers to perceptions on metacognition. It is composed of two closed
items and three scale items. Item # 18 measures the importance of metacognition as deemed
by the participant. Item # 19 measures the perceived importance of certain metacognitive
strategies. The strategies were adapted from “Indicators of students who know how to
learn1” (ECP, 2011). Finally, item # 20 measures the perceived usefulness of using certain
instruction methods. The methods that were considered for such item were taken from
1 Translation for “Indicadores del alumno que sabe aprender”
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 44
different publications on teaching metacognitive strategies (Fisher, 1998; Anderson, 2002;
Peirce, 2004; Lam, 2010).
Section four refers to perceptions on blogging. Eighteen items are included in this
section: thirteen close-ended items and five open-ended items. Items # 21 – 23 focus on
teacher usage of blogs. Items # 24 – 25 are scale questions that aim to explore perceptions
towards such use. Item #26 explores the reasons behind such perceptions. Item # 27 is a
scale question that measures the respondents’ willingness to integrate blogs. Item #28
explores the reasons behind such willingness. Items # 29 – 34 measure school involvement
in ICT integration. Items # 35 – 38 aim to relate the variables to answer the research question
more adequately.
In order to check for the clarity of the items in the questionnaire and to obtain
pertinent feedback and make corresponding changes, a pilot test of the questionnaire was
conducted prior to its application. English teachers in the secondary level were selected to
pilot the instrument, since they may use the same strategies to teach as English teachers in
other levels do. Individuals in the pilot test were similar in background and preparation to the
participants of the study following the guidelines for pilot testing surveys (Fink, 2006, p. 40).
Pilot-test.
Prior to testing the questionnaire, the items were revised along with an English
teacher close to the researcher for clarity and consistency. Changes to the original version
(Appendix D) were made as follows: First, item # 2 was assigned categories of ages at
intervals of five years each to simplify responses. In items # 10 and 32 the option “other”
was included to allow for respondents to propose other categories. In item #16, instructions
were changed from “choose at least 3” to “choose the most important 3” to simplify
responses. Due to the electronic version of the questionnaire, the wording of items # 18, 25,
and 27 was changed from “circle the number in the scale…” to “choose the number in the
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 45
scale…” A wording change was also done for items # 19 and 20 to “choose the position in
the scale…” In item # 23, an instruction was included to “check the ones that apply.”
Finally, in item #24, “circle the number closer to the way you feel” was changed for “choose
the number closer to the way you feel…”
After having applied the changes in the form, an introductory e-mail (See Appendix
E) which included the link to the questionnaire was sent to 23 English teachers employed in
high school and university settings, which are similar to the actual participants of the study.
The purpose was to ratify the clarity of instructions and questions and ease of
implementation. Sixteen responses were collected throughout a period of ten days. During
the first three days, only eight responses had been collected. A follow-up text message was
sent to remind participants to fill out the questionnaire. During the next four days, six more
responses were obtained. The last two responses were scattered during the last days. Only
one e-mail was received with a comment about one of the questions. Other than that,
questions seem to have been clear to respondents.
After the questionnaire was pilot-tested, revisions on individual items were made as
delineated below.
First, based on the responses obtained, item # 5 will have categories in intervals of 5
years each as follows: 5 years or less, 6 – 10 years, 11 – 15 years, 16 – 20 years, 21 – 25
years, 26 – 30 years, and 31 or more years. Second, item # 7 will have the following options:
beginner, lower intermediate, upper intermediate, and advanced. These were the responses
most English teachers in the pilot-test seem to be familiar with. Third, in items # 25 and 27,
scales will be changed from 1 being very enthusiastic/willing to 5 being not
enthusiastic/willing at all to maintain the consistency with previous scales used in other
sections of the questionnaire. Fourth, from the responses obtained in the pilot-test, the
following options will be included in item # 26: they enjoy using technology, they are
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 46
reluctant to use ICT for academic purposes, they are not enthusiastic about their learning
process, they appreciate the space to express themselves, they consider it time consuming,
other. Fifth, item # 28 will include the following options, which have been categorized from
the responses obtained in the pilot-test: they facilitate learning processes, they are a valuable
tool, they take too much time, other tools provide similar benefits, students will not like it,
reluctance to rely on online interactions. Sixth, item # 36 will be divided into two questions,
why? and why not? For the former, the following options will be given: they are user-
friendly, students prefer typing, they allow students to see their learning, other. For the latter,
the following options will be given: lack of training, lack of time, never thought of it, they
are not as useful, I do not need to, other. Finally, item # 38will include the following
options: to post questions, to add material, to send, share, and receive information, to allow
for self-assessment activities, other.
Reliability and validity of the instruments.
Particular attention was paid to documenting the decisions and actions of the
researcher to meet the criteria of validity and reliability (Campbell, 2008). To reduce bias,
which is inherently present in any project, especially when a convenience sample is used
(Mertens, 2014), the questionnaire was pilot-tested with the responses of sixteen teachers of
similar backgrounds to resemble the sample as much as possible. For the sections using
scales, Cronbach’s Alpha was calculated for internal consistency or reliability. In general
terms, there is no rule which specifies a number at which an instrument becomes reliable; it is
the researcher’s responsibility to calculate the coefficient, report it, and allow readers or other
researchers to judge it (Hernández, Fernández, & Baptista, 2010). Nevertheless, it is
generally accepted that an α of at least 0.70 is necessary for an instrument to have internal
consistency. This coefficient depends on the number of items and the size of the sample that
was used to test the instrument’s reliability. In other words, the greater the number of items,
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 47
and the larger the size of the sample, the more internally consistent or reliable the instrument
will be.
In terms of reliability the pilot-test gave the following results. On the Perceptions on
Metacognition section, 25 items were used to calculate an α of 0.875. This means that the
instrument’s reliability in this section is acceptable. Since this section was composed of two
individual scale questions, Cronbach’s α was calculated separately for each question. For
question 19, an α of 0.788 was obtained using the 17 items that make up this question. This
is an acceptable result. For question 20, 8 items resulted in an α of 0.542. This coefficient
indicates a regular or medium reliability, which is explained by the very small number of
items included in the question.
Table 4
Reliability Statistics for Perceptions on Metacognition
Section Cronbach's Alpha Cronbach's Alpha Based on
Standardized Items N of Items
Perceptions on
Metacognition .782 .780 25
Question 19 .788 .793 17
Question 20 .542 .547 8
On the Perceptions on blogging section, 9 items were considered to calculate an α of
0.788. Following the generally accepted criteria, this is an acceptable reliability.
Table 5
Reliability Statistics for Perceptions on Blogging
Section Cronbach's Alpha Cronbach's Alpha Based on
Standardized Items N of Items
Perceptions on
Blogging .875 .862 9
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 48
When analyzing responses to open-ended items, sample responses were presented as
evidence of what was actually said to try to remain as objective as possible (Hernández,
Fernández, & Baptista, 2010). Nevertheless, a subjectivity component will always be present
in the analysis.
Data Analysis.
Once data were collected, they were tabulated. The survey data were exported into the
Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) version 17.0, and the software used to analyze
the survey close-ended questions. Descriptive statistics and data correlations between
demographics and the other three variables were calculated. Results are presented in
frequencies and percentages.
Descriptive statistics are given for each of the variables in the study. This is because
descriptive statistics is the most commonly used technique to report survey results (Rayford,
2010). For each item, frequencies, means, and standard deviations are presented along with
central tendency measures. Where possible, cross tabulations have been made between
demographic data such as age, educational background, and teacher experience and the
different variables that aim to answer the research question.
After having analyzed results using statistical tests and crossing variables, a clearer
idea as to what teachers’ perceptions are regarding reflection, metacognition, and blogging
and how the teachers’ backgrounds affect them were obtained to support deeper analysis and
thought regarding professional development programs to be conducted by the schools that
were surveyed. These data help answer the two parts of the research question: (a) What are
teachers’ perceptions towards the roles of metacognition and reflection in teaching and
learning, and (b) what are their perceptions towards blogs as a tool for metacognition and
reflection?
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 49
Results
Introduction
The findings of this study are organized to answer the research question presented
earlier for both parts a and b. Descriptive statistics are presented first. The organization
established in Table 2 is followed to maintain coherence between the methodology and the
presentation of results. Four main variables are described: Demographics, Perceptions on
Reflection, Perceptions on metacognition, and Perceptions on blogging, respectively.
Following this, inferential statistics are presented to test and analyze the hypotheses
that came out as descriptive statistics and central tendency measures were explored. Results
for tests and correlations are given.
Response Rate
The survey was distributed via electronic mail, which presented certain difficulties
regarding response rate. Initially, 110 teachers were sent the electronic mail inviting them to
complete the survey. Only 35 of those teachers responded, which accounts for a 31.82%
response rate. Teachers were sent two reminder electronic mails to increase response rate
and several phone calls and text messages were made to teachers in the closer sphere of
contact of the researcher to remind them of the survey and to ask them, when possible, to
forward the survey to their own networks of teachers (snowball sampling). Because of the
low response rate, some teachers were contacted personally. By the end of the data collection
stage, 57 teachers had completed the survey, which is equivalent to a 45.6% response rate.
Descriptive Statistics
Demographics.
The sample included 59 teachers belonging to two specific types of institutions,
universities and secondary schools. University teachers comprise the largest portion of the
sample with 59.32% and secondary teachers comprise the remaining 40.68% (Appendix I,
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 50
figure 1). Two of the teachers surveyed responded only to demographic questions since they
considered the survey specific for language teachers. For all the other variables and
dimensions, these two teachers were excluded from the sample.
Gender.
Regarding gender, the entire sample is comprised of 67.80% females and 32.20%
males. When separated by type of institution, among the university teachers females
accounted for 57.58% and males for 42.42%; for secondary teachers, females accounted for
87.50% and males for 12.50%. As can be observed, females were more willing to participate
in the study (Appendix I, Figure 2).
Age.
The ages of the teachers who responded to the survey were classified in six different
categories. The largest group of teachers was between the ages of 36 to 40 with 26.32%,
followed by those between 31 and 35 with 19.30%. The group 51 and above was ranked in
third place, with 17.54%. Those in the groups of teachers who were 30 or less, 41-45, and
46-50 accounted for 12.28% each.
A difference was observed when dividing the sample by type of institution. For
university teachers, the 36 to 40 category had the greatest concentration with 30.30%,
followed by those teachers who were 51 and above with 27.27%, between 31 and 35 and
between 41and 45 with15.15% each, and between 46 and 50 with 12.12%. Secondary
teachers had a greatest concentration of teachers who were 30 years old or less (29.17%),
closely followed by those ranging between 31 and 35 (25%), 36 to 40 (20.83%), 46 to 50
(12.50%), 41 to 45 (8.33%), and 51 and above (4.17%). From the data obtained, it can be
stated that secondary teachers are younger than university teachers. Appendix I, Figure 3
provides summaries of the percentages for each of the categories.
Education Level.
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 51
The majority of the teachers in the sample (56.14%) possess a master’s degree,
followed by those with a bachelor’s degree (24.56%). Those with a teacher certification
accounted for 14.04% of the sample. The group with a diplomado or specialty made up
3.51% of the sample. Those with a teacher certification represented 1.75% of the sample.
When looking at the sample by type of institution, the majority of the university
teachers hold a master’s degree (75.76%), followed by a bachelor’s degree (18.18%). Those
with a teacher certification and a doctorate degree accounted for only 3.03%. Secondary
teachers, conversely, showed a rather small difference among the bachelor’s degree
(33.33%), master’s degree (29.17%), and teacher certification (29.17%). From the secondary
teachers, only 8.33% reported possessing a diplomado or specialty degree (Appendix I,
Figure 4).
Educational Background.
Regarding educational background, most of the teachers possess a degree in education
(54.39%), followed by business studies (31.58%). Other areas represent a minority of the
sample: teachers with a Liberal Arts degree accounted for 7.02% of the sample, those with a
linguistics degree accounted for 5.26%, and those with a law degree made up 1.75% of the
sample.
By type of institution, university teachers are equally divided between education and
business studies with 45.45% each. The remaining part of the university teachers is equally
divided among those with a linguistics, liberal arts, and law degrees with 3.03% each. As for
the secondary teachers, the majority (66.67%) majored in education. Secondary teachers
with business studies and liberal arts degrees accounted for 12.50% of the secondary teachers
group, respectively. Those with a linguistics degree made up 8.33% of the secondary teachers
(Refer to Appendix I, Figure 5).
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 52
Teaching Experience.
Regarding their experience as teachers, the sample is spread in different categorical
groups. Most teachers (26.32%) have been teaching between 11 and 15 years. The second
group is formed by teachers with 6 to 10 years of experience with 21.05% of the sample.
Those with 5 or less years of experience and those with 16 to 20 years of experience
represented 15.79% of the sample each. The next group is composed of teachers with 16 to
20 years of experience with 8.77% of the sample. Teachers with 21 to 25 years of experience
accounted for 7.02% of the sample. Finally, teachers with 31 or more years of experience
accounted for 5.26% of the sample.
When dividing the sample by type of institution, it can be observed that results are
mostly consistent with those of the sample as a whole. For university teachers, 11 to 15 years
of experience is the category with the greatest percentage of teachers (24.24%). This is
followed by those with 6 to 10 years of experience (18.18%) and those with 5 or less years of
experience (15.15%) and 16 to 20 years of experience (15.15%). Teachers with 26 to 30
years of experience were next with 12.12% , those with 21 to 25 years of experience
comprised 9.09% of the sample, and those with 31 or more years of experience accounted for
6.06% of the university teachers.
Secondary teachers followed a very similar composition. Teachers with 11 to 15
years of experience formed 29.17% of the group. Those with 6 to 10 years of experience
comprised 25% of the group. Those with 5 years of experience or less and those with 16 to
20 years of experience accounted for 16.67% of the group each. The last three groups, 21 to
25, 26 to 30, and 31 or more years of experience, represented 4.17% of the group of
secondary teachers each. Figure 3 shows results for teaching experience by type of
institution.
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 53
Figure 3. Sample by Teaching Experience and Type of Institution.
Teaching Area
Regarding Q6, which asked teachers for the area which they taught, 38.60% of the
sample responded they taught content area subjects, 36.84% reported that they taught both
English language and content area subjects; and, 24.56% said they taught English as a
language. University teachers reported teaching content area subjects with a 42.42%, both
English as a language and content area subjects with 36.36%, and English as a language with
21.21%. As for secondary level, most teachers (37.50%) reported teaching both English as a
language and content area subjects, followed by content area subjects (33.33%) and English
as a language (29.17%). Refer to Appendix I, Figure 6 for the summaries.
Part (a): What are teachers’ perceptions towards the roles of metacognition and
reflection in teaching and learning?
In order to better understand the perceptions of teachers towards the use of blogs for
reflection and metacognition, it was necessary to understand teachers’ perceptions towards
reflections and metacognition. The results for part (a) of the research question relate to the
variables Perceptions on Reflection and Perceptions on Metacognition and are presented
below.
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 54
Perceptions on Reflection
The second variable to be explored was Perceptions on Reflection. Questions nine to
15 considered five different dimensions: basic beliefs on reflection and reflective practices;
purpose of using reflective practice; impact of reflection on teaching; impact of reflection on
student learning; and, strategies used to make students reflective. The findings for each of
these dimensions are presented below, following the organization described in Table 2, which
summarizes the research methodology of the study. For each of the dimensions, results are
presented in the form of counts and percentages for the sample as a whole, and disaggregated
for the two types of institutions.
Basic beliefs on reflection and reflective practice
This dimension includes items nine to eleven, which are presented next.
Engagement in Reflective Practices
Q9 asked teachers whether they engaged in reflective practices or not. 85.96% of the
teachers who responded to the survey engage in reflective practices. When observing the
sample by type of institution, 87.88% of the university teachers reported to engage in
reflective practices, whereas 83.33% of the secondary teachers reported to engage in
reflective practices.
Regarding the frequency of engagement in reflective practices, most teachers(37.5%)
reported doing it when they are planning a class, 22.9% reported doing it after every class,
18.8% said they did it once a week, 16.7% stated they did it twice a week, 2.1% claimed they
did it occasionally, and 2.1% did it all the time. When dividing the sample by type of
institution, the results are mostly consistent for both groups. For the university teachers,
41.4% reported doing it when planning a class, 24.1% stated doing it after every class, 17.2%
said they did it once a week, 10.3% stated they did it twice a week, 3.4% claimed they did it
occasionally, and 3.4% did it all the time. For secondary teachers, 31.6% reported doing it
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 55
when planning a class, 26.3% stated doing it twice a week, 21.1% said they did it once a
week, and 21.1% stated they did it after every class. It can be observed that all groups of
teachers reported engaging in reflective practice mostly when planning a class. Table 6
summarizes responses regarding the use of reflective practice.
Table 6
Frequency of use of Reflective Practice (Total and by Institution Type)
Type of Institution
University Secondary Total
% % %
Fre
quen
cy o
f re
flec
tion
Once a week 17.2% 21.1% 18.8%
Twice a week 10.3% 26.3% 16.7%
After every class 24.1% 21.1% 22.9%
When planning a class 41.4% 31.6% 37.5%
Occasionally 3.4% 2.1%
All the time 3.4% 2.1%
Total 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%
When asked how they used reflective practices (Q11), most teachers (71.74%)
reported doing it to think about something that happened in class, 19.57% claimed doing it to
describe what happened in class, 4.35% used to analyze a specific event, 2.17% used it to
think about and describe what happened in class, and 2.17% reported doing it to train
teachers.
The same tendency is true for both university and secondary teachers. For university
teachers, most (70.37%) reported using reflective practices to think about something that
happened in class, followed by 22.22% to describe what happened in class, 3.70% to think
about and describe what happened in class, and 3.70% to train teachers. For secondary
teachers, most (73.68%) used reflective practices to think about something that happened in
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 56
class, followed by 15.79% to describe what happened in class, and 10.53% to analyze a
specific event. Table 7 summarizes the responses given to this question by percentages.
Table 7
How Reflective Practice is Used (Total and by Institution Type)
Type of Institution
University Secondary Total
% % %
Use
of
refl
ecti
ve
pra
ctic
e To think about something that
happened in class 70.37% 73.68% 71.74%
To describe what happened in class 22.22% 15.79% 19.57%
Both 3.70% .00% 2.17%
To analyze a specific event .00% 10.53% 4.35%
To train teachers 3.70% .00% 2.17%
Total 100.00% 100.00% 100.00%
Purpose of using reflective practice
When asked why they used reflective practices (Q12), the teachers in the general
sample reported the main purpose of using reflective practice was to improve their teaching
(23.36%). This is followed by the category to discover strengths and weaknesses with
19.71%. To gain new ideas, to evaluate teaching, and to better plan their teaching were
reported as the next purposes of using reflective practices with 13.87% each. To describe
what happened during a teaching experience followed, with 10.22%. The least mentioned
purpose was to label and categorize events (5.11%).
When analyzed by type of institution, results regarding Q12 were consistent for the
sample as a whole and university teachers, but not for secondary teachers. For university
teachers, the main purpose of using reflective practice was to improve their teaching (25.7%),
followed by discovering strengths and weaknesses (16.2%). To gain new ideas and to better
plan their teaching were reported as the next categories with 13.5% each. To describe what
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 57
happened during a teaching experience and to evaluate their teaching were the next purposes
with 12.2% each. The category they mentioned the least was to label and categorize events
(6.8%).
Secondary teachers, on the other hand, reported using reflective practices mostly to
discover strengths and weaknesses (23.8%). This was followed by to improve their teaching
(20.6%), to evaluate their teaching (15.9%), to gain new ideas (14.3%), to better plan their
teaching (14.3%), and to describe happened during a teaching experience (7.9%). To label
and categorize events was also the least mentioned category (3.2%).
Impact of Reflective Practice on Teaching and Learning
When asked whether reflective practices improve teaching and learning (Q13),
96.49% of the teachers considered that reflective practices improve teaching and learning.
The remaining 3.51% thought reflective practices do not improve teaching and learning.
When separating the sample by type of institution, 96.97% of the university teacher said
reflective practices improve teaching and learning, whereas 95.83% of the secondary teachers
had the same opinion. As can be observed, a very large percentage of teachers who were
surveyed considered reflective practices to have a positive impact on teaching and learning.
When analyzing the responses to this question by demographic variables, it can be
observed that those who considered reflection does improve teaching and learning were
females (72.7%), ages 36-40, with a 27.3% of the sample, with a master’s degree (56.4%),
and with 11-15 years of teaching experience.
When asked about the specific impact reflection has on teaching (Q14), the teachers
in the sample indicated the creation of meaningful activities as the greatest impact (46.07%).
Other impacts which were reported, in order, were better decision making (26.97%), better
curriculum design (25.84%), and that it has a positive effect on the whole process (1.12%).
The general sample findings were consistent with those reported by type of institution. For
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 58
university teachers, the creation of meaningful activities was reported as having the greatest
impact with a 46.94%. Other impacts were better decision making (26.53%), better
curriculum design (24.49%), and an effect on the whole process (2.04%). For secondary
teachers, the creation of meaningful activities accounted for 45% of the responses, followed
by better decision making (27.50%) and better curriculum design (27.50%). Table 8
summarizes teacher responses regarding this aspect.
Table 8
Impact of Reflection on Teaching (Total and by Type of Institution)
University Secondary Total
Count % Count % Count %
Impac
t of
Ref
lect
ion
on T
each
ing
Creation of meaningful
activities 23 46.94% 18 45.00% 41 46.07%
Better curriculum design 12 24.49% 11 27.50% 23 25.84%
Better decision making 13 26.53% 11 27.50% 24 26.97%
Affects the whole process 1 2.04% 0 .00% 1 1.12%
Total 49 100.00% 40 100.00% 89 100.00%
When asked about the impact reflection has on student learning (Q15), 43.64% of the
teachers in the sample reported that it allows students to self-assess and correct mistakes,
23.64% reported it allows students to become more professional, 16.36% said it allows
students to plan for the future, 10.91% mentioned it allows for the understanding of tasks and
practice. The lowest percentages (1.82% each) were assigned to the following impacts: it
allows students to identify their own learning strategies, it allows for the tailoring of
situations to student learning needs, and it allows students to share with teachers comments
they cannot share with their peers.
As for university teachers, they regarded allowing students to self-assess and correct
mistakes as the major impact reflection has on student learning with a 51.7% of the
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 59
responses. This was followed by allowing students to plan for the future with 17.2%,
allowing students to become more professional with 13.8%, allowing for the understanding of
tasks and practice with 10.3%, and allowing students to identify their own learning strategies
and allowing students to share with teachers comments they cannot share with their peers
with a 3.4% each. Secondary teachers thought that the greatest impact of reflection was
allowing for the understanding of tasks and practice with a 45% of the responses. Other
impacts they identified were allowing students to self-assess and correct mistakes with a
35%, allowing students to plan for the future with a 10%, and allowing students to become
more professional and to share with teachers comments they cannot share with their peers
with 5% each. Figure 4 summarizes these responses.
Figure 4. Impact of Reflective Practice on Student Achievement (Total and by Institution
Type)
Strategies Used to Make Students Reflective
When asked about the strategies teachers can use to make students more reflective
learners (Q16), providing better feedback was the one with the greatest percentage (45.45%),
followed by asking questions (29.09%), providing models to follow (23.64%), and involving
students in the reflective process (1.82%). The results are mostly consistent for the general
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 60
sample and when data were disaggregated for university and secondary teachers. For
university teachers, 48.3% reported providing better feedback as the strategy they used to
help students become more reflective, 24.1% used asking questions, 24.1% used providing
models to follow, and 3.4% used involving students in the reflective process. As for
secondary teachers, 45% reported providing better feedback as the strategy they used to help
students become more reflective, 35% used asking questions, and 20% used providing
models to follow. Figure 5 summarizes the findings by percentages of the strategies teachers
deem important to enhance reflection in students.
Figure 5. Strategies Used to Make Students Reflective (Total and by Institution Type)
Perceptions on Metacognition
The third variable to be explored was Perceptions on Metacognition. Responses given
to questions seventeen to twenty-one in the questionnaire were analyzed. Based on the
framework described in Table 2 for the methodological design of the study, the responses
were organized in five dimensions: Skills/strategies required for life, Beliefs on
metacognition, Perception of the importance of metacognition as a tool to enhance learning,
Perceptions of the usefulness of the fundamental strategies required for metacognitive
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 61
learning, Perceptions of the importance of strategies to teach metacognition. Each of these
dimensions was analyzed independently. Findings are presented in the form of counts and
percentages and measures of central tendency where applicable.
Skills Required for Life
This dimension asked “What are the skills that will help prepare students for life
beyond school?” and required surveyed teachers to choose the most important three (Q17).
Concerning this dimension, thinking critically was regarded as the skill which will help
prepare students for life beyond school the most (20.39%), followed by solving problems
(15.53%), and working collaboratively (15.05%) for the general sample. Learning to learn,
the skill which relates to metacognition the most, ranked in fourth place with a 12.62%. The
other skills were ranked in the following order, based on the percentages assigned to each:
being proactive with an 11.17%, processing information with a 6.31%, cultural awareness
with a 5.34%, digital competence with a 4.85%, and communicative competence in different
languages with a 4.85%. The skill teachers considered least helpful was planning for the
future, with a 3.88% of the responses.
University teachers believed that thinking critically (19.71%), solving problems
(17.50%), and working collaboratively (14.17%) were the most important skills, which is
consistent with the skills chosen by the general sample. Learning to learn also ranked fourth
in this group, with a 12.50% of the responses of the university teachers. Being proactive was
the fifth skill with a 10.83%; processing information was sixth, with a 7.50%; cultural
awareness was seventh, with a 5.83%; planning for the future was eighth, with a 5%; and,
digital competence was ninth, with a 4.17%. The least helpful skill, as reported by the group
of university teachers, was communicative competence in different languages, with a 3.33%.
Secondary teachers thought that thinking critically (22.09%), working collaboratively
(16.28%), and learning to learn and solving problems (12.79% each), were the most
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 62
important skills. Being proactive was the fourth skill, with an 11.63%, communicative
competence in different languages was fifth, with a 6.98%; digital competence was sixth,
with a 5.81%; processing information and cultural awareness were seventh, with a 4.65%
each. The least helpful skill was planning for the future. Table 9 summarizes the responses.
Table 9
Skills Required for Life Beyond School (Total and by Institution Type)
Type of Institution
University Secondary Total
Count % Count % Count %
Skil
ls
Thinking critically 23 19.17% 19 22.09% 42 20.39%
Working collaboratively 17 14.17% 14 16.28% 31 15.05%
Processing information 9 7.50% 4 4.65% 13 6.31%
Solving problems 21 17.50% 11 12.79% 32 15.53%
Being
proactive/Entrepreneurship 13 10.83% 10 11.63% 23 11.17%
Cultural awareness 7 5.83% 4 4.65% 11 5.34%
Planning for the future 6 5.00% 2 2.33% 8 3.88%
Digital competence 5 4.17% 5 5.81% 10 4.85%
Learning to learn 15 12.50% 11 12.79% 26 12.62%
Communicative competence
in different languages 4 3.33% 6 6.98% 10 4.85%
Total 120 100.00% 86 100.00% 206 100.00%
Beliefs on metacognition
Regarding this dimension, teachers were specifically asked to define metacognition
(Q18). Results show that most teachers (71.93%) believe that metacognition is having
awareness and control of one’s learning. Others defined metacognition as thinking about
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 63
thinking (21.05%). A third group stated metacognition is a form of evaluation that looks
inward (5.26%). The last group (1.75%) claimed they did not know what metacognition is.
When analyzing the results by type of institutions, it can be observed that awareness
and control of one’s learning is the definition given by most of the university teachers
(60.6%). Other definitions given were “thinking about thinking” with a 30.3% and
“evaluation that looks inward” with a 6.1%. Only one teacher claimed to not know the
definition, which is equivalent to 3% of the university teachers.
The secondary teachers had similar results. Awareness and control of one’s learning
was the definition given by most (87.5%). This was followed by thinking about thinking
(8.3%) and evaluation that looks inward (4.2%). Table 10 summarizes the responses of the
teachers by type of institution.
Table 10
Beliefs on Metacognition by Institution Type
Type of Institution
University Secondary Total
Count % Count % Count %
Def
init
ion o
f
met
acog
nit
ion
Awareness and control of
one's learning 20 60.6% 21 87.5% 41 71.9%
Thinking about thinking 10 30.3% 2 8.3% 12 21.1%
Evaluation that looks
inwards 2 6.1% 1 4.2% 3 5.3%
I do not know 1 3.0% 0 .0% 1 1.8%
Total 33 100.0% 24 100.0% 57 100.0%
Perception of the Importance of Metacognition as a Tool to Enhance Learning
Q19 asked teachers how they would rate the importance of metacognition for the
development of their classes. This was a scale item that ranged from very important (1) to
not important at all (5). The mean for the item was 1.64 with a standard deviation of 0.9014.
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 64
In general terms, it could be stated that the teachers’ perceived metacognition as an important
tool to enhance learning; 84.21% of the subjects rated it as either very important or important.
The remaining teachers regarded it as moderately important (12.28%) or thought of it as of
little importance (1.75%) or not important at all (1.75%) Table 11 summarizes the
frequencies and measures of central tendency for this item.
Table 11
Frequencies for Importance of Metacognition as a Tool to Enhance Learning
Frequency % Cumulative %
Very Important 34 59.65 59.65
Important 14 24.56 84.21
Moderately important 7 12.28 96.49
Of little importance 1 1.75 98.25
Unimportant 1 1.75 100.00
Total 57 100.00
When analyzed by type of institution, it can be observed that the mean for the
university teachers in 1.61 with a standard deviation of 0.83; the mean for the secondary
teachers is 1.62 with a standard deviation of 1.01. The frequencies for the sample by type of
institution are summarized in Table 12. University teachers rated metacognition as very
important or important (84.9%), moderately important (12.1%), and of little importance (3%).
Secondary teachers rated metacognition as very important or important (83.3%), moderately
important (12.5%), and not important at all (4.2%).
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 65
Table 12
Importance of Metacognition by Institution Type
Type of Institution
Total University Secondary
Import
ance
of
met
acognit
ion
Very
Important
Count 19 15 34
% within Type of Institution 57.6% 62.5% 59.6%
Important Count 9 5 14
% within Type of Institution 27.3% 20.8% 24.6%
Moderately
Important
Count 4 3 7
% within Type of Institution 12.1% 12.5% 12.3%
Of little
importance
Count 1 0 1
% within Type of Institution 3.0% .0% 1.8%
Unimportant Count 0 1 1
% within Type of Institution .0% 4.2% 1.8%
Total Count 33 24 57
% within Type of Institution 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%
Perceptions of the Usefulness of the Fundamental Strategies Required for
Metacognitive Learning
For this dimension, teachers were asked how useful for their class they perceived a set
of metacognitive strategies to be (Q20). This was a scale item that ranged from very useful
(1) to not useful at all (5). The means and standard deviations for each of the items are
summarized in Table 13. It can be observed that, in general terms, the items with the smallest
means (highlighted in turquoise) were considered the most useful by the teachers. The items
with the highest means were thus considered the least useful (highlighted in yellow). For the
teachers in the sample, the most useful strategies were being able to change strategies when
they do not work, with a mean of 1.32 and being aware of one’s strengths and weaknesses
with a mean of 1.35. The least useful strategies were using memorizing techniques with a
mean of 2.60 and taking notes with a mean of 2.11.
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 66
Table 13
Descriptive Statistics for the Usefulness of the Strategies Required for Metacognitive
Learning
N Minimum Maximum Mean
Std.
Deviation
Understanding importance of
learning 57 1 4 1.49 .658
Setting objectives 57 1 3 1.47 .658
Selecting information sources 57 1 3 1.81 .718
Taking notes 57 1 5 2.11 .817
Identifying main ideas 57 1 4 1.51 .782
Using textbooks adequately 57 1 4 1.98 .855
Organizing knowledge
graphically 57 1 4 1.89 .838
Using memorizing techniques 57 1 5 2.60 1.132
Knowing own mental
processes 57 1 4 1.44 .655
Using strategies to improve 57 1 4 1.53 .734
Self-regulation 57 1 3 1.49 .685
Controlling distractions 57 1 4 1.70 .823
Being aware of strengths and
weaknesses 57 1 3 1.35 .582
Changing strategies 57 1 3 1.32 .540
Transferring knowledge and
strategies 57 1 5 1.70 .865
Self-assessing 57 1 3 1.37 .522
Valid N 57
Note. The means of the strategies that were considered useful by the surveyed teachers are
highlighted in turquoise; the means of the strategies that were considered the least useful are
highlighted in yellow.
When analyzing the sample by type of institution, a different tendency can be
observed. For university teachers, being willing to learn, with a mean of 1.21; being able to
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 67
change strategies when they do not work, with a mean of 1.24; and, being aware of one’s
strengths and weaknesses, with a mean of 1.24, were the most useful strategies, respectively.
The least useful strategies for this group of teachers were using memorizing techniques, with
a mean of 2.39, and taking notes, with a mean of 2.15. For secondary teachers, being willing
to learn, with a mean of 1.25, and self-assessing, with a mean of 1.33, were the most useful
strategies. The least useful strategies for this group were using memorizing techniques, with
a mean of 2.87, and taking notes, with a mean of 2.04. These results are summarized in
Appendix H.
Perceptions of the Importance of Strategies to Teach Metacognition
For this dimension, teachers were asked how important they considered a set of
strategies in order to help their students acquire metacognitive strategies (Q21). This was a
scale item that ranged from very important (1) to unimportant (5). Based on the responses to
this item, the means and standard deviations are summarized in Table 14. It can be observed
that, in general terms, the items with the smallest means (highlighted in turquoise) were
considered the most important by the teachers; and, the items with the highest means
highlighted in yellow) were considered the least important. For the teachers in the sample,
the most important strategies to teach metacognition were asking reflective questions, with a
mean of 1.26, and providing feedback, with a mean of 1.28. The least useful strategies were
showing how to choose the best strategy, with a mean of 1.60, and modeling, with a mean of
1.51.
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 68
Table 14
Descriptive Statistics for Importance of Strategies to Teach Metacognition
N Minimum Maximum Mean
Std.
Deviation
Direct instruction of strategies 57 1 3 1.46 .537
Creating self-awareness of
strategy use 57 1 3 1.40 .593
Showing how to choose the best
strategy 57 1 4 1.60 .776
Modeling 57 1 3 1.51 .658
Giving ample application
practice 57 1 3 1.35 .551
Asking reflective questions 57 1 2 1.26 .444
Providing opportinties for self-
assessment 57 1 3 1.42 .653
Providing feedback 57 1 5 1.28 .675
Valid N (listwise) 57
Note. The means of the strategies that were considered most important by the surveyed
teachers are highlighted in turquoise; the means of the strategies that were considered the
least important are highlighted in yellow.
When analyzing the sample by type of institution, a different tendency can be
observed. For university teachers, providing feedback, with a mean of 1.21, and asking
reflective questions, with a mean of 1.27, were the most important strategies, respectively.
The least useful strategy for this group was showing how to choose the best strategy, with a
mean of 1.61. For secondary teachers, asking reflective questions, with a mean of 1.25, and
creating self-awareness of strategy use, with a mean of 1.29, are the most useful strategies.
The least useful strategy was showing how to choose the best strategy, with a mean of 1.58.
As can be noted, there is not a big dispersion between the highest and lowest means. These
results are summarized in Table 16.
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 69
Table 15
Descriptive Statistics for Importance of Strategies to Teach Metacognition by Institution Type
Type of Institution
University Secondary
Min Max Mean
Standard
Deviation Min Max Mean
Standard
Deviation
Direct instruction of
strategies 1 2 1.45 .51 1 3 1.46 .59
Creating self-awareness
of strategy use 1 3 1.48 .62 1 3 1.29 .55
Showing how to choose
the best strategy 1 4 1.61 .83 1 3 1.58 .72
Modeling 1 3 1.48 .62 1 3 1.54 .72
Giving ample application
practice 1 3 1.33 .60 1 2 1.38 .49
Asking reflective
questions 1 2 1.27 .45 1 2 1.25 .44
Providing opportinties for
self-assessment 1 3 1.48 .76 1 2 1.33 .48
Providing feedback 1 3 1.21 .48 1 5 1.38 .88
Note. The means of the strategies that were considered most important by the surveyed
teachers are highlighted in turquoise; the means of the strategies that were considered the
least important are highlighted in yellow.
Summary of Perceptions on Metacognition by Demographic Variables
Regarding the gender of the teachers, women reported metacognition as more
important than men. This was consistent when analyzing the sample as a whole and when
dividing it by type of teaching institution. The means were 1.47 for the university group,
1.57 for secondary teachers, and 1.53 for the sample as a whole.
The age group that considered metacognition important was composed of teachers
ranging between 51+ for university teachers, with a mean of 1.44 and median and mode equal
to one. For secondary teachers, those ages 46-50 regarded metacognition as important, with a
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 70
mean, median, and mode equal to 1.00. Finally, for the sample as a whole, age group 36-40
had a mean of 1.47 and median and mode of 1.00.
Regarding educational level, the different categories regarded metacognition as
important with means ranging between 1.00 and 1.53. The only category with a higher
degree is that of teacher certification.
As for teaching experience, those who had been working between 11-15 years were
the group to consider metacognition the most, with a mean of 1.33, and a median and mode
equal to 1.00. The same was true for university teachers, but for secondary teachers, there is
no prevailing group.
Concerning teaching area, there is no significant difference between those who teach
English as a language and those who teach content area subjects. In general terms it could be
said that teachers regard metacognition as an important factor for the development of their
classes.
Part (b): What are their perceptions towards blogs as a tool for metacognition and
reflection?
Once teachers’ perceptions towards reflections and metacognition have been
explored, results for part (b) of the research question can be presented. These relate to the
variable Perceptions on Blogging.
Perceptions on Blogging
The fourth variable to be explored was Perceptions on Blogging. Responses given to
questions twenty-two to forty in the questionnaire were analyzed. Based on the scheme
established in Table 2, which described the methodological design of the study, the responses
were organized in seven dimensions: Purpose of blogs, Attitudes towards blogging and
reflection, Student attitudes towards reflective blogs, Willingness to use blogs, School’s
support of blog and ICT integration, Blogs for Reflection, and Blogs for Metacognition.
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 71
Each of these dimensions was analyzed independently. Findings will be presented in the
form of descriptive statistics.
Purpose of Blogs
The first question in this group (Q22) asked teachers if they had ever used blogs.
Teachers who had used blogs accounted for 52.63% of the sample. The remaining 47.37%
stated they had not used them. When dividing the sample by type of institution, 51.52% of
the university teachers had used blogs before and 48.48% had not. Secondary teachers who
had used blogs accounted for 54.17%; 45.83% of those teachers had not used blogs.
For Q23, which asked teachers what they had used blogs for, only the 52.63% of the
teachers who had used blogs were considered (responses n=46). The teachers in this group
reported reflecting about class activities and student performance (34.8%) was the main
purpose for using blogs, followed by providing course information (26.1%), posting personal
information (17.4%), maintaining contact with students (15.2%), professional growth (4.3%),
and reflecting about technology (2.2%). The frequencies for this item can be observed in
Table 16.
Table 16
Purpose of Blog Use Frequencies
Responses Percent of
Cases N Percent
Purpose of Blog Usea Personal information 8 17.4% 27.6%
Contact with students 7 15.2% 24.1%
Course information 12 26.1% 41.4%
Reflection 16 34.8% 55.2%
Reflect technology 1 2.2% 3.4%
Professional growth 2 4.3% 6.9%
Total 46 100.0% 158.6%
a. Dichotomy group tabulated at value 1.
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 72
When dividing the sample by type of institution, the following differences can be
noted. For university teachers, providing course information (30.8%) was the main purpose.
This was followed by reflecting about class activities and student performance (26.9%),
posting personal information (19.2%), maintaining contact with students (15.4%), reflecting
about technology (3.8%), and professional growth (3.8%). For secondary teachers, reflecting
about class activities and student performance (45%) was the main purpose. Other purposes,
in order, were providing course information (20%), posting personal information (15%),
maintaining contact with students (15%), and professional growth (5%). Percentages for
each of the categories are shown in table 17.
Table 17
Purpose of Blog Use by Institution Type
Type of Institution
University Secondary
Responses % Responses %
Purpose of Blog Use Personal information 5 19.2% 3 15.0%
Contact with students 4 15.4% 3 15.0%
Course information 8 30.8% 4 20.0%
Reflection 7 26.9% 9 45.0%
Reflect technology 1 3.8% 0 .0%
Professional growth 1 3.8% 1 5.0%
For Q24, teachers were asked why they had not used blogs. Only the 47.37% who
responded that they had not used blogs were considered for this item (responses n=44). The
teachers in the group claimed that time constraints was the main difficulty, which accounted
for 50% of the responses. Other reasons were limited technological ability (15.9%),
procrastination (13.6%), privacy issues (11.4%), lack of school support (6.8%), and no need
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 73
to use them (2.3%). Table 19 summarizes the frequencies presented for the categories in this
question.
Table 18
Reasons not to Use Blogs Frequencies
Responses Percent of
Cases N Percent
Reasons not to Use
Blogsa
Limited technological
ability 7 15.9% 21.9%
Time constraints 22 50.0% 68.8%
Privacy issues 5 11.4% 15.6%
Lack of school support 3 6.8% 9.4%
Procrastination 6 13.6% 18.8%
No need 1 2.3% 3.1%
Total 44 100.0% 137.5%
a. Dichotomy group tabulated at value 1.
By type of institution, it can be observed that the results are consistent with the
general sample. University teachers reported that the main reason that keeps them from using
blogs is lack of time with 52%. Other reasons reported were limited technological ability
(16%), procrastination (16%), privacy issues (8%), lack of school support (4%), and no need
to use them (4%). As for secondary teachers, the main reason reported for their not using
blogs was lack of time (47.37%), followed by limited technological ability (15.79%), privacy
issues (15.79%), lack of school support (10.53%), and procrastination (10.53%). Table 19
presents the percentages for the categories in this question by type of institution.
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 74
Table 19
Reasons not to Use Blogs by Institution Type
Type of Institution
University Secondary
Responses % Responses %
Reasons not to Use
Blogs
Limited technological
ability 4 16.00% 3 15.79%
Time constraints 13 52.00% 9 47.37%
Privacy issues 2 8.00% 3 15.79%
Lack of school support 1 4.00% 2 10.53%
Procrastination 4 16.00% 2 10.53%
No need 1 4.00% 0 .00%
Attitudes towards Blogging and Reflection
For this dimension, teachers were asked how they felt about using blogs for reflection
(Q25). The item comprised seven perception dichotomies: boring – interesting, unpleasant –
pleasant, confusing – comprehensible, waste of time – worthwhile, frustrating – success
promoting, difficult – easy, and trivial – important. Participants were asked to choose the
number closer to the way they felt about using blogs for reflection from one to five. One was
to the negative side and five to the positive side. Descriptive statistics were produced for
each of the dichotomies. From the data, it can be concluded that the means closer to five
imply a very positive feeling towards using blogs for reflection. In general terms, teachers
reported positive feelings towards using blogs for reflection, 66.4% of the responses for the
scale were given to 4 and 5, 26.8% to 3, 6% to 2, and .8% to 1. It is important to highlight
that the modes for all the dichotomies were equal or greater than three.
More specifically, the teachers who were surveyed reported considering the use of
blogs for reflection as an easy (mean= 4.21, mode= 5), comprehensible (mean = 3.98, mode =
5), interesting (mean = 3.96, mode = 5), pleasant (mean = 3.86, mode = 4), success promoting
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 75
(mean = 3.86, mode = 3), worthwhile (mean = 3.84, mode = 3), and important (mean = 3.82,
mode = 4) task. Descriptive statistics for the seven dichotomies can be observed in table 20.
The highest means and the respective modes are highlighted in turquoise.
Table 20
Descriptive Statistics for Attitudes towards Blogging and Reflection
Valid Minimum Maximum Mean Mode
Std.
Deviation
Interesting 57 1 5 3.96 5 1.034
Pleasant 57 1 5 3.86 4 .934
Comprehensible 57 2 5 3.98 5 .916
Worthwhile 57 2 5 3.84 3 .960
Success promoting 57 2 5 3.86 3 .934
Easy 57 2 5 4.21 5 .881
Important 57 1 5 3.82 4a 1.037
a. Multiple modes exist. The smallest value is shown
Note. The means and modes of the dichotomies that were considered most important by
the surveyed teachers are highlighted in turquoise.
When analyzing the sample by type of institution, the tendency of the results is
consistent with those of the general sample. University teachers considered the use of blogs
for reflection as an easy (mean= 4.30, mode= 5), comprehensible (mean= 4.00, mode= 4),
and interesting (mean= 3.97, mode= 5) task, in that order. Secondary teachers, on their side,
considered the use of blogs for reflection as an easy (mean= 4.08, mode= 5), comprehensible
(mean= 3.96, mode= 5), and interesting (mean= 3.97, mode= 5) task, in that order. Table 21
summarizes the findings by type of institution.
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 76
Table 21
Descriptive Statistics for Attitudes towards Blogging and Reflection by Institution Type
Type of Institution
University Secondary
Valid Min Max Mean Mode
Std.
Dev Valid Min Max Mean Mode
Std.
Dev
Interesting 33 2 5 3.97 5 1.015 24 1 5 3.96 5 1.083
Pleasant 33 2 5 3.94 4 .899 24 1 5 3.75 4 .989
Comprehensible 33 2 5 4.00 4 .866 24 2 5 3.96 5 .999
Worthwhile 33 2 5 3.88 4 .927 24 2 5 3.79 3 1.021
Success promoting 33 2 5 3.85 3 .939 24 2 5 3.88 3 .947
Easy 33 2 5 4.30 5 .847 24 2 5 4.08 5 .929
Important 33 1 5 3.82 5 1.103 24 2 5 3.83 4 .963
Note. The means and modes of the dichotomies that were considered most important by the
surveyed teachers are highlighted in turquoise.
Student Attitudes towards Reflective Blogs
Q26 asked teachers about the reaction students would have if asked to use blogs for
reflection. This was a scale item, which required subjects to choose a number in a scale from
one to five, where one was very enthusiastic and five not enthusiastic at all. Teachers
reported perceiving their students would be very enthusiastic and enthusiastic about using
blogs for reflection, with a 54.4 cumulative percent of the two categories of responses. As for
the other categories, 29.8% of the teachers considered their students would be moderately
enthusiastic, 12.3% a little enthusiastic, and 3.5% not enthusiastic at all. Table 22
summarizes the responses given by the teachers. In addition, when looking at descriptive
statistics for the item, the mean of the scale was 2.44 with a mode = 2 and values ranging
from a minimum of 1 to a maximum of 5. This represents an enthusiastic approach.
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 77
Table 22
Student Reaction towards Using Blogs for Reflection Frequencies
Frequency Percent Valid Percent
Cumulative
Percent
Valid 1 12 21.1 21.1 21.1
2 19 33.3 33.3 54.4
3 17 29.8 29.8 84.2
4 7 12.3 12.3 96.5
5 2 3.5 3.5 100.0
Total 57 100.0 100.0
Regarding the reasons that might lead to such student reaction (Q27), teachers
mentioned the fact that they enjoy using technology as the number one motivator with 37.4%
of the responses. Other reasons related to student enthusiasm were that students appreciate
the space for expression (18.2%), enjoy reflecting (10.1%), and prefer blogging over other
assignments (1%). As for the reasons related to the students’ lack of enthusiasm, the
following were mentioned: they consider it time consuming (18.2%), they are reluctant to use
ICT for academic purposes (8.1%), and they are not enthusiastic about their learning process
(8.1%).
The results of the general sample are consistent with those presented by type of
institution, presented in table 23. For university teachers, the main reason they reported relies
on students enjoying the use of technology (32.8%), followed by an appreciation of the space
for expression (19.7%), enjoyment of reflecting (11.5%), and preference of blogging over
other assignments (1.6%). Among the reasons leading to a lack of enthusiasm, university
teachers reported that blogging for reflection is considered a time consuming activity
(19.7%), students are reluctant to use ICT for academic purposes (8.2%), and students are not
enthusiastic about their learning processes (6.6%). For secondary teachers, the main reason
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 78
reported for students enjoying the use of technology as well (44.7%), followed by an
appreciation of the space for expression (15.8%), and enjoyment of reflective activities
(7.9%). Among the reasons leading to a lack of enthusiasm, secondary teachers reported that
blogging for reflection is considered a time consuming activity (13.2%), students are not
enthusiastic about their learning processes (10.5%), and students are reluctant to use ICT for
academic purposes (7.9%).
Table 23
Reasons for Student Reaction towards Using Blogs for Reflection by Institution Type
Type of Institution
University Secondary
Responses % Responses %
Rea
sons
for
Stu
den
t R
eact
ion
Enjoy using technology 20 32.8% 17 44.7%
Enjoy reflecting 7 11.5% 3 7.9%
Appreciate space for expression 12 19.7% 6 15.8%
Prefer blogging over other
assignments 1 1.6% 0 .0%
Reluctance to use ICT for academic
purposes 5 8.2% 3 7.9%
Not enthusiastic about their
learning process 4 6.6% 4 10.5%
Time consuming 12 19.7% 5 13.2%
Willingness to Use Blogs
Q28 asked teachers how willing they were to use blogs in class. This was a scale
item, which requested subjects to choose a number in a scale from one to five, where one was
very willing and five not willing at all. Teachers reported being very willing (1) and willing
(2) about using blogs for reflection, with a cumulative 57.9% of the responses. 24.6% of the
teachers were moderately willing, 12.3% were a little willing, and 5.3% not willing at all.
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 79
In addition, when looking at descriptive statistics for the item, the mean of the scale
was 2.33 with a mode = 1. This represents quite a willing approach. When analyzing the
descriptive statistics of the item by type of institution, university teachers presented a mean of
2.39 with a mode = 1. Secondary teachers showed similar numbers; a mean of 2.23 and a
mode = 1. Table 24 summarizes the descriptive statistics for this item.
Table 24
Descriptive Statistics for Willingness to Use Blogs by Institution Type
Willingness to use blogs
Valid N Minimum Maximum Mean Mode
Standard
Deviation
Type of
Institution
University 33 1 5 2.39 1 1.223
Secondary 24 1 5 2.25 1 1.189
Total 57 1 5 2.33 1 1.200
Regarding the reasons that teachers reported for their willingness to use blogs (Q29),
the main ones were that they considered blogs a valuable tool (34.8%) and facilitators of
learning processes (30.4%). Other reasons, which relate to their little or lack of willingness,
were that they considered blogs as time consuming (17.4%), similar to other tools (9.8%), not
liked by students (4.3%), and that teachers were reluctant to rely on online interactions
(2.2%) or focused mostly on content (1.1%).
Referring to the reasons reported by teachers by type of institution, the findings are
consistent with those reported by the sample as a whole. Table 25 summarizes the
frequencies of the responses by type of institution.
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 80
Table 25
Reasons for Willingness or Lack of Willingness to Use Blogs, by Institution Type
Type of Institution
University Secondary Total
Responses % Responses % Responses %
Rea
sons
Wil
lingnes
s
Facilitators of learning
processes 15 27.8% 13 34.2% 28 30.4%
Valuable tool 18 33.3% 14 36.8% 32 34.8%
Time consuming 11 20.4% 5 13.2% 16 17.4%
Similar to other tools 6 11.1% 3 7.9% 9 9.8%
Not liked by students 2 3.7% 2 5.3% 4 4.3%
Reluctance to rely on
online interactions 1 1.9% 1 2.6% 2 2.2%
Focus on content 1 1.9% 0 .0% 1 1.1%
School’s Support of Blog and ICT Integration
This dimension was measured with responses to questions thirty to thirty-five of the
instrument. Findings will be presented by item.
Regarding school support of blog integration (Q30), 73.68% of the teachers reported
their schools support the use of blogs and 26.32% that their school does not support it. When
asked if they had received any training regarding blogs in in-service professional
development programs (Q31), only 36.84% reported having received it and 63.16% stated
they had not received any in-service training.
Regarding school support of the integration of other form of ICT (Q32), 82.46% of
the teachers reported their schools were supportive and 17.54% that their schools were not.
The main form of ICT used by the schools where the teachers in the sample work (Q33) was
platform (53.4%), followed by discussion forum (21.9%), wiki (19.2%), and podcast (5.5%).
Although many reported a school supportive of the integration of other forms of ICT,
when asked if they had received any training regarding other forms of ICT in in-service
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 81
professional development programs (Q34), only 36.84% stated they had received it and
63.16% claimed they had not. As for the kind of training they received (Q35), it consisted
mostly of courses/conferences with 38.89% of the responses. Other types of training
mentioned included online courses (27.78%), platform (27.78%), and professional
development programs (5.56%).
Blogs for Reflective Learning
When asked about their usage of blogs for reflection (Q36), only 19.30% of the
teachers reported they did employ blogs for such purpose and 80.70% stated they did not. By
type of institution, 21.21% of the university teachers claimed they used blogs for reflective
learning and 78.79% stated they did not. Secondary teachers showed similar results; 16.67%
reported using blogs for reflective learning and 83.33% stated they do not.
As for the reasons why they use it for such purpose (Q37), teachers stated that blogs
are user-friendly (50%) and allow students to see their learning (35.71%), and that students
prefer typing than writing by hand (14.29%).
Regarding the reasons they do not use blogs for reflective learning (Q38), they
reported that a lack of time was the main cause, with a 45.65%. Other aspects that were
mentioned were that they had never thought of it (21.74%), lack of training (17.39%),
perception of blogs as not useful (6.52%), no need to do it (6.52%), and focus on content and
results (2.17%)
Blogs for Metacognitive Learning
When asked about their usage of blogs for metacognitive learning (Q39), 21.05% of
the teachers reported they did employ blogs for such purpose and 78.95% stated they did not.
By type of institution, 18.18% of the university teachers and 25% of the secondary teachers
claimed using blogs for metacognitive learning.
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 82
As for the way in which they use blogs for metacognitive learning (Q40), teachers
stated blogs were used to allow for self-assessment activities and to add material in equal
proportion (33.33% each), as the main ways. Other ways were to send, share, and receive
information (20%), to post questions (6.67%), and a final group stated they had not used it
yet (6.67%).
Cross tabulations
In order to better understand the sample, cross tabulations were performed between
the demographic variables and perceptions on reflection, metacognition and blogging. Then,
to identify if there is any meaningful difference between the university and secondary groups,
an independent student t-test was conducted. The results are presented below.
Perceptions on Blogging and Demographics
The way teachers perceive reflection affects the way they use blogs. Because of this,
“Reflection improves teaching and learning” (Q13) was chosen and cross tabulated with
demographic aspects as well. Since this was a categorical question, results are presented in
the form of percentages; the higher the percentage the higher the perception that reflection
does improve teaching and learning. When analyzed by sex, females were the ones to report
that reflection does improve teaching with a 72.7% of the responses, while men had only
27.3%. This can be observed in table 26.
Table 26.
Crosstabulation between Reflection Improves Learning and Sex
Reflection Improves Teaching and Learning
Yes No
Count % Count N %
Sex Male 15 27.3% 2 100.0%
Female 40 72.7% 0 .0%
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 83
Regarding age groups, those 36-40 were ranked first when asked if they believed
reflection improves teaching and learning with a 27.3%. They were followed by those 31-35
(20%), 51 and above (18.2%), 41-45 (12.7%), and 46-50 and 30 or less (10.9% each). Table
27 summarizes the counts and percentages for these values.
Table 27.
Crosstabulation between Reflection Improves Learning and Age
Reflection Improves Teaching and Learning
Yes No
Count % Count %
Age 30 or less 6 10.9% 1 50.0%
31 – 35 11 20.0% 0 .0%
36 – 40 15 27.3% 0 .0%
41 – 45 7 12.7% 0 .0%
46 – 50 6 10.9% 1 50.0%
51 and above 10 18.2% 0 .0%
Note. The highest percentage is highlighted in yellow to show the group that considers
reflection to improve teaching and learning.
As for education level, The group with the highest perception that reflection improves
teaching and learning was composed those with a master’s degree. Those with a bachelor’s
degree followed (23.6%), teacher certification (14.5%), diplomado/specialty (3.6%) and
doctorate (1.8%). Table 28 summarizes the counts and percentages for these two variables.
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 84
Table 28.
Crosstabulation between Reflection Improves Learning and Education Level
Reflection Improves Teaching and Learning
Yes No
Count % Count %
Education
Level
Bachelor's 13 23.6% 1 50.0%
Master's 31 56.4% 1 50.0%
Teacher Certification 8 14.5% 0 .0%
Doctorate 1 1.8% 0 .0%
Diplomado/Specialty 2 3.6% 0 .0%
Note. The highest percentage is highlighted in yellow to show the group that considers
reflection to improve teaching and learning.
Regarding teaching experience, those with 11-15 years reported reflection does
improve teaching and learning. Those with 6-10 years were second with 20%, followed by
those with 5 years or less and 16-20 years, with 16.4% each. The other categories obtained
less than 10%. Table 29 summarizes counts and percentages for these variables.
Table 29.
Crosstabulation between Reflection Improves Learning and Teaching Experience
Reflection Improves Teaching and Learning
Yes No
Count % Count %
Teaching
Experience
5 years or less 9 16.4% 0 .0%
6 - 10 years 11 20.0% 1 50.0%
11 - 15 years 15 27.3% 0 .0%
16 - 20 years 9 16.4% 0 .0%
21 - 25 years 3 5.5% 1 50.0%
26 - 30 years 5 9.1% 0 .0%
31 years or more 3 5.5% 0 .0%
Note. The highest percentage is highlighted in yellow to show the group that considers
reflection to improve teaching and learning.
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 85
Finally, regarding teaching area, most (40%) of the teachers who reported that
reflection does improve teaching and learning teach content area subjects. These were
followed by teachers of both English as a language and content area subjects (34.5%) and
English language teachers (25.5%). Table 30 summarizes the counts and percentages for
these variables.
Table 30.
Crosstabulation between Reflection Improves Learning and Teaching Area
Reflection Improves Teaching and Learning
Yes No
Count % Count %
Teaching Area English Language 14 25.5% 0 .0%
Content Area 22 40.0% 0 .0%
Both 19 34.5% 2 100.0%
Note. The highest percentage is highlighted in yellow to show the group that considers
reflection to improve teaching and learning.
Perceptions on Metacognition and Demographics
Given that the way teachers perceive metacognition affects the way teachers use
blogs, “Importance of Metacognition” (Q19) was chosen and crosstabulated with
demographic aspects as well. Since this was a scale item where one was very willing and
five not willing at all, the means closer to one indicate metacognition’s importance to the
teachers.
Regarding the sex of the teachers, women reported metacognition as more important
than men, with a mean of 1.53. This was consistent when analyzing the sample as a whole
and when dividing it by type of teaching institution. The means were 1.47 for the university
group, 1.57 for secondary teachers.
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 86
The age group that considered metacognition important was composed of teachers
ranging between 51+ for university teachers, with a mean of 1.44 and median and mode equal
to one. For secondary teachers, those ages 46-50 regarded metacognition as important, with a
mean, median, and mode equal to 1.00. Finally, for the sample as a whole, age group 36-40
had a mean of 1.47 and median and mode of 1.00.
Regarding educational level, the different categories regarded metacognition as
important with means ranging between 1.00 and 1.53. The only category with a higher
degree is that of teacher certification.
As for teaching experience, those who had been working between 11-15 years were
the group to consider metacognition the most, with a mean of 1.33, and a median and mode
equal to 1.00. The same was true for university teachers, but for secondary teachers, there is
no prevailing group.
Concerning teaching area, there is no significant difference between those who teach
English as a language and those who teach content area subjects. In general terms it could be
said that teachers regard metacognition as an important factor for the development of their
classes.
Perceptions on Blogging and Demographics
Given that the study intended to explore and describe the perceptions of teachers
regarding the use of blogs as a strategy to enhance reflective learning, the item “Willingness
to Use Blogs” (Q28) was chosen and crosstabulated with demographic aspects. Since this
was a scale item where one was very willing and five not willing at all, the means closer to
one indicate teacher willingness.
Regarding sex of the teachers, women reported to be more willing than men to use
blogs with a mean of 2.13, a median of 2, and a mode of1. This was consistent when
analyzing the sample as a whole and when dividing it by type of teaching institution.
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 87
The age group that was more willing to use blogs in class was composed of teachers
ranging between 41-45 years old, with means equal to 1.80 for the university group, 1.50 for
the secondary one, and 1.71 for the sample as a whole; medians of 2.00, 1.50, and 2.00,
respectively; and, modes of one in the three cases.
Regarding educational level, the higher the degree attained by the teachers, the more
willing they were to use blogs in class. In the university setting, teachers holding a doctorate
or master’s degree had means equal to 1 and 2.24 respectively. In both cases, the mode was
equal to one (very willing).
As for teaching experience, those who had been working between 11-15 years were
more willing to use blogs in class, followed by those with 16-20 years. This is because they
considered blogs are facilitators of learning processes and a valuable tool. Those with either
more or less experience were not as willing to use them. Their main demotivator was that
they considered blogs to be time consuming.
Concerning teaching area, there is no significant difference between those who teach
English as a language and those who teach content area subjects.
Inferential Statistics
Type of Teaching Institution – Independent Samples t-test
The researcher felt the need to test whether there is a significant difference between
university and secondary teachers. When testing two variables, an independent t-test must be
conducted to compare the means of two different groups. To perform such test, only the
items referring to importance of metacognition, teacher willingness to use blogs, and
students’ reactions to the use of blogs for reflection were considered. The following
hypothesis was set for analysis:
H1: University and secondary teachers are significantly different from each other
H0: University and secondary teachers are not significantly different from each other.
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 88
After comparing means with a t-test for independent samples, it can be concluded that
there is no significant difference between the two groups of teachers. The significance levels
for the three categories chosen is much greater than 0.05; as a result, the null hypothesis is
accepted. Results for the t-test can be found in table 31.
Table 31
Independent Samples T-test for Importance of Metacognition, Willingness to Use Blogs, and
Student Reaction to Blogs for Reflection
Group Statistics
Type of
Institution N Mean Std. Deviation
Std. Error
Mean
Importance of
metacognition
University 33 1.6061 .82687 .14394
Secondary 24 1.6250 1.01350 .20688
Willingness to use blogs University 33 2.39 1.223 .213
Secondary 24 2.25 1.189 .243
Student reaction to blogs
for reflection
University 33 2.42 1.173 .204
Secondary 24 2.46 .932 .190
t-test for Equality of Means
95% Confidence
Interval of the
Difference
T df
Sig. (2-
tailed)
Mean
Difference
Std. Error
Difference Lower Upper
Willingness to
use blogs
Equal variances
assumed .444 55 .659 .144 .324 -.506 .794
Equal variances
not assumed .446 50.527 .658 .144 .323 -.504 .792
Importance of
metacognition
Equal variances
assumed -.078 55 .938 -.01894 .24402 -.50796 .47008
Equal variances
not assumed -.075 43.356 .940 -.01894 .25203 -.52708 .48920
Student reaction
to blogs for
reflection
Equal variances
assumed -.118 55 .907 -.034 .289 -.614 .546
Equal variances
not assumed -.122 54.524 .903 -.034 .279 -.593 .525
Summary
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 89
Regarding gender of the teachers, women reported to be more willing than men to
use blogs. This was consistent when analyzing the sample as a whole and when dividing it by
type of teaching institution.
The age group that was more willing to use blogs in class was composed of teachers
ranging between 41-45 years old, with means equal to 1.80 for the university group, 1.50 for
the secondary one, and 1.71 for the sample as a whole; medians of 2.00, 1.50, and 2.00,
respectively; and, modes of one in the three cases.
Regarding educational level, the higher the degree attained by the teachers, the more
willing they were to use blogs in class. In the university setting, teachers holding a doctorate
or master’s degree had means equal to 1 and 2.24 respectively. In both cases, the mode was
equal to one (very willing).
As for teaching experience, those who had been working between 11-15 years were
more willing to use blogs in class, followed by those with 16-20 years. This is because they
considered blogs are facilitators of learning processes and a valuable tool. Those with either
more or less experience were not as willing to use them. Their main demotivator was that
they considered blogs to be time consuming.
Concerning teaching area, there is little variation between those who teach English as
a language and those who teach content area subjects.
Data Analysis and Crossed Variables
To try to find explanations as to why the teachers had such perceptions, cross
tabulations between the items referring to the main variable dimensions and demographic
aspects were performed. Where applicable, statistical tests were conducted in order to prove
the existence of a relationship between the variables and the significance of such relationship.
Perceptions on Reflection
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 90
“Reflection improves teaching and learning” (Q13) was crosstabulated with
demographic variables. The group with the highest perception that reflection improves
teaching and learning was composed of females ages 36 to 40, with a master’s degree and 11
to 15 years of teaching experience. This group mostly teaches content area subjects.
Perceptions on Metacognition
“Importance of Metacognition” (Q19) was crosstabulated with demographic
variables. The group which considered metacognition important was comprised by females
(mean = 1.53), ages 36 to 40 (mean = 1.47, median = 1, mode = 1), with 11 to 15 years of
teaching experience (mean = 1.33, median = 1, mode = 1). As for educational level and
teaching area, the categories considered metacognition important with little variation among
them.
Perceptions on Blogging
“Willingness to Use Blogs” (Q28) was crosstabulated with demographic variables.
The group which was more willing to use blogs as a strategy to enhance reflective learning
was comprised by females (mean = 2.13, median = 2, mode = 1), ages 41 to 45 (mean = 1.71,
median = 2, mode = 1), with 11 to 15 years of teaching experience (mean = 1.93, median = 2,
mode = 1). As for educational level and teaching area, little variation was found among the
different categories, but it can be concluded that the higher the educational level, the more
willing the teachers were to use blogs.
School Support of Blog and Other Forms of ICT Integration and Training
Correlations
Even though some teachers did perceive that their schools support the integration of
blogs or other ICT forms, only 35.71% of those teachers reported having received training for
blogs and 38.30% having received training for other ICT forms. In addition, 80% of those
who reported working in a supportive school and receiving training for integration are willing
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 91
or very willing to use blogs in class. This is only 28.57% of those whose school is
supportive. This indicates training might play a key role.
Effect of the Type of Teaching Institution
Results from the independent samples t-test indicate that the perceptions of teachers
working in secondary and higher education towards the use of blogs for reflection and
metacognition are not significantly different. The type of institution where teachers work
does not affect the perceptions they have regarding reflection, metacognition, and the use of
blogs.
Discussion
Main Findings
The purpose of this study was to explore and describe the perceptions regarding the
use of blogs as a tool for enhancing reflective learning in the foreign language classroom in a
sample of English teachers. Fifty seven teachers responded to the survey. In general terms,
the main findings are presented below, organized by the variable that was studied.
Perceptions on Reflection
Most of the teachers (85.96%) who responded engage in reflective practices to think
about something that happened in class. They reported doing it when planning a class. As
for other reasons, 23.36% claimed that it improves their teaching and 19.71% that it helps
them discover their strengths and weaknesses. The teachers (96.49%) considered that
reflective practice improves teaching and learning. They reported that main impact for
teachers is that it allows for the creation of meaningful activities; 43.64% indicated that the
main impact for students is that it allows them to self-assess and correct mistakes. As for the
strategies to help students become more reflective, the items with the greatest percentages
were providing better feedback and asking questions were.
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 92
Perceptions on Metacognition
Regarding this variable, it was found that thinking critically, solving problems, and
working collaboratively were considered the skills which will help prepare students for life
beyond school the most, in that order. In addition, the teachers who were surveyed defined
metacognition as having awareness and control of one’s learning, and 84.21% regard it as an
important tool to enhance learning. The metacognitive strategies they reported as the most
useful in class were being able to change strategies when they do not work and being aware
of one’s strengths and weaknesses. As for the most important strategies to teach
metacognition, asking reflective questions and providing feedback were ranked in the first
two positions.
Perceptions on Blogging
Teachers who had used blogs accounted for 52.63% of the sample. They reported
using them for reflection (34.8%) and to post course information (26.1%). Those who
responded that they had not used blogs reported time constraints as the main reason. In
general terms, teachers have a positive feeling towards using blogs for reflection. More
specifically, they consider it an easy, comprehensible, and interesting task. Regarding
student reaction to the use of blogs for reflection, teachers reported perceiving their students
would be very enthusiastic and enthusiastic with a 54.4% of the responses. Among the
reasons for that perception, teachers mentioned that students enjoy using technology as
number one reason.
As for their own willingness, teachers reported being very willing and willing about
using blogs for reflection, with a cumulative 57.9% of the responses, since blogs are
considered a valuable tool. Concerning the use of blogs for reflection, only 19.30% of the
teachers reported they did employ them. The main reasons they gave for using blogs were
that blogs are user-friendly and allow students to see their learning. Those who did not use
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 93
them mentioned lack of time as a cause. When asked about blogs for metacognitive learning,
21.05% of the teachers reported using them; the manners in which they used them refer to
allowing for self-assessment material and adding material.
When performing a bivariate analysis, between the demographic aspects and teacher
willingness to use blogs, it was found that the higher the educational level the more willing
the teachers were to use blogs in class. Teachers with experience between 11 and 15 years
were more willing to use them, followed by those with 16-20 years of experience, which
consider blogs as facilitators of learning processes and a valuable tool. Regarding teaching
area, there is no significant difference between those who teach English as a language and
those who teach content area subjects.
Regarding school support and training for integration of blogs and other ICT forms,
even though some teachers did perceive their schools support the integration of blogs or other
ICT forms, only 35.71% of those teachers reported having received training for blogs and
38.30% having received training for other ICT forms. Eighty percent of those who reported
working in a supportive school and receiving training for integration are willing or very
willing to use blogs in class. This is only 28.57% of those whose school is supportive.
Training might play a key role.
Finally, no significant difference was found in different aspects between university
and secondary teachers. It can be concluded, thus, that the teacher perceptions of English
teachers are consistent regardless of the type of institution in which they work.
Conclusions and Recommendations
The perceptions collected from the responses given to the instrument are consistent
with some of the literature presented.
First, regarding reflection, teachers reported perceiving that proper feedback and
adequate questions spark reflective thought. This is consistent with the works of Sun (2009)
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 94
and Yang (2009). As they explain, teacher feedback is critical for reflection and is a model
for students to follow. Nevertheless, teachers need to go further in order to help their
students reach greater understandings (Yang, 2009).
Second, as was previously discussed, teachers consider metacognition as an important
aspect shaping students’ learning. This is consistent with the ideas of Gaible & Burns (2005),
the teachers from the sample are aware that metacognition is important in order to become an
effective teacher and to help students become effective learners as well. The teachers’
educational background probably accounts for this aspect, given that over 60% of the
teachers have a postgraduate degree and more than 50% are related to the educational field.
Regarding the main aspects that prevent teachers from using blogs for reflective
practice and metacognitive learning, time was the main issue, which is consistent with the
study by Sim & Hew (2010). Lack of ability with technology use was also mentioned as a
problem area, which is consistent with previous studies such as the one performed by Kim
(2008). This leads the author to reflect about the importance of professional development
programs and training when ICT forms are to be introduced. It must be remembered that in
order to make the most of technology integration, teacher engagement in Professional
Development programs is crucial (Gaible & Burns, 2005).
Finally, regarding the use of blogs, it was found that more than half of the sample
teachers did use blogs, whether they received training or not. This could be attributed to the
fact that, as explained by Rodriguez (2012), there is a trend in schools and universities to
train their teachers and students in ICT use. It was also found that most of those who did
employ blogs did it for reflective purposes. This is consistent with the idea that integrating
technology encourages reflection and enhances communication and reasoning, which
facilitates student learning (Rowe et al., 2012). Furthermore, students are quite enthusiastic,
as perceived by their teachers, to use blogs for reflection, given that blogs are the critical
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 95
reflection platforms where the students can often feel relaxed and communicate with each
other (Avci & Askar, 2012).
From the information obtained through this study, it can be concluded that the
teachers that were surveyed have very positive perceptions regarding the use of blogs as a
strategy for reflective learning. It cannot be assumed that because teachers report such
positive perceptions and the use of blogs for reflection and metacognition, their actual
performance is coherent with their perceptions. In fact, as mentioned by Atwell (2007), great
care must be placed on not continuing with the traditional education model, in a different
channel. In other words, the use of different forms of ICT does not necessarily change by
itself the traditional teacher-centered class, which focuses on memorizing concepts and does
not take into account student protagonism and reflection and metacognition of their own
learning processes.
Limitations
The study was conceived to collect data using an electronic instrument. The initial
idea of the researcher was that this would be a faster method to gather information. However,
at the very first stages of the data collection process, response rate was rather low and some
teachers had to be contacted personally in different settings.
As for the number of teachers included in the sample, it must be considered that since
the population had homogeneous characteristics, that is, English teachers working in private
secondary schools or universities in Guayaquil, Ecuador, the sampling error is reduced. As
explained by Bryman (2012), variation in homogeneous samples is less; therefore, the sample
can be smaller.
The results of this study may not be valid for the international community due to the
special characteristics of the sample and the way in which they were chosen. Nonetheless, it
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 96
may provide insights for English teachers in a situation similar to that of the schools where
the surveyed subjects are employed in Guayaquil, Ecuador.
The results of the study were analyzed by the researcher on her own, making
correlations that seemed appropriate when answering the research question. In order to
improve the reliability of the study, a second rater for the final analysis of results could have
been used.
Recommendations for Future studies
The purpose of the study and therefore its design, attempted to explore and describe
the perceptions of English teachers regarding the use of blogs as a strategy for reflective and
metacognitive learning. The findings of this study may serve as a basis for further qualitative
analysis as for the reasons why and the way in which blogs and other ICT forms are used in
the context of Ecuadorian higher and secondary education.
In addition, using this study as a basis, the main aspects for professional development
programs may be designed either through quantitative or qualitative studies and/or including
some form of action research.
Since the teachers who were surveyed work in private schools settings in the city of
Guayaquil, it would be interesting to replicate the study but with a sample of teachers
working in public institutions. Also, expanding the sample to other cities in Ecuador is a
research niche that needs to be explored. This would allow for greater information of the
situation of Ecuadorian education and more valid and reliable results. In the end, such results
could help come up with educational policies.
The findings of the study are significant for the community of educators in Ecuador.
First, having knowledge on the perceptions of English teachers regarding the importance of
metacognition and reflection for teaching and learning and the use of blogs for reflective and
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 97
metacognitive teaching contributes to fill the information gap of UNESCO, TESOL Research
Agenda, and IBO. Second, it serves as a basis to come up with important policies or conduct
further studies in countries such as Ecuador. Third, and on a more local level, it provides
valuable information about how English teachers perceive education and the integration of
technology. This may help heads of department and other administrators at school device
professional development goals in order to improve educational practices.
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 98
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Appendix A
Results of study ICT IN EDUCATION IN LATIN AMERICA AND THE
CARIBBEAN, A regional analysis of ICT integration and e-readiness, Domain 5,
Teachers and ICT in Education
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Appendix B
Summary of Reviewed Studies
taken from The Use of Weblogs in Higher Education Settings: A review of Empirical
Research (Hew & Sim, 2010)
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Appendix C
Cover Sheet for Preliminary Questionnaire
Guayaquil, XX, 2013
Dear English Teacher:
Given current education and cultural trends it is imperative to study the perceptions
English teachers have on reflective practices, metacognitive strategies, and the use of
Information and Communication Technology (ICT) applications such as blogs.
The purpose of this survey is to explore and describe the perceptions of English
teachers about reflection and metacognition in blogging as means to integrate ICT’s to the
educational field. . The survey will gather demographic data to assist in further analysis, but
will not identify study participants. Please answer the questions that follow in full honesty.
Participation in this survey is voluntary and responses will remain confidential. There
are no underlying costs or benefits of participating in the survey. The survey data will be
used as part of the thesis project for the master’s degree program at Universidad Casa
Grande. Results of this study may be made available in journal publications.
If you have questions, concerns, or comments about the questionnaire, please feel free to
contact me at katherineaga@gmail.com. You may also call me at 0997196138 (cell).
Your assistance in completing the questionnaire is greatly appreciated.
Sincerely,
Katherine Guerrero
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Appendix D
Preliminary Questionnaire
Instructions
Remember there are no correct or incorrect answers. The contents of this questionnaire are
completely confidential. Thank you for your cooperation!
I. DEMOGRAPHIC DATA
1. What is your sex?
Male
Female
2. How old are you?
_________ years old
3. Which of the following categories describes your educational level?
Bachelor (major:_____________________)
Masters (major:_____________________)
Teacher Certification (major:_____________________)
Doctorate (major:_____________________)
Diplomado/Specialty (major:_____________________)
4. In what area do you have your degree?
5. How long have you been teaching English?
________________ years
6. Do you teach
English language? (If yes, go to item #7)
Content area? (If yes, go to item #7)
Both? (If yes, answer #7 and #8)
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7. What level of English do you teach?
8. What content area (subjects) do you teach?
II. PERCEPTIONS ON REFLECTION
In this section perceptions on reflection will be explored. Remember there are no correct or
incorrect answers.
9. Do you engage in reflective practices?
Yes
No
10. How often do you use reflective practice?
once a week
twice a week
after every class
when planning a new class
11. How do you use reflective practices?
To think about something that happened in class
to describe what happened in class
Other (Please specify) _____________________________________________________
12. Why do you use reflective practice?
To help you describe what happened during a teaching experience
To gain new ideas about teaching
To help label and categorize what happened during a teaching experience
To discover strengths and weaknesses as a teacher
To evaluate my teaching
To better plan my teaching
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To improve my teaching
13. How does reflection improve teaching?
It enables the creation of more meaningful learning activities.
It allows for better curriculum design (the arrangement of a planned sequence of learning
experiences.)
It permits a better decision making process in relation to planning
Other (Please specify) ____________________
14. How does reflection improve student achievement?
It allows them to plan for the future
It allows for the understanding of tasks and practice
It allows them to self-assess and correct mistakes
It allows them to become more professional
Other (Please specify) ____________________
15. How can teachers help students to become more reflective learners?
Asking questions
Providing better feedback
Providing models to follow
Other (Please specify) ____________________
PERCEPTIONS ON METACOGNITION
In this section perceptions on metacognition will be explored. Remember there are no correct
or incorrect answers.
16. What are the skills that will help prepare students for life beyond school? Choose at
least 3.
Communicative competence in different languages
Learning to learn
Digital competence
Planning for the future
Thinking critically
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 118
Working collaboratively
Processing information
Solving problems
Being proactive/Entrepreneurship
Cultural awareness
Other (Please specify) ________________________________
17. What is metacognition?
Thinking about thinking.
A form of evaluation that looks inward
A complex process that can result in a subtle view of oneself as a thinker and learner.
Becoming aware and taking control of one’s own learning
Other (Please specify) _______________________________
18. How would you rate the importance of metacognition for the development of your
classes? Circle the number in the scale that best matches what you think.
Very important 5 4 3 2 1 not important at all
19. How useful is each of the following metacognitive strategies for your class? Circle
the number in the scale that best matches what you think.
Ver
y u
sefu
l
Use
ful
Mo
der
atel
y
use
ful
Of
littl
e u
se
Use
less
Being willing to learn 5 4 3 2 1
Understanding the importance of learning 5 4 3 2 1
Setting objectives 5 4 3 2 1
Selecting sources of information to be learned 5 4 3 2 1
Taking notes 5 4 3 2 1
Identifying main ideas 5 4 3 2 1
Adequately using textbooks 5 4 3 2 1
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 119
Organizing knowledge using tables, charts, schemes,
and classifications. 5 4 3 2 1
Using memorizing techniques 5 4 3 2 1
Knowing my own mental processes 5 4 3 2 1
Using strategies to improve those processes 5 4 3 2 1
Self-monitoring and self-regulating 5 4 3 2 1
Controlling distractions 5 4 3 2 1
Being aware of my strengths and weaknesses 5 4 3 2 1
Changing strategies when they don’t work 5 4 3 2 1
Transferring knowledge and strategies to and from
different fields, tending to generalize 5 4 3 2 1
Self-assessing 5 4 3 2 1
20. How important is each of the following when helping your students acquire
metacognitive strategies? Circle the number in the scale that best matches what you
think.
Ver
y
Imp
ort
ant
Imp
ort
ant
Mo
der
atel
y
imp
ort
ant
Of
littl
e
imp
ort
ance
Un
imp
ort
ant
Direct instruction of strategies and when to use them 5 4 3 2 1
Creating self-awareness of strategy use 5 4 3 2 1
showing them how to choose the best strategy 5 4 3 2 1
Modeling 5 4 3 2 1
Giving students ample practice at applying them 5 4 3 2 1
Asking reflective questions 5 4 3 2 1
Providing opportunities for self-assessment 5 4 3 2 1
Providing feedback 5 4 3 2 1
PERCEPTIONS ON BLOGGING
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 120
In this section perceptions on blogging will be explored. Remember there are no correct or
incorrect answers.
21. Have you ever used blogs?
Yes
No (Skip to #23)
22. What have you used them for? Check the ones that apply
To post personal information
To maintain contact with students
To provide course information
To reflect about class activities and student performance
23. Why not?
Limited technological ability
Time constraints
Privacy issues
Lack of school support
Procrastination
24. How do you feel about using blogs for reflection? For each item, circle the number
closer to the way you feel about blogs for reflection.
a. Interesting 5 4 3 2 1 Boring
b. Pleasant 5 4 3 2 1 Unpleasant
c. Comprensible 5 4 3 2 1 Confusing
d. Worthwhile 5 4 3 2 1 Waste of time
e. Success promoting 5 4 3 2 1 Frustrating
f. Easy 5 4 3 2 1 Difficult
g. Important 5 4 3 2 1 Trivial
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 121
25. How do you think your students would react if you asked them to use blogs for
reflection? Circle the number in the scale that best matches what you think.
Very enthusiastic 5 4 3 2 1 Not enthusiastic at all
26. Why?
27. How willing are you to use blogs in class? Circle the number in the scale that best
matches what you think.
Very willing 5 4 3 2 1 Not willing at all
28. Why??
29. Does your school support the integration of blogs?
Yes
No
30. Have you received any training regarding blogs in in-service professional
development programs?
Yes
No
31. Does your school support the integration of other forms of ICTs?
Yes
No
32. Which ones?
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 122
wikis
podcasts
discussion forum
platforms
33. Have you received any training regarding other forms of ICTs in in-service
professional development programs?
Yes
No
34. What kind?
35. Do you use blogs for reflective learning?
Yes
No
36. Why or why not?
37. Do you use blogs for metacognitive learning?
Yes (go to #38)
No
38. How do you use them?
Thank you for taking time to complete this questionnaire!
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 123
Appendix E
Introductory E-mail
Guayaquil, November 8, 2013
Dear English Teacher:
Given current education and cultural trends it is imperative to study the perceptions
English teachers have on reflective practices, metacognitive strategies, and the use of
Information and Communication Technology (ICT) applications such as blogs.
The purpose of this survey is to explore and describe the perceptions of English
teachers about reflection and metacognition in blogging as means to integrate ICT to the
educational field. The survey will gather demographic data to assist in further analysis, but
will not identify study participants. Please answer the questions in full honesty. You may
access the questionnaire at:
https://docs.google.com/forms/d/1nskY5I96hDE92JkhZeKxnLx4Yfw0hNr2QiZRKmlQ7Mg/
viewform
Participation in this survey is voluntary and responses will remain confidential. There
are no underlying costs or benefits of participating in the survey. The survey data will be
used as part of the thesis project for the master’s degree program at Universidad Casa
Grande. Results of this study may be made available in journal publications.
If you have questions, concerns, or comments about the questionnaire, please feel free to
contact me at katherineaga@gmail.com. You may also call me at 0997196138 (cell).
Your assistance in completing the questionnaire is greatly appreciated.
Sincerely,
Katherine Guerrero
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 124
Appendix F
Electronic Questionnaire used in Pilot-Test
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Appendix G
Final Electronic Questionnaire
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Appendix H
Statistical Analysis Tables
Table H1. Crosstabulation between Teachers’ Willingness to Use Blogs and Reasons for the
Willingness to Use Blogs – for Very Willing and Willing Categories
Case Summary
Cases
Valid Missing Total
N Percent N Percent N Percent
$WillingBLogs*TWillBlogs 32 56.1% 25 43.9% 57 100.0%
$WillingBLogs*TWillBlogs Crosstabulation
Willingness to use blogs
Total 1 2
Reasons Willingness
Blogsa
Facilitators of learning processes Count 16 7 23
Valuable tool Count 13 13 26
Time consuming Count 0 3 3
Similar to other tools Count 0 1 1
Total Count 17 15 32
Percentages and totals are based on respondents.
Table H2. Crosstabulation between Teachers’ Willingness to Use Blogs and Reasons for the
Willingness to Use Blogs – for Neutral Category
$WillingBLogs*TWillBlogs Crosstabulation
Willingness to use blogs
Total 3
Reasons Willingness
Blogsa
Facilitators of learning processes Count 4 5
Valuable tool Count 3 6
Time consuming Count 8 11
Similar to other tools Count 5 7
Not liked by students Count 2 3
Reluctance to rely on online
interactions
Count 0 1
Focus on content Count 1 1
Total Count 14 21
Percentages and totals are based on respondents.
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 142
$WillingBLogs*TWillBlogs Crosstabulation
Willingness to use blogs
Total 3
Reasons Willingness
Blogsa
Facilitators of learning processes Count 4 5
Valuable tool Count 3 6
Time consuming Count 8 11
Similar to other tools Count 5 7
Not liked by students Count 2 3
Reluctance to rely on online
interactions
Count 0 1
Focus on content Count 1 1
Total Count 14 21
Percentages and totals are based on respondents.
a. Dichotomy group tabulated at value 1.
Table H3. Crosstabulation between Teachers’ Willingness to Use Blogs and Reasons for the
Willingness to Use Blogs – for Not Willing and Not Willing at All Categories
Case Summary
Valid Missing Total
N Percent N Percent N Percent
$WillingBLogs*TWillBlogs 10 17.5% 47 82.5% 57 100.0%
$WillingBLogs*TWillBlogs Crosstabulation
Willingness to use blogs
Total 4 5
Rea
son
s W
illi
ngnes
s
Blo
gsa
Facilitators of learning processes Count 1 0 1
Valuable tool Count 3 0 3
Time consuming Count 3 2 5
Similar to other tools Count 2 1 3
Not liked by students Count 1 1 2
Reluctance to rely on online
interactions
Count 1 1 2
Total Count 7 3 10
Percentages and totals are based on respondents.
a. Dichotomy group tabulated at value 1.
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 143
Table H4. Crosstabulation between Students’ Reaction to Use Blogs for Reflection and
Reasons for the Reaction
Case Summary
Cases
Valid Missing Total
N Percent N Percent N Percent
$ReasonSSReact*SsReact
Blog 56 98.2% 1 1.8% 57 100.0%
$ReasonSSReact*SsReactBlog Crosstabulationb
Student reaction to blogs for reflection
Total 1 2 3 4 5
Reasons
for SS
Reactiona
Enjoy using technology 11 18 6 0 1 36
Enjoy reflecting 2 5 1 1 1 10
Appreciate space for
expression 6 8 3 0 0 17
Reluctance to use ICT
for academic purposes 0 1 4 3 0 8
Not enthusiastic about
their learning process 0 0 3 4 0 7
Time consuming 0 2 10 5 0 17
prefer blogging over
other assignments 0 1 0 0 0 1
Total 19 35 27 13 2 96
Percentages and totals are based on responses.
a. Dichotomy group tabulated at value 1.
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 144
Table H5. Crosstabulation between Students’ Reaction to Use Blogs for Reflection and
Reasons for the Reaction – for Very Enthusiastic and Enthusiastic Categories
$ReasonSSReact*SsReactBlog Crosstabulationb
Student reaction to blogs for
reflection
Total 1 2
Reasons for SS Reactiona Enjoy using technology Count 11 18 29
Enjoy reflecting Count 2 5 7
Appreciate space for
expression
Count 6 8 14
Reluctance to use ICT for
academic purposes
Count 0 1 1
Time consuming Count 0 2 2
prefer blogging over other
assignments
Count 0 1 1
Total Count 19 35 54
Percentages and totals are based on responses.
a. Dichotomy group tabulated at value 1.
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 145
Table H6. Crosstabulation between Students’ Reaction to Use Blogs for Reflection and
Reasons for the Reaction – for Neutral to Not Enthusiastic at All Categories
Case Summary
Cases
Valid Missing Total
N Percent N Percent N Percent
$ReasonSSReact*SsRea
ctBlog 25 43.9% 32 56.1% 57 100.0%
$ReasonSSReact*SsReactBlog Crosstabulationb
Student reaction to blogs for
reflection
Total 3 4 5
Reasons for SS
Reactiona
Enjoy using technology Count 6 0 1 7
Enjoy reflecting Count 1 1 1 3
Appreciate space for
expression
Count 3 0 0 3
Reluctance to use ICT
for academic purposes
Count 4 3 0 7
Not enthusiastic about
their learning process
Count 3 4 0 7
Time consuming Count 10 5 0 15
Total Count 27 13 2 42
Percentages and totals are based on responses.
a. Dichotomy group tabulated at value 1.
b. There are not enough (less than 2) multiple response groups for pairing. Percentages are based on
responses, but no pairing is performed.
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 146
Table H7.Crosstabulation between school support of blog integration and training for blog
use
School support of blog integration * Training for blog use
Crosstabulation
Count
Training for blog use
Total Yes No
School support of blog
integration
Yes 15 27 42
No 6 9 15
Total 21 36 57
Chi-Square Tests
Value df
Asymp. Sig.
(2-sided)
Exact Sig. (2-
sided)
Exact Sig. (1-
sided)
Pearson Chi-Square .087a 1 .768
Continuity
Correctionb
.000 1 1.000
Likelihood Ratio .087 1 .768
Fisher's Exact Test .766 .501
N of Valid Cases 57
a. 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 5.53.
b. Computed only for a 2x2 table
Table H8. Crosstabulation between School support of blog integration, willingness to use blogs, and
Training for blog use
School support of blog integration * Willingness to use blogs * Training for blog use
Crosstabulation
Count
Training for blog use
Willingness to use blogs
Total 1 2 3 4 5
Yes School support of blog
integration
Yes 8 4 1 1 1 15
No 1 1 3 1 0 6
Total 9 5 4 2 1 21
No School support of blog
integration
Yes 8 7 8 3 1 27
No 1 3 2 2 1 9
Total 9 10 10 5 2 36
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 147
Chi-Square Tests
Training for blog use Value Df
Asymp. Sig.
(2-sided)
Yes Pearson Chi-Square 6.599a 4 .159
Likelihood Ratio 6.573 4 .160
N of Valid Cases 21
No Pearson Chi-Square 2.459b 4 .652
Likelihood Ratio 2.481 4 .648
N of Valid Cases 36
a. 9 cells (90.0%) have expected count less than 5. The
minimum expected count is .29.
b. 7 cells (70.0%) have expected count less than 5. The
minimum expected count is .50.
Table H9. Crosstabulation between School support of other forms of ICT and Training for
other forms of ICT
School support of other forms of ICT * Training for other forms of ICT
Crosstabulation
Count
Training for other forms of
ICT
Total Yes No
School support of other
forms of ICT
Yes 18 29 47
No 3 7 10
Total 21 36 57
Chi-Square Tests
Value df
Asymp. Sig.
(2-sided)
Exact Sig. (2-
sided)
Exact Sig. (1-
sided)
Pearson Chi-Square .244a 1 .621
Continuity Correctionb .018 1 .894
Likelihood Ratio .250 1 .617
Fisher's Exact Test .730 .456
N of Valid Cases 57
a. 1 cells (25.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 3.68.
b. Computed only for a 2x2 table
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 148
Table H10. Central Tendency Measures for Importance of Metacognition
Importance of metacognition
Type of
Institution
Teaching
Experience Mean N Std. Deviation Kurtosis Variance Skewness
University 5 years or less 1.6000 5 .89443 .313 .800 1.258
6 - 10 years 1.6667 6 .81650 -.300 .667 .857
11 - 15 years 1.3750 8 .51755 -2.240 .268 .644
16 - 20 years 2.0000 5 1.41421 -1.750 2.000 .884
21 - 25 years 2.0000 3 1.00000 . 1.000 .000
26 - 30 years 1.5000 4 .57735 -6.000 .333 .000
31 years or more 1.0000 2 .00000 . .000 .
Total 1.6061 33 .82687 .788 .684 1.228
Secondary 5 years or less 2.2500 4 1.89297 2.615 3.583 1.659
6 - 10 years 1.8333 6 .98319 -2.390 .967 .456
11 - 15 years 1.2857 7 .48795 -.840 .238 1.230
16 - 20 years 1.2500 4 .50000 4.000 .250 2.000
21 - 25 years 1.0000 1 . . . .
26 - 30 years 1.0000 1 . . . .
31 years or more 3.0000 1 . . . .
Total 1.6250 24 1.01350 4.210 1.027 1.952
Total 5 years or less 1.8889 9 1.36423 3.033 1.861 1.771
6 - 10 years 1.7500 12 .86603 -1.446 .750 .567
11 - 15 years 1.3333 15 .48795 -1.615 .238 .788
16 - 20 years 1.6667 9 1.11803 1.257 1.250 1.533
21 - 25 years 1.7500 4 .95743 -1.289 .917 .855
26 - 30 years 1.4000 5 .54772 -3.333 .300 .609
31 years or more 1.6667 3 1.15470 . 1.333 1.732
Total 1.6140 57 .90147 2.696 .813 1.616
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 149
Table H11. Count Impact of Reflection on Teaching by Education Level
Impact of Reflection on Teaching
Creation of
meaningful
activities
Better
curriculum
design
Better
decision
making
Affects
the whole
process Total
Count Count Count Count Count
Type
of
Inst
ituti
on U
niv
ersi
ty
Ed
uca
tio
n L
evel
Bachelor's 3 2 3 0 6
Master's 18 9 9 1 24
Teacher Certification 1 0 1 0 1
Doctorate 1 1 0 0 1
Diplomado/Specialty 0 0 0 0 0
Total 23 12 13 1 32
Sec
ondar
y
Educa
tion L
evel
Bachelor's 6 3 3 0 7
Master's 5 3 3 0 7
Teacher Certification 6 3 4 0 7
Doctorate 0 0 0 0 0
Diplomado/Specialty 1 2 1 0 2
Total 18 11 11 0 23
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 150
Table H12. Central Tendency Measures for Willingness to Use Blogs by Education Level
Willingness to use blogs
Mean Median Mode
Minimu
m
Maximu
m Range
Standard
Deviation
Type
of
Inst
ituti
on
Un
iver
sity
Ed
uca
tio
n L
evel
Bachelor's 3.00 3.00 3 1 5 4 1.26
Master's 2.24 2.00 1 1 5 4 1.16
Teacher
Certification 4.00 4.00 4 4 4 0 .
Doctorate 1.00 1.00 1 1 1 0 .
Total 2.39 2.00 1 1 5 4 1.22
Sec
ondar
y
Educa
tion L
evel
Bachelor's 1.63 1.50 1 1 3 2 0.74
Master's 2.43 2.00 1 1 4 3 1.27
Teacher
Certification 2.86 3.00 2 1 5 4 1.35
Diplomado/Specialt
y 2.00 2.00 1 1 3 2 1.41
Total 2.25 2.00 1 1 5 4 1.19
Tota
l
Educa
tion L
evel
Bachelor's 2.21 2.00 1 1 5 4 1.19
Master's 2.28 2.00 1 1 5 4 1.17
Teacher
Certification 3.00 3.00 2 1 5 4 1.31
Doctorate 1.00 1.00 1 1 1 0 .
Diplomado/Specialt
y 2.00 2.00 1 1 3 2 1.41
Total 2.33 2.00 1 1 5 4 1.20
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 151
Table H13. Central Tendency Measures for Willingness to Use Blogs by Teaching
Experience
Willingness to use blogs
Mean Median Mode Minimum Maximum
Standard
Deviation
Type
of
Inst
ituti
on
Univ
ersi
ty
Tea
chin
g E
xp
erie
nce
5 years or less 2.80 3.00 1 1 5 2
6 - 10 years 2.50 3.00 3 1 3 1
11 - 15 years 1.75 1.50 1 1 3 1
16 - 20 years 2.60 2.00 2 1 4 1
21 - 25 years 3.33 3.00 2 2 5 2
26 - 30 years 2.25 2.00 2 1 4 1
31 years or more 2.00 2.00 1 1 3 1
Total 2.39 2.00 1 1 5 1
Sec
ondar
y
Tea
chin
g E
xp
erie
nce
5 years or less 2.00 1.50 1 1 4 1
6 - 10 years 2.50 2.50 2 1 4 1
11 - 15 years 2.14 2.00 2 1 4 1
16 - 20 years 1.50 1.00 1 1 3 1
21 - 25 years 2.00 2.00 2 2 2 .
26 - 30 years 3.00 3.00 3 3 3 .
31 years or more 5.00 5.00 5 5 5 .
Total 2.25 2.00 1 1 5 1
Tota
l
Tea
chin
g E
xp
erie
nce
5 years or less 2.44 2.00 1 1 5 2
6 - 10 years 2.50 3.00 3 1 4 1
11 - 15 years 1.93 2.00 1 1 4 1
16 - 20 years 2.11 2.00 1 1 4 1
21 - 25 years 3.00 2.50 2 2 5 1
26 - 30 years 2.40 2.00 2 1 4 1
31 years or more 3.00 3.00 1 1 5 2
Total 2.33 2.00 1 1 5 1
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 152
Table H14. Central Tendency Measures for Willingness to Use Blogs by Teaching Area
Willingness to use blogs
Mean Median Mode Min Max
Standard
Deviation
Type
of
Inst
ituti
on
University Teaching
Area
English Language 2.14 2.00 2 1 4 1
Content Area 2.29 3.00 1 1 4 1
Both 2.67 2.00 2 1 5 1
Secondary Teaching
Area
English Language 2.43 3.00 1 1 5 2
Content Area 2.13 2.00 1 1 4 1
Both 2.22 2.00 2 1 4 1
Total Teaching
Area
English Language 2.29 2.00 1 1 5 1
Content Area 2.23 2.50 1 1 4 1
Both 2.48 2.00 2 1 5 1
Table H15. Central Tendency Measures for Willingness to Use Blogs by Reflection Impact
on Learning
Willingness to use blogs
Mean Median Mode Minimum Maximum
Standard
Deviation
Type of
Institution
University RefImpLearn Yes 2.37 2.00 1 1 5 1
No 3.00 3.00 3 3 3 .
Secondary RefImpLearn Yes 2.26 2.00 1 1 5 1
No 2.00 2.00 2 2 2 .
Total RefImpLearn Yes 2.33 2.00 1 1 5 1
No 2.50 2.50 2 2 3 1
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 153
Table H16. Central Tendency Measures for Willingness to Use Blogs by Sex
Willingness to use blogs
Mean Median Mode Minimum Maximum
Standard
Deviation
Type of
Institution
University Sex Male 2.93 3.00 3 1 5 1
Female 2.00 2.00 1 1 4 1
Secondary Sex Male 2.33 2.00 2 2 3 1
Female 2.24 2.00 1 1 5 1
Total Sex Male 2.82 3.00 3 1 5 1
Female 2.13 2.00 1 1 5 1
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 154
Table H17. Central Tendency Measures for Willingness to Use Blogs by Age
Willingness to use blogs
Mean Median Mode Minimum Maximum
Standard
Deviation
Type of
Institution
University Age 30 or less . . . . . .
31 - 35 2.40 3.00 1 1 4 1
36 - 40 2.40 2.00 1 1 5 1
41 - 45 1.80 2.00 1 1 3 1
46 - 50 2.50 3.00 3 1 3 1
51 and above 2.67 2.00 2 1 5 1
Secondary Age 30 or less 2.14 2.00 1 1 4 1
31 - 35 2.33 2.00 2 1 4 1
36 - 40 2.00 2.00 1 1 3 1
41 - 45 1.50 1.50 1 1 2 1
46 - 50 2.33 3.00 3 1 3 1
51 and above 5.00 5.00 5 5 5 .
Total Age 30 or less 2.14 2.00 1 1 4 1
31 - 35 2.36 2.00 1 1 4 1
36 - 40 2.27 2.00 1 1 5 1
41 - 45 1.71 2.00 1 1 3 1
46 - 50 2.43 3.00 3 1 3 1
51 and above 2.90 2.50 2 1 5 2
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 155
Table H18. Central Tendency Measures for Willingness to Use Blogs by Area of Degree
Willingness to use blogs
Mean Median Mode Minimum Maximum
Standard
Deviation
Type of
Institution
University Area of
Degree
Education 1.80 2.00 2 1 4 1
Business 3.00 3.00 3 1 5 1
Law 1.00 1.00 1 1 1 .
Languages and
Linguistics 5.00 5.00 5 5 5 .
Social labor 1.00 1.00 1 1 1 .
Secondary Area of
Degree
Education 2.00 2.00 2 1 4 1
Business 2.67 3.00 1 1 4 2
Languages and
Linguistics 2.25 2.00 1 1 4 2
Graphic Design 2.00 2.00 2 2 2 .
Environmental
Engineering 2.00 2.00 2 2 2 .
Liberal Arts 1.00 1.00 1 1 1 .
English 4.00 4.00 3 3 5 1
Total Area of
Degree
Education 1.89 2.00 2 1 4 1
Business 2.94 3.00 3 1 5 1
Law 1.00 1.00 1 1 1 .
Languages and
Linguistics 2.80 3.00 1 1 5 2
Graphic Design 2.00 2.00 2 2 2 .
Environmental
Engineering 2.00 2.00 2 2 2 .
Liberal Arts 1.00 1.00 1 1 1 .
English 4.00 4.00 3 3 5 1
Social labor 1.00 1.00 1 1 1 .
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 156
Table H19. Central Tendency Measures for Importance of Metacognition by Sex
Importance of metacognition
Mean Median Mode Minimum Maximum
Standard
Deviation
Type of
Institution
University Sex Male 1.79 2.00 2.00 1.00 3.00 .70
Female 1.47 1.00 1.00 1.00 4.00 .90
Secondary Sex Male 2.00 2.00 1.00 1.00 3.00 1.00
Female 1.57 1.00 1.00 1.00 5.00 1.03
Total Sex Male 1.82 2.00 2.00 1.00 3.00 .73
Female 1.53 1.00 1.00 1.00 5.00 .96
Table H20. Central Tendency Measures for Importance of Metacognition by Age
Importance of metacognition
Mean Median Mode Minimum Maximum
Standard
Deviation
Type of
Institution
University Age 30 or less . . . . . .
31 - 35 1.60 1.00 1.00 1.00 4.00 1.34
36 - 40 1.60 1.00 1.00 1.00 3.00 .84
41 - 45 1.60 2.00 2.00 1.00 2.00 .55
46 - 50 2.00 2.00 1.00 1.00 3.00 1.15
51 and above 1.44 1.00 1.00 1.00 2.00 .53
Secondary Age 30 or less 2.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 5.00 1.53
31 - 35 1.50 1.50 1.00 1.00 2.00 .55
36 - 40 1.20 1.00 1.00 1.00 2.00 .45
41 - 45 2.00 2.00 1.00 1.00 3.00 1.41
46 - 50 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 .00
51 and above 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 .
Total Age 30 or less 2.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 5.00 1.53
31 - 35 1.55 1.00 1.00 1.00 4.00 .93
36 - 40 1.47 1.00 1.00 1.00 3.00 .74
41 - 45 1.71 2.00 1.00 1.00 3.00 .76
46 - 50 1.57 1.00 1.00 1.00 3.00 .98
51 and above 1.60 1.50 1.00 1.00 3.00 .70
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 157
Table H21. Central Tendency Measures for Importance of Metacognition by Education Level
Importance of metacognition
Mean Median Mode Minimum Maximum
Standard
Deviation
Type of
Institution
University Education
Level
Bachelor's 1.50 1.00 1.00 1.00 3.00 .84
Master's 1.60 1.00 1.00 1.00 4.00 .82
Teacher
Certification 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 .
Doctorate 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 .
Diplomado/S
pecialty . . . . . .
Secondary Education
Level
Bachelor's 1.50 1.00 1.00 1.00 3.00 .76
Master's 1.29 1.00 1.00 1.00 3.00 .76
Teacher
Certification 2.14 2.00 1.00 1.00 5.00 1.46
Doctorate . . . . . .
Diplomado/S
pecialty 1.50 1.50 1.00 1.00 2.00 .71
Total Education
Level
Bachelor's 1.50 1.00 1.00 1.00 3.00 .76
Master's 1.53 1.00 1.00 1.00 4.00 .80
Teacher
Certification 2.25 2.00 1.00 1.00 5.00 1.39
Doctorate 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 .
Diplomado/S
pecialty 1.50 1.50 1.00 1.00 2.00 .71
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 158
Table H22. Central Tendency Measures for Importance of Metacognition by Teaching
Experience
Importance of metacognition
Mean Median Mode Minimum Maximum
Standard
Deviation
Type of
Institution
University Teaching
Experience
5 years or less 1.60 1.00 1.00 1.00 3.00 .89
6 - 10 years 1.67 1.50 1.00 1.00 3.00 .82
11 - 15 years 1.38 1.00 1.00 1.00 2.00 .52
16 - 20 years 2.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 4.00 1.41
21 - 25 years 2.00 2.00 1.00 1.00 3.00 1.00
26 - 30 years 1.50 1.50 1.00 1.00 2.00 .58
31 years or more 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 .00
Secondary Teaching
Experience
5 years or less 2.25 1.50 1.00 1.00 5.00 1.89
6 - 10 years 1.83 1.50 1.00 1.00 3.00 .98
11 - 15 years 1.29 1.00 1.00 1.00 2.00 .49
16 - 20 years 1.25 1.00 1.00 1.00 2.00 .50
21 - 25 years 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 .
26 - 30 years 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 .
31 years or more 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 .
Total Teaching
Experience
5 years or less 1.89 1.00 1.00 1.00 5.00 1.36
6 - 10 years 1.75 1.50 1.00 1.00 3.00 .87
11 - 15 years 1.33 1.00 1.00 1.00 2.00 .49
16 - 20 years 1.67 1.00 1.00 1.00 4.00 1.12
21 - 25 years 1.75 1.50 1.00 1.00 3.00 .96
26 - 30 years 1.40 1.00 1.00 1.00 2.00 .55
31 years or more 1.67 1.00 1.00 1.00 3.00 1.15
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Table H23. Correlation between Reflection Improves Learning and Sex
RefImpLearn
Yes No
Count Column N % Count Column N %
Type of
Institution
University Sex Male 13 40.6% 1 100.0%
Female 19 59.4% 0 .0%
Secondary Sex Male 2 8.7% 1 100.0%
Female 21 91.3% 0 .0%
Total Sex Male 15 27.3% 2 100.0%
Female 40 72.7% 0 .0%
Table H24. Correlation between Reflection Improves Learning and Age
RefImpLearn
Yes No
Count Column N % Count Column N %
Type of
Institution
University Age 30 or less 0 .0% 0 .0%
31 - 35 5 15.6% 0 .0%
36 - 40 10 31.3% 0 .0%
41 - 45 5 15.6% 0 .0%
46 - 50 3 9.4% 1 100.0%
51 and above 9 28.1% 0 .0%
Secondary Age 30 or less 6 26.1% 1 100.0%
31 - 35 6 26.1% 0 .0%
36 - 40 5 21.7% 0 .0%
41 - 45 2 8.7% 0 .0%
46 - 50 3 13.0% 0 .0%
51 and above 1 4.3% 0 .0%
Total Age 30 or less 6 10.9% 1 50.0%
31 - 35 11 20.0% 0 .0%
36 - 40 15 27.3% 0 .0%
41 - 45 7 12.7% 0 .0%
46 - 50 6 10.9% 1 50.0%
51 and above 10 18.2% 0 .0%
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Table H25. Correlation between Reflection Improves Learning and Education Level
RefImpLearn
Yes No
Count Column N % Count Column N %
Type of
Institution
University Education
Level
Bachelor's 6 18.8% 0 .0%
Master's 24 75.0% 1 100.0%
Teacher Certification 1 3.1% 0 .0%
Doctorate 1 3.1% 0 .0%
Diplomado/Specialty 0 .0% 0 .0%
Secondary Education
Level
Bachelor's 7 30.4% 1 100.0%
Master's 7 30.4% 0 .0%
Teacher Certification 7 30.4% 0 .0%
Doctorate 0 .0% 0 .0%
Diplomado/Specialty 2 8.7% 0 .0%
Total Education
Level
Bachelor's 13 23.6% 1 50.0%
Master's 31 56.4% 1 50.0%
Teacher Certification 8 14.5% 0 .0%
Doctorate 1 1.8% 0 .0%
Diplomado/Specialty 2 3.6% 0 .0%
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 161
Table H26. Correlation between Reflection Improves Learning and Teaching Experience
RefImpLearn
Yes No
Count
Column N
% Count Column N %
Type of
Institution
University Teaching
Experience
5 years or less 5 15.6% 0 .0%
6 - 10 years 6 18.8% 0 .0%
11 - 15 years 8 25.0% 0 .0%
16 - 20 years 5 15.6% 0 .0%
21 - 25 years 2 6.3% 1 100.0%
26 - 30 years 4 12.5% 0 .0%
31 years or more 2 6.3% 0 .0%
Secondary Teaching
Experience
5 years or less 4 17.4% 0 .0%
6 - 10 years 5 21.7% 1 100.0%
11 - 15 years 7 30.4% 0 .0%
16 - 20 years 4 17.4% 0 .0%
21 - 25 years 1 4.3% 0 .0%
26 - 30 years 1 4.3% 0 .0%
31 years or more 1 4.3% 0 .0%
Total Teaching
Experience
5 years or less 9 16.4% 0 .0%
6 - 10 years 11 20.0% 1 50.0%
11 - 15 years 15 27.3% 0 .0%
16 - 20 years 9 16.4% 0 .0%
21 - 25 years 3 5.5% 1 50.0%
26 - 30 years 5 9.1% 0 .0%
31 years or more 3 5.5% 0 .0%
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 162
Table H27. Correlation between Reflection Improves Learning and Teaching Area
RefImpLearn
Yes No
Count
Column N
% Count
Column N
%
Type of
Institution
University Teaching
Area
English Language 7 21.9% 0 .0%
Content Area 14 43.8% 0 .0%
Both 11 34.4% 1 100.0%
Secondary Teaching
Area
English Language 7 30.4% 0 .0%
Content Area 8 34.8% 0 .0%
Both 8 34.8% 1 100.0%
Total Teaching
Area
English Language 14 25.5% 0 .0%
Content Area 22 40.0% 0 .0%
Both 19 34.5% 2 100.0%
Table H28. Descriptive Statistics for Student Reaction to Blogs for Reflection by Institution
Type
Student reaction to blogs for reflection
Valid N Minimum Maximum Mean Mode
Standard
Deviation
Type of
Institution
University 33 1 5 2.42 2 1.173
Secondary 24 1 4 2.46 3 .932
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Table H29. Descriptive Statistics for Usefulness of Metacognitive Strategies by Institution
Type
Type of Institution
University Secondary
Min Max Mean
Standard
Deviation Min Max Mean
Standard
Deviation
Willingness to learn 1 2 1.21 .42 1 2 1.25 .44
Understanding importance
of learning 1 4 1.55 .71 1 3 1.42 .58
Setting objectives 1 3 1.45 .62 1 3 1.50 .72
Selecting information
sources 1 3 1.85 .76 1 3 1.75 .68
Taking notes 1 5 2.15 .91 1 4 2.04 .69
Identifying main ideas 1 3 1.42 .75 1 4 1.62 .82
Using textbooks
adequately 1 4 1.97 .85 1 4 2.00 .88
Organizing knowledge
graphically 1 4 1.85 .91 1 3 1.96 .75
Using memorizing
techniques 1 5 2.39 1.09 1 5 2.87 1.15
Knowing own mental
processes 1 4 1.45 .71 1 3 1.42 .58
Using strategies to
improve 1 4 1.55 .79 1 3 1.50 .66
Self-regulation 1 3 1.48 .71 1 3 1.50 .66
Controlling distractions 1 4 1.67 .96 1 3 1.75 .61
Being aware of strengths
and weaknesses 1 2 1.24 .44 1 3 1.50 .72
Changing strategies 1 3 1.24 .50 1 3 1.42 .58
Transferring knowledge
and strategies 1 5 1.67 .92 1 4 1.75 .79
Self-assessing 1 2 1.39 .50 1 3 1.33 .56
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 164
Table H30. Reasons for Student Reaction towards Using Blogs for Reflection Frequencies
Responses Percent of
Cases N Percent
Reasons for Student
Reactiona
Enjoy using technology 37 37.4% 64.9%
Enjoy reflecting 10 10.1% 17.5%
Appreciate space for
expression 18 18.2% 31.6%
Reluctance to use ICT
for academic purposes 8 8.1% 14.0%
Not enthusiastic about
their learning process 8 8.1% 14.0%
Time consuming 17 17.2% 29.8%
Prefer blogging over
other assignments 1 1.0% 1.8%
Total 99 100.0% 173.7%
a. Dichotomy group tabulated at value 1.
Table H31. Willingness to Use Blogs Frequencies
Willingness to use blogs
Frequency Percent Valid Percent
Cumulative
Percent
Valid 1 18 31.6 31.6 31.6
2 15 26.3 26.3 57.9
3 14 24.6 24.6 82.5
4 7 12.3 12.3 94.7
5 3 5.3 5.3 100.0
Total 57 100.0 100.0
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 165
Table H32. Reasons for Willingness to Use Blogs
Frequencies
Responses Percent of
Cases N Percent
Rea
sons
Wil
lingnes
s
Blo
gsa
Facilitators of learning processes 28 30.4% 50.0%
Valuable tool 32 34.8% 57.1%
Time consuming 16 17.4% 28.6%
Similar to other tools 9 9.8% 16.1%
Not liked by students 4 4.3% 7.1%
Reluctance to rely on online interactions 2 2.2% 3.6%
Focus on content 1 1.1% 1.8%
Total 92 100.0% 164.3%
a. Dichotomy group tabulated at value 1.
BLOGS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 166
Appendix I
SUMMARY FIGURES
Figure I1. Sample Distribution by type of Institution
Figure I2. Sample Distribution by Sex and Type of Institution
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Figure I3. Sample Distribution by Age Categories (Total and by Institution Type)
Figure I4. Sample Distribution by Education Level (Total and by Institution Type)
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Figure I5. Sample by Educational Background (Total and by Institution Type)
Figure I6. Sample by Teaching Experience (Total and by Institution Type)
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Figure I7. Sample by Type of Teaching (Total and by Type of Institution)
Figure I8. Frequency of Reflection by Type of Institution
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Figure I9. Purpose of Using Reflective Practice (Total and by Institution Type)
Figure I10. Impact of Reflective Practice on Teaching (Total and by Institution Type)
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Figure I11. Skill for Life Beyond School by Institution Type
Figure I12. Beliefs on metacognition
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Figure I13. Blog Use (Total and by Institution Type)
Figure I14. Means and modes for Attitudes towards Blogging for Reflection
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Figure I15. School Support of Blog Integration
Figure I16. Training for Blog Use
Have you received any training regarding blogs in in-service professional development programs?
Does your school support the integration of blogs?
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Figure I17. School Support of other ICT Forms
Figure I18. Training for Other ICT Forms
Have you received any training regarding other forms of ICT in in-service professional development programs?
Does your school support the integration of other forms of ICT?
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Figure I19. ICT Used by Teachers
Figure I20. Blog Use for Reflective Learning (Total and by Institution Type)
Which forms of ICT?
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Figure I21. Reasons to use Blogs for Reflective Learning
Figure I22. Reasons not to use Blogs for Reflective Learning
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Figure I23. Blog Use for Metacognitive Learning (Total and by Institution Type)
Figure 24. Ways to Use Blogs for Metacognitive Learning
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