peer influences and the paradox of adolescent socialization joe allen university of virginia

Peer Influences and The Paradox of Adolescent Socialization

Joe Allen

University of Virginia

Copies of related papers are available at:WWW.TEENRESEARCH.ORG

How Do We Socialize Our Youth?

How Do We Turn Our Young People

From Dependent Children Into Productive Adults

Or Fail to Do So…

Why It Matters: The Social Security Problem

Historical Trends and Projections

Ratio of Workers : Retirees

1930’s: 10 : 1

1970’s: 6 : 1

Currently: 3.4 : 1

2029: 2 : 1

Social Security Administration, 2008

Adolescents are Largely Socialized by Their Peers

Time spent interacting in give and take with peers/week:

60 hours

Time spent interacting in give and take with adults/week:

16 hours

100 years ago this ratio was

Exactly Reversed

(Steinberg, 2008)

Why It Matters: Age Trends in Property Crime In U.S.

(Uniform Crime Reports, 2008)Age

Annual Incidence per 1000 Individuals

Why It Matters: Age Trends in Violent Crime In U.S.

(Uniform Crime Reports, 2008)

Age

Annual Incidence per 1000 Individuals

Why it Matters: Peaking Rates of Peer-Linked Problems

Delinquency

Unwanted pregnancy

Alcohol & Drug Abuse

School Dropout

Why It Matters: Effects of Lack of Peers

Effects of Social Rejection

Depression and/or Aggression

Effects of Social Isolation

Long-term physical implications

Meta-analysis: James House, Science, 1988:

The risks of social isolation for early mortality…are greater than the risks from cigarette smoking.”

Dylan Klebold and Eric HarrisColumbine High School

Three Questions

1. Is There Continuity from Parent to Peer Relationships?

2. Is there a safe route through the minefield of peer relationships in adolescence?

3. Why not?

…and What can we do about it?

Three Questions

1. Is There Continuity from Parent to Peer Relationships?

What to Focus Upon?

ArgumentsAffection

Affiliation

Consensus

Yelling

Pressure

Anger

Shared Activities

Time Spent Together

A Developmental Task Approach

Identifying the key tasks of adolescent social development

One set of key tasks:

Establishing Autonomy in Relationships while

Maintaining a Sense of Connection or Relatedness

See-saw Model of Autonomy & Relatedness

Autonomy Relatedness

Ideal BalancePoint

Orthogonal Model of Autonomy & RelatednessAutonomy

Relatedness

AutonomousRelatedness

Assessing Autonomy and Relatedness

Video of two individuals handling disagreements.

Autonomous Behaviors:Focus on reasoning and persuasion

Relatedness-Promoting Behaviors:Acknowledging other’s points; validating; carefully listening.

Behaviors Undermining AutonomyEnmeshing, overpersonalizing, pressuring behavior

Behaviors Undermining RelatednessRudeness and hostility

Two Samples Harvard Adolescent to Adult Development Study

145 Adolescents and Parents observed age 14-18 Adolescents followed up at age 25 Upper Middle-class Very Low Attrition (2% by age 25)

Virginia Institute of Development in Adulthood Study 184 Adolescents, their Parents, Best Friends, and Other Friends Intensive Annual Interviews and Observations (Total N over first 10

years ~ 1600). Socio-economically & Racially Diverse Very Low Attrition from age 13 to 21 (< 1%)

Continuity from Parents to Peers How does one negotiate disagreements with a best

friend?

Teen Autonomy with Best Friend

.27***

(McElhaney et al., 2008)

Age 14 Age 16

-.22*Maternal Psychological

Control (Reported)

Mother Undermines Teen Autonomy

(Observed)

-.24**

Teen Autonomy with Best Friend

R2 = .23***

Popularity/likeability

Preference-based popularity/likeability Number of peers in your school who name a teen as someone

with whom they would like to spend time together. Actually being “liked”

…as opposed to: Social Status

Being “looked up to” Who teens think is popular (not necessarily who they like)

We focus on preference-based popularity/likeability.

Popularity Do Others Name a Teen as Being LIKED?

Teen Popularity

Teen Popularity

.74***

(McFarland, Schmidt, Kaufmann, & Allen, 2003)

Age 13 Age 14

.21**Fathers’ Promotion of Teen Autonomy

& Relatedness

Hostility in the Long Run

Hostility with Father (obs’d)

Hostility (Peer-reported)

.40*

(Allen et al., Development & Psychopathology, 2002)

Age 16 Age 25

Fathers’ Hostility to Teen

.32*

Fathers’ Undermining Teen

Autonomy

.50***

R2 = .280**

Attachment Security

Attachment Security

Observed Peer Engagement in

Supportive Behavior

.43***

Age 14 Ages 15-17

Secure teens are better able to engage their friends’ support.

Three Questions

1. Is There Continuity from Parent to Peer Relationships?

YES.

2. Is there a safe route through the minefield of teen peer relationships?

3. Why not?

…and What can we do about it?

Three Questions

1. Is There Continuity from Parent to Peer Relationships?

2. Is there a safe route through the minefield of teen peer relationships?

3. Why not?

…and What can we do about it?

Short-term Correlates of Popularity/Likeability at Age 13

Higher Quality Close Friendships Higher Quality Interactions with Parents Higher Ego Development Greater Attachment Security No negative correlates whatsoever at age 13

(Allen et al., 2005, Child Development)

Predictions from Popularity & Social Acceptance

Withdrawal (Peer Report)

.24*

-.23**

(McElhaney, Antonishak, & Allen, Child Development, 2008)

Age 13 Age 14

-.19*R2 = .19**

Popularity(Sociometric)

Felt Acceptance(Self-report)

Withdrawal (Peer Report)

Close Friendship Quality

(Chango et al., 2009)

Age 13 Age 18 Age 20Close Friendship

QualityClose Friendship

Quality

Undermining Autonomy

With Close Friend

DepressiveSymptoms

DepressiveSymptoms

DepressiveSymptoms

-.02

-.19*

.28***

.29***

.12+

-.22**

.27***

-.22**-.21*

Predicting Friendship Quality & Depression

Predicting Early Sexual Activity

Autonomy Struggles with Mother(Observed)

Early Initiation of Sexual

Intercourse

.21*

(Rosenbaum, et al., under review)

Age 13 Age 16

-.33*

Companionship with Same Gender Close

Friend (Friend report)

Maternal Emotional Support (Tn. Report)

-.23*

y1 y2 y3 y4

Δx2

Δy2 Δy3 Δy4

Δx3 Δx4

y1 y2 y3 y4

x1 x2 x3 x4

x1 x2 x3 x4

Kxs

ys

x0

y0

y0*

ys*

xs*

x0*

ex

ey

γy γy γy γx γx γx

βx βx βx

βy βy βy

αy

αx

σx0,ys

σy0,xs

σx0,y0

Warmth with Close Friend

Aggression

13 14 15 16AGE:

Warmth & Aggression: ALatent Difference Score Model

Warmth & Connectio

nwith

Friend

Teen aggression

ΔTeenaggression

-.34*

-.43*

ΔWarmth &

Connection

with Friend

Warmth and adolescent aggression

CFI=.95, RMSEA=.03

Less Warmth with a Friend Predicts Increasing Aggression

Over Time

(Antonishak & Allen, 2006, Society for Research in Adolescence)

Being Well-Socialized With One’s Peers Seems Like

a Great Thing…

But What Does It Mean to be Well-socialized by a Group of

Early Adolescents?

Risks for the Well-socialized Teen:The Popularity-Socialization Effect

Popular teens will be highly attuned to socializing influences within their peer group.

Popular teens will be highly attuned to socializing influences within their peer group.

This will reflect their advanced social development…

Risks for the Well-socialized Teen:The Popularity-Socialization Effect

Popular teens will be highly attuned to socializing influences within their peer group.

This will reflect their advanced social development…

but

The peer group may also socialize popular teens toward some deviant behaviors that are normative for early adolescents.

Risks for the Well-socialized Teen:The Popularity-Socialization Effect

Measures: Minor Delinquency• Self-report of Delinquency Scale (Elliott, Huizinga, & Menard,

1989)

• Items include:• shoplifting items worth less than $50• sneaking into a movie theater without paying• minor vandalism

• Estimated costs of shoplifting: $25 million per day.

• Some retail stores catering to young shoppers experiencing ‘shrinkage’ rates approaching 20% of their sales.

Changing Levels of Deviant Behavior

Changing Levels of Deviant Behavior

MinorDelinquency

Minor Delinquency

Popularity

Age 13 Age 14

.23**

.42***

Predicting Relative Changes in Minor Delinquency From Baseline Popularity

Popular teens show greater relative increases in minor delinquency from 13 to 14.

(Allen, Porter, McFarland, Marsh & McElhaney, 2005, Child Development)

Popularity

ns

-0.3

-0.2

-0.1

0.0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

Relative Change in Minor Deviant Behavior

High PopularityLow Popularity

Low High

Interaction of Popularity and Peer Values Predicting Change in Minor Delinquency (Age 13 to 14)

(Allen, Porter, McFarland, Marsh & McElhaney, 2005, Child Development)

Peer Valuing of MisconductAge 13

For Less Popular teens:Slight increase in

deviance over time if peers value misbehavior

-0.3

-0.2

-0.1

0.0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

Relative Change in Minor Deviant Behavior

High PopularityLow Popularity

Low High

Interaction of Popularity and Peer Values Predicting Change in Minor Delinquency (Age 13 to 14)

(Allen, Porter, McFarland, Marsh & McElhaney, 2005, Child Development)

Peer Valuing of MisconductAge 13

Peer values predict delinquency most

strongly among popular teens.

If Socialization Depends upon what’s valued by peers…

What about misbehavior that isn’t valued within the peer group.

Serious Delinquency

Serious Delinquency

Popularity

Age 13 Age 14

Predicting Changes in Self-reportedSerious Delinquency from Popularity

.04ns

.48***

Popular kids do NOT show relative increases in levels of serious criminal behavior over time.

(Allen, Porter, McFarland, Marsh & McElhaney, 2005, Child Development)

Hostility Hostility

Popularity

Age 13 Age 14

Predicting Changes in Peer-reportedHostility from Popularity

-.16*

.26***

Popular teens become less hostile over time. Sometimes Peer Socialization is a Good Thing!

(Allen, Porter, McFarland, Marsh & McElhaney, 2005, Child Development)

Changing Levels of Deviant Behavior

?

Changing Levels of Deviant Behavior

Changing Levels of Deviant Behavior

Changing Levels of Deviant Behavior

Socialization has Worked Out OK in the End for Popular Teens

At least for delinquency

What about other behaviors?

Measures: Alcohol & Marijuana Use• Self-reported use in past six months of alcohol and marijuana

(Elliott, Huizinga, & Menard, 1989)

• Estimated annual cost to society of teen alcohol use: $58 billion

• 20% of teen drivers admit to driving within an hour of smoking marijuana

• 29% of teens have driven in a car within the past month with someone who had been drinking.

• Alcohol use accounts for > ¼ of all teen automobile crash fatalities.

9%

7%0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20% Youths Trying Alcohol or Marijuana

PopularLess Popular

Change in Percentage of Youths Who Have Recently Used Alcohol/Marijuana

(Allen & Antonishak, 2008)

26%

9%

9%

7%0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20% Youths Trying Alcohol or Marijuana

PopularLess Popular

Change in Percentage of Youths Who Have Recently Used Alcohol/Marijuana

(Allen & Antonishak, 2008)

26%

42%

9%

23%9%

7%0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20% Youths Trying Alcohol or Marijuana

PopularLess Popular

Change in Percentage of Youths Who Have Recently Used Alcohol/Marijuana

(Allen & Antonishak, 2008)

26%

42%

52%

9%

23%9%

7%

29%

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20% Youths Trying Alcohol or Marijuana

PopularLess Popular

Change in Percentage of Youths Who Have Recently Used Alcohol/Marijuana

(Allen & Antonishak, 2008)

26%

42%

52% 52%

9%

23%9%

7%

34%29%

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20% Youths Trying Alcohol or Marijuana

PopularLess Popular

Change in Percentage of Youths Who Have Recently Used Alcohol/Marijuana

(Allen & Antonishak, 2008)

26%

42%

52% 52%

68%

9%

23%

36%

9%

7%

34%29%

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20% Youths Trying Alcohol or Marijuana

PopularLess Popular

Change in Percentage of Youths Who Have Recently Used Alcohol/Marijuana

(Allen & Antonishak, 2008)

0.300.42

0.79

1.38

1.75

0.12

0.31

0.90

0.13

0.07

0.91

0.37

0.00

0.50

1.00

1.50

2.00

2.50

13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

Frequency of Use

PopularLess Popular

Frequency of Alcohol Use in Past Month

(Allen & Antonishak, 2008)

0.30 0.420.79

1.381.75

0.12 0.310.900.13

0.07

0.910.370.00

1.00

2.00

3.00

4.00

5.00

6.00

7.00

8.00

9.00

13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

Frequency of Use

PopularLess Popular

Frequency of Alcohol Use in Past Month

(Allen & Antonishak, 2008)

0.30 0.420.79

1.381.75

2.27

0.12 0.310.90

1.760.13

0.07

0.910.370.00

1.00

2.00

3.00

4.00

5.00

6.00

7.00

8.00

9.00

13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

Frequency of Use

PopularLess Popular

Frequency of Alcohol Use in Past Month

(Allen & Antonishak, 2008)

0.30 0.420.79

1.381.75

2.27

7.74

0.12 0.310.90

1.76

4.7

0.13

0.07

0.910.370.00

1.00

2.00

3.00

4.00

5.00

6.00

7.00

8.00

9.00

13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

Frequency of Use

PopularLess Popular

Frequency of Alcohol Use in Past Month

(Allen & Antonishak, 2008)

Measures: Problems Related to Alcohol Use

• Self-report problems occurring with alcohol use (CORE Survey, Presley & Meilman, 1994)

• 19 problems:• driving under the influence • injuring others while drunk• arrests while drunk• Arguments while drunk• Hangovers• Missed work or school time

0.00

0.50

1.00

1.50

2.00

2.50

3.00

3.50

4.00

Popular Less Popular

Problems as a Result of Drinking

PopularLess Popular

Alcohol Problems (Age 19/20)

**

(Allen, Hare, & Miga, 2008)

Three Questions

1. Is There Continuity from Parent to Peer Relationships?

2. Is there a safe route through the minefield of teen peer relationships?

NO.

3. Why not?

…and What can we do about it?

Three Questions

1. Is There Continuity from Parent to Peer Relationships?

2. Is there a safe route through the minefield of teen peer relationships?

3. Why not?

…and What can we do about it?

The Socialization Paradox and The Development of Modern Adolescence

Key Features of Contemporary Adolescence

Lack of Contact with Adult world (60 hours with peers vs. 16 with adults)

Lack of Adult Independence

Lack of Adult Work

“The Bubble”

Adolescence Didn’t Used to Be This Way 150 years of gradual change

Gradual Increase in Age-segregation via Universal education “Without high schools, there would be no adolescents” –Hine

Role Transition from Essential To Dependent 19th century

Teenagers contributed 30% of Total Family Income Currently

60% still receiving support after age 23

28% after age 33 From 1970 to 1990:

50% increase in children age 20-26 living at home.

Adolescence Didn’t Used to Be This Way “The Electronic Tether” and Lack of Adult Status

# Parental Contacts/week as a Senior in College:University of Ohio & Middlebury College

13.2 Contacts/Week

(Kennedy & Hofer, 2007)

Adolescence Didn’t Used to Be This Way A new discipline in Developmental Psychology: The study of Emerging Adulthood Study of Ways Individuals in their Twenties:

Learn to act as adults Take on adult roles Become financially independent Learn to live on own Form long-term relationships

This used to be what happened in Adolescence.

Is 25 the New 15? The Endless Wait

What then happens between 15 and 25?

Lethargy and Lack of Motivation for some

Valuing Action and Excitement for Others

Lord of the Flies

Three Questions

1. Is There Continuity from Parent to Peer Relationships?

2. Is there a safe route through the minefield of teen peer relationships?

3. Why not?

…and What can we do about it?

Can Adolescence Really Be Different? 200 Years of Anthropological Research

Alice Schlegel & Herbert Barry Adolescence: An Anthropological Inquiry

186 Preindustrial societies over the past 200 years From Omaha Nebraska in 1854 … to Vietnam in 1930 …to

the Kurds in Iraq in 1950.

Adults as Principal Teen Companions

Reports of Adolescent Deviance

-.36*

Teens EngagedIn Productive

Work

Reports of Adolescent Deviance

-.59***

Ways Out

Bursting the Adolescent Bubble by Putting the Adulthood Back into Adolescence

Adult Roles Adult Connections Real Challenge and Feedback

Putting the Adulthood Back Into Adolescence

Teen Outreach Program Volunteer Community Service Working with Adults Engaged in Productive Adult-like activity One to two hours per week Evaluated over 10 years using a fully-randomized design

Entry to Exit Change in Problem Behaviors

(Allen & Philliber, 1997, Child Development)

Participation leads to 50% reductions in rates of school suspension, course failure, and teenage pregnancy

Conclusion: Bursting the bubble makes a large difference.

“… the Teen Outreach Program … appears to be the most effective deterrent to teenage pregnancy yet devised.”

Other Approaches

My Teaching Partner (Allen & Pianta, 2010) Helping teachers configure classrooms to be better attuned to adolescent socialization needs.

Career Academies (MDRC, 2007) – Linking academic curricula to careers for hi-risk youth

Bard College – College for High School students

Early College High School Initiative (Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, 2006)

Responding to the Unintended Consequences of Societal Progress

Sailors and Scurvy Solution: Vitamin C

Cars and Heart Disease Solution: Daily exercise

Processed Food and Cancer Solution: Dietary Fiber

Modern Adolescence…

Returning aspects of adulthood to teens’ lives may help remedy many of the problems we’d feared were just inherent to this period.

Collaborators & FundersKLIFF/VIDA Project:Maryfrances Porter, Ph.D.Amanda HareKathleen McElhaney, Ph.D.F. Christy McFarland, Ph.D.Jessica Meyer, Ph.D.National Institute of Mental HealthNational Institute of Child Health & Human Development

Farah Williams, Ph.D.Dave SzwedoErin MigaMeredyth EvansJill Antonishak, Ph.D.Amanda Letard

Claire StephensonMindy Schmidt, Ph.D.Glenda Insabella, Ph.D.Megan SchadJoanna ChangoJen HelisteKatie Higgins

Copies of related papers are available at:WWW.TEENRESEARCH.ORG

Harvard Adolescent Development ProjectStuart Hauser, M.D., Ph.D.Judy Crowell, M.D.Heidi Gralinski, Ph.D.Bob Waldinger, M.D.Marc Schulz, Ph.D.National Institute of Mental Health

Virginia Study of Teens & Families:Gabe Kuperminc, Ph.D. Steve Davis, Ph.D.Kathy Bell, Ph.D. Annalise Caron, Ph.D.Tom O’Connor, Ph.D. Glenda Insabella, Ph.D.William T. Grant FoundationSpencer Foundation

My Teaching PartnerBob Pianta, Ph.D.Janetta Lun, Ph.D.William T. Grant FoundationInstitute for Education Sciences

Teen Outreach ProgramSusan Philliber, Ph.D.Smith Richardson FoundationCharles Stewart Mott FoundationAssoc. of Junior Leagues Int’l

*And ~150 undergraduate RA’s

Random House, For Release in September 2009

Are Teen Problems Really Hardwired?

Evidence from History: Spinning SocratesOur youth now love luxury. They have bad manners, contempt for authority; They show disrespect for their elders and love chatter in place

of exercise; They no longer rise when elders enter the room; They contradict their parents, chatter before company; gobble up their food and tyrannize their teachers.

BUT…

Are Teen Problems Really Hardwired?

What was Really Said about Youth: (Aristotle)They look at the good side rather than the bad…They trust others readily… They are sanguine… They are shy, accepting the rules of society in which they have been trained… They have exalted notions, because they have not yet been humbled by life.

Can Adolescence Really Be Different? 200 Years of Anthropological Research

Alice Schlegel & Herbert Barry Adolescence: An Anthropological Inquiry

186 Preindustrial societies over the past 200 years From Omaha Nebraska in 1854 … to Vietnam in 1930 …to

the Kurds in Iraq in 1950.

Adults as Principal Teen Companions

Reports of Adolescent Deviance

-.36*

Teens EngagedIn Productive

Work

Reports of Adolescent Deviance

-.59***

Career Academies

Combine academic and technical curricula around a career theme

Partner with local employers to provide work-based learning opportunities

MDRC RTC evaluation (2008) Increased percentages of young people:

Living independently Sustained earnings gains of 11% over eight years

Similar long-term educational outcomes