nutrient dynamics in mangrove draft
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8/18/2019 Nutrient Dynamics in Mangrove Draft
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8/18/2019 Nutrient Dynamics in Mangrove Draft
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ABS+"AC+
Mangrove forests are highly productive coastal ecosystems confined to the intertidal
ons. !hey are considered the major conduits for tidal e"change of dissolved and
particulate matter bet#een the forest environment and adjacent coastal #aters as #ell
as net e"porters of organic matter and nutrients to the ocean$ caused by biological and
physical processes #ithin the forest ecosystem. %itrogen &hosphorus and sulfur are
some of the major macronutrient essential for the various biological activities$ hence
an effort has been made in present paper to e"plain their behavior in the mangrove
ecosystem. ' brief revie# of the behavior of heavy metal in the mangrove forest as
#ell as the capability of scavenging heavy metals has been attempted in present
paper.
%ey or$s: Mangrove, nutrient cycling , nitrogen , -hos-horus, heavy metals
#
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.N+"O*)C+.ON
Mangroves are intertidal forest ecosystems in sheltered saline to brackish
environments. !hey are among the most productive coastal ecosystems in the #orld$
confined to the tropics and subtropics$ #hich dominate appro"imately ()* of the
#orld+s coastline bet#een 2)o % and 2)o , and are estimated to cover an area of 1.( to
2.0 - 10) m2 /orges et al$ 2003. nder natural gro#ing conditions mangrove trees
are #ell adapted to both flooding and saline #ater. !hey are regarded not only as
sinks of sediment and nutrients$ but also as sources of organic matter of lo# nutrient
uality /oto$ 12. !hrough out #elling of leaf litter and dissolved organic matter$
these generally productive #etlands act as detritus sources to the adjacent oligotrophic
marine food #ebs$ supporting valuable estuarine and coastal fisheries /5ee$ 1) !he
mangrove sediments are characteried by high organic matter and ammonia contents
but lo# o"ygen content /Morell and 6orredor 13 and$ hence$ contributions of
nutrients$ organic matter and detritus to the nearby coastal ecosystem are high.
!he mangrove ecosystem as a #hole is net autotrophic$ but the #ater column
and the sediment are largely net heterotrophic$ due to three processes /7ennerjahn and
8ttekkot$ 2002.9
1. 'uatic primary production is limited by high turbidity in the #ater column as
#ell as due to canopy shado# and large changes in salinity:
2. ;ater column and sediments receive important uantities of leaf and #ood
litter from the overlying canopy:
3. <"port of labile organic carbon from mangroves to adjacent auatic systems$
although variable from one site to another$ can be lo#
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=ecent biogeochemical studies focused on tidal e"change bet#een #etland
vegetation and coastal #aters as #ell as nutrient recycling through sediment>#ater
interface. Most studies indicate some net e"port of detritus to the sea from salt
marshes /%i"on 1?0: ame and others 1?A and mangrove forests /oto and unt
1?1: Blores>Cergudo and others 1?(: ;olanski 1): ;afar et al$ 1(.
N)+".EN+ C/C.NG .N MANG"O0ES
Mangrove creeks are generally considered the major conduits for tidal
e"change of dissolved and particulate matter bet#een the forest environment and
adjacent coastal #aters: /=ivera > Monroy et al.$ 1). Most studies support the
contention that mangrove forests are net e"porters of organic matter and nutrients to
the ocean$ caused by biological and physical processes #ithin the forest ecosystem
/ Robertson, 1986; Dittmer & Lara, 2001. <"port of dissolved inorganic nutrients by
tidal #ater in mangrove forests #here the forest floor and creek bottoms are kno#n to
be sinks of these compounds /ristensen et al.$ 1): 'longi$ 1A suggests that
other mechanisms than diffusive flu" from sediments are also involved.
igure 1
!here are t#o interesting sources of nutrient in mangrove9
1. ,eepage of nutrient rich pore>#ater from creek banks during falling
tides$ and
2. Microbial mineraliation of nutrient containing organic matter in the
creek #ater itself.
'lthough pore>#ater seepage from creek banks is a potential source of
nutrients$ the volume of #ater passing through this path#ay is generally orders of
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magnitude smaller than the tidal transport. !his source can therefore only affect the
chemistry of creek #ater #hen the interstitial nutrient concentrations in creek banks
are very high. %evertheless$ 5ara D ittmar /1 suggested that most of the diurnal
nutrient oscillations in a railian mangrove creek are due to dilution of nutrient>rich
pore>#ater seeping from creek banks by a variable and tidal driven volume of oceanic
#ater. Eo#ever$ Eo#es D Foehringer /14 found that the nutrient levels in the
small amount of #ater seeping from creek banks in a %e# <ngland salt marsh are
insufficient to affect the concentration of both dissolved organic carbon and inorganic
nutrients significantly in tidal #aters.
Bollo#ing processes have been sho#n to regulate the sediment>#ater
e"change of nutrients9
/1 Molecular diffusion$ caused by a nutrient gradient at the
sediment>#ater interface /,#eerts et al.$ 11$
/2 Baunal activity$ such as ventilation or e"cretion /lackburn and
Eenriksen$ 1?3: =utgers van der 5oeff.$ 1?4: ristensen$ 1?): 1??$ and
/3 enthic algal uptake of nutrients /=ysgaard et al.$ 1).
enthic regeneration in transitional coastal environments is also the potential
source of nutrients to the overlying #aters /Eart#ig 1(A: Geitschel 1?0:. 'n
intertidal flat region$ #here the sediment is regularly e"posed and sufficient light
penetrates to the sediment$ has been reported to have characteristically high levels of
benthic microalgal biomass and productivity /6olijn and de 7onge$ 1?4: Carela and
&enas$ 1?). &hotosynthetic processes can result in large diurnal changes and affect
the nutrient cycle near the sediment surface due to algal demand.
MANG"O0E .++E" AN* "EEASE O N)+".EN+
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Mangrove forests are highly productive ecosystems$ #ith the net primary
production rates reaching as high as 20H)0 t 6 ha >1 year >1/6lough12$ 1(. 'lmost
one third of the net primary production can be lost as plant litter$ such as leaves and
t#igs$ and up to half of this litter is e"ported from mangrove creeks to adjacent
coastal #aters /=obertson et al.$ 12. !he e"port of such a large amount of organic
matter has a recogniable effect on the nutrition or biomass of consumer communities
in coastal #aters /Idum and Eeald$ 1(): 'longi 10$ although their uantitative
relationship is still to be established /aniel and =obertson$ 10: =obertson and
laber$ 12 ). !he amount of leaves decomposing in and on the forest floor is a
function of input /litter fall and import from adjacent areas and outputJremoval
/e"port by tides$ decomposition and removal by leaf>eating crabs. ecomposition
rates increase #ith humidity$ temperature$ and o"ygen availability and depend on the
composition of the organic matter /enner and Eodson$ 1?).!he e"port of plant
litter or macro>particulate matter from mangrove creeks is beyond doubt$ but no
general consensus has been reached for other materials$ such as nutrients and
dissolved and particulate organic matter /!#illey$ 1?): oto and ;ellington$ 1??:
;attayakorn et al.$ 10: Moran et al.$ 11: ,impson et al.$ 1(. !he presence or
absence of fresh#ater inputs into mangrove creeks seems to be an important factor
affecting the direction and magnitude of material flu"es /oto and ;ellington$ 1??:
=obertson et al.$ 12. Eo#ever$ inconsistencies amongst the published data may
have resulted from the differences of other characteristics$ such as tidal range$
geomorphology$ soil chemistry and mangrove plant biomass and community
structure.
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!he decomposition of plant litter typically occurs in three$ often>simultaneous
phases9
/1 &hysical and biological fragmentation$
/2 Microbial o"idation of refractory components such as cellulose and lignin$
and
/3 5eaching of soluble components /Caliela et al.$ 1?).
I"ygen penetration and thus aerobic decomposition processes in coastal
marine sediments are usually limited to the upper fe# millimetres /=evsbech et al.$
1?0: Eo#arth D 7Krgensen$ 1?4. elo# the o"ic one$ decomposition of organic
matter occurs by a variety of anaerobic processes /e.g. Fambrell D &atrick$ 1(?:
Mackin D ,#ider$ 1?. acterial respiration processes in marine sediments use I 2$
%I>3$ MnI2$ BeIIE$ ,I4>2 and 6I2 as electron acceptors /Benchel D lackburn$
1(. Macrophyte detritus$ e.g. from mangrove trees and saltmarsh grasses$ typically
has high 69% and 69& ratios /e.g. ristensen$ 10: uchsbaum et al.$ 11: ;afar et
al.$ 1( compared #ith the demands of decomposing bacteria /Benchel D
lackburn$ 1(. !herefore a rapid immobiliation of nutrients may occur during
decomposition in mangrove forest sediments /oto et al.$ 1?: 'longi$ 11: 14:
1A: ristensen et al.$ 1?$ and other sediments as #ell. 8mmobiliation due to
adsorption reactions in these sediments may further reduce the availability of
phosphorus /e.g. rom D erner$ 1?0: 6lough et al.$ 1?3: ,undby et al.$ 12 and
ammonium /Mackin D 'ller$ 1?4 in the pore#ater. !hus$ there is an increased
loading of phosphate and ammonium to the sediment. !he leaching phase of
mangrove leaf decomposition is characteried by a rapid loss of soluble organic
compounds /sugars$ organic acids$ proteins$ phenolics$ etc. and inorganic minerals
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/$ 6a$ Mg$ Mn$ etc.. =egardless of vegetation type$ this phase lasts any#here from a
fe# days to a fe# #eeks and can be responsible for substantial losses of carbon$
nitrogen$ and phosphorus /&arsons et al.$ 10: 6hale$ 13: ,teinke et al.$ 13:
!aylor and arlocher$ 1A: Brance et al.$ 1(. !he biotic contributions in this early
stage of decomposition are usually minimal and are most often limited to microbial
conditioning of the litter /%ykvist$ 1): 6undell et al.$ 1(: Brance et al.$ 1(.
N)+".EN+S .N MANG"O0E ECOS/S+EM
+a6le1!
N.+"OGEN
%itrogen is an essential element for a variety of biological and chemical
processes$ both at micro level i.e. organism level as #ell as macrolevel i.e. at the scale
of ecosystem. 8t is present in different inorganic /vi. 'mmonium$ %itrate$ %itrite as
#ell as organic form
acterial activity regulates most of the available ammonium pool$ particularly
in deeper sediments$ devoid of other biota$ just like any other auatic system.
'mmonia immobiliation and assimilation by microbes$ plants etc. al#ays
accompany and counteracts the mineraliation process. !he e"tent these process
balance each other is depended upon the carbon nitrogen/69 % ratio of the
decomposing organic matter. ,ubstance rich in nitrogen favors net mineraliation$
#here as those poor in nitrogen favors net immobiliation. 6oncentration of
ammonium is relatively high and influence by tidal cycle$ plant uptake and seasonal
change$ microbial decomposition$ temperature$ rainfall etc. /oto 1?2$ 1?4$ 1?).
!he availability of sediment nutrients to microbes and plants is complicated by
geochemical processes$ such as the involvement of some nutrients in adsorption
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reactions to clay minerals. !he ammonium adsorption is lo# in mangrove sediments
compared to temperate salt marsh sediments$ probably due to higher concentration of
competitive cations such as iron /Eolmboe D ristensen$ 2003. 8n mangrove
sediments$ ammonium e"cretion by microfauna$ mesofauna and macrofauna must
occur $ but rate are almost #holly unkno#n. 8ndication of ammonification in the #ater
column comes mainly from the estimates of ammonium e"cretion by protooan and
metaoans graers. 8keda et.al.$/ 8n9 'longi et al$ 12 suggested the e"cretion rate
of various organisms ranged from 1 to 41) mg %. animal >1 h>1 over the body sies$
ranging from L1 to 10$000 µg.animal>1.
!he concentration of issolved Irganic %itrogen /I% is lo# in tropical
mangrove #ater. I% concentration has been observed decreasing #ith increase in
salinity /%i"on et al 1?4$ ;ong$ 1?4. 5o#est concentration of I% has been
recorded in the pre>monsoon season due to dilution from rain /Sarala devi et.al 1?3.
uring a tidal cycle highest concentration occurs at high tide and decreases during
ebb tide /Fuerrero et al$ 1??$ Ivalle et. al.$ 10. ,imilarly the concentration of
I% is also less in mangrove soil as compare to other tropical marine deposits.
Eigh nutrient loading in coastal ecosystems has recently caused serious
eutrophication problems. 8n a eutrophic shallo# environment$ o"ygen>depleted #ater
is occasionally generated at the bottom of the #ater column due to the accumulation
of organic matter /Ichi and !akeoka$ 1?A: emp et al.$ 12 and can cause the
death of benthic macro>fauna /=osenberg and 5oo$ 1??. enthic mineraliation is
considered as the important nitrogen path#ay in shallo# ecosystems /e.g.$ lackburn
and Eenriksen$ 1?3: emp et al.$ 12. %itrification processes occur in sediments
close to the sediment > #ater interface #here there is availability of o"ygen$ such as at
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o"idied line of animal borro#s and #ithin the o"idied region of =hiophora /oto$
1?2. 'ssimilatory uptake of nitrogen counter balances the o"idation process: #here
by the uptake of the nitrate occurs for the gro#th of mangrove and bacterial cell/oto
et.al 1?).
=ecycled dissolved inorganic nitrogen /8% is released from the sediment to
the overlying #ater through sediment>#ater e"change processes and can be taken up
by phytoplankton. !herefore$ benthic algae in the intertidal flat ecosystems can
control the flu" of 8% at the sediment>#ater interface. enitrification is also kno#n
to be a significant sink in the coastal ecosystem by the formation of gaseous nitrogen
/e.g.$ aplan et al.$ 1((: oike and Eattori$ 1(?: %ed#ell and !rimmer$ 1A.
%itrogen and %2I is the end product follo#ing the Michaelis>Menten kinetics.
/%ed#ell$ 1(): 8uumi$ 1?A. !he sedimentary denitrification rate is affected by
bacterial processes associated #ith 8% cycling in marine estuaries in t#o #ays9
/1 'mmonium o"idation by nitrification in the sediment is strongly coupled #ith
denitrification /7enkins and emp$ 1?4: =ysgaard et al.$ 1): Igilvie et al.$
1($ and thus nitrification itself indirectly removes nitrogen through these
coupled processes$ and
/2 issimilatory nitrate reduction to ammonium competes #ith denitrification for
nitrate as the terminal electron acceptor for respiratory electron transport /Eerbert
and %ed#ell$ 10.
/3 !he competition bet#een the denitrifier and ammonifier under anaerobic
conditions conseuently affects the removal of nitrogen by sedimentary
denitrification /,orensen 1(?.
&EI,&EI=,
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8n flooded salt marshes and mangroves$ the grass and mangrove trees are able to
e"crete o"ygen through their root system$ producing an o"ygenated
microenvironment /,ilva et al.$ 11: Mendelsshon and &ostek$ 1?2: Mendelsshon et
al.$ 1?1 capable of trapping & as Be&I4 follo#ing the reaction9
4Be2 I2 4E 4Be3 2E2I:
Be3 3E2I Be /IE3 E:
Be /IE3 E2&I4 Be&I4 IE> E2I
8n general$ the capacity of mangrove soil to immobilie phosphate depends on
the amount of organic matter$ its 69 & ratio$ and the type and amount of clay minerals
present. issolution of mineral phosphate also depends on physiochemical
characteristics such as pE$ available sulfides$ alkalinity and redo" state /oto$ 1??.
!hese factors can$ of course$ be affected by the activity of microbes and larger
organisms. 8n comparison #ith the release rates of phosphorus from mineral
phosphates and refractory organic materials$ the turnover time for & uptake$ utiliation
and e"cretion by living organisms is very short. 5ocal & cycles can be very efficient in
tropical mangroves$ #here it has been estimated that up to ??* of the forest & pool is
retained #ithin the system /oto and unt$ 1?2.
Mangrove trees /oto and ;ellington$ 1?3: Beller et al.$ 1 and microbes
/'longi$ 14 are often phosphorus /&>limited in the tropics. !he & concentrations in
sea#ater and pore#ater of unpolluted mangrove forests are lo# /'longi et al.$ 12$
and the affinity of the soils for & usually is very high /e.g. Eolmboe et al.$ 2001.
!ogether #ith algal gro#th$ leaf litter dynamics have been vie#ed as important for the
nitrogen cycling of fringe mangrove sediments /ristensen et al.$ 1)$ and & cycling
is also likely to be influenced by leaf fall and decomposition. !he & dynamics in
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mangrove sediments are closely coupled to the activity of Be> and sulfate>reducing
bacteria$ #hich are the primary microbial decomposers in the normally reduced
sediments /,herman et al.$ 1?: ristensen et al.$ 2000.
Cariations in dissolved & concentrations may mirror changes observed for
dissolved %. Bor instance$ in mangrove estuaries of the #et tropics$ dissolved and
total phosphorus concentrations decrease #ith increasing salinity /%i"on et al.$ 1?4:
;ong$1?4: 5iebeeit and =au$ 1??: =obertson et al.$ 12 issolved and
particulate phosphorus concentrates in mangrove sediment are usually generally N40
µM for 8& and N4 µM for I&. 6oncentrations vary over time and intertidal
position$ reflecting seasonal effects of plant uptake and microbial gro#th$
temperature$ rainfall$ o"ygen availability and sediment type /oto$ 1?2$ 1?4.
issolved inorganic phosphorus /soluble reactive phosphate e"ists mainly as a
nutrient salt /E&I42> at the pE of sea#ater. Calues in unpolluted mangrove #ater#ays
range from N 0.1 to > 20 µM #hereas !otal & content of mangrove sediments appears
to fall #ithin the range of 100>1A00 µM g>1 /oto$ 1??
,oluble reactive phosphate is readily assimilated by bacteria$ algae and higher
plants$ including mangroves. Most dissolved & in auatic systems consists of various
organic phosphates /primarily phosphate esters originating from living cells$ #hich
are often resistant to hydrolysis and therefore of limited availability. Mangrove soils
are e"pected to contain a high proportion of organic & compounds due to their
generally high organic matter content /oto$ 1??. Eesse /1A2$1A3 for instance$
found that ()>?0* of the total e"tractable & #as organic. oto /1?? has pointed out
that much of this organic & is in the phytate form and bound to humic compounds and
is probably not readily available for microbial and mangrove plant nutrition. .
1#
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'lthough organic & is the major fraction$ the inorganic phosphates probably
represent the largest potential pool of plant>available$ soluble reactive phosphorus
/oto$ 1??. Most of the inorganic & in mangrove sediments is either bound in the
form of 6a$ Be and 'l phosphates or as soluble reactive phosphorus adsorbed onto$ or
incorporated into$ hydrated Be and 'l sesuio"ides . !otal organic & concentrations:
proportionally greater in surface /0>2) cm sediments: reflect the influence of roots$
#hereas the inorganic fractions mainly Be>&$ proportionally and in real terms increase
gradually #ith depth reflecting the influence of increasing ano"ia particularly belo#
the root layer/oto$1?? &atterns of & in estuaries subjected to heavy monsoonal
rainfall are also nearly identical to those for nitrogen. 5o#est & concentrations has
been observed during dry periods /,arala evi et al.$ 1?3: alakrishnan %air et al.$
1?4
+a6le #!
igure #a #6
Sulfur
,ulphur cycling in mangrove sediments can have significant impacts on the benthic
community due to a variety of secondary effects$ e.g. associated pE changes. ue to
the high salinity conditions e"isting in the mangrove ecosystems$ sulphate reduction
not e"pected to be controlled by the concentration of sulphate in the mangrove forest
sediments. 8t is much more likely that the rates are controlled by the availability of
organic matter and the biological and physical processes acting on the o"idation of the
sediments$ e.g. bioturbation$ root o"idation and tides. ,ulphate reduction appears to be
an important process in mangrove sediments$ and relatively high rates have been
found /e.g. ristensen et a/., 1): ristensen$ 1(: 'longi et a/., 1?: Eolmer et
1'
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a/., 1. !his suggests that sulphate reduction may contribute significantly to
mineraliation of organic carbon and nutrient availability in tropical mangrove
sediments /Eolmer et al., 14.
!he accumulation of sulphur in subtidal marine sediments is primarily
controlled by the rate of sulphate reduction and the o"idation state of the sediment
/!hode>'ndersen D 7Krgensen$ 1?. 8n tidal environments$ ho#ever$ additional
factors also play an important role. !idal currents and #ave action can affect the
o"idation status of sediments directly by increased advective transport of pore #ater
and particles. uring lo# tide$ the sediment surface desiccates and o"ygen can
penetrate deeper into the sediment via burro#s and cracks in the surface. !he
presence of rooted vegetation also strongly affects the biogeochemical cycling of
sulphur by vertical translocation of organic matter and o"ygen /Eolmer D %ielsen$
1(: Eolmer D 5aursen$ 2002$ and the cycling of sulphur is closely coupled to the
reactive iron pools /!hamdrup$ 2000. =eactive iron o"ides present in sediments may
efficiently o"idie reduced sulphides. !his suggests that the cycling of reduced
sulphur compounds is highly dynamic in mangrove forest sediments. &yrite appears to
be the most important inorganic sulphur component in mangrove sediments$ attaining
pool sies )0>100 times higher than acid volatile sulfur pools /ristensen et al., 11$
12: Eolmer et a!., 14$ 1: 'longi et al., 1?.
!here is uite a significant burial of sulphides in the mangrove forest
sediments in particular in the mid>intertidal sediments$ #here the o"idation by
bioturbating organisms is lo# and the sulphate reduction activity high$ but also the
high>intertidal sediments sho# large accumulations belo# depths of bioturbation
/Eolmer et al., 14. 8n addition to the burial of inorganic sulphur compounds$ an
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accumulation of organic sulphur has been found in the deep sediments in the inner
part of mangrove forests /Eolmer et al., 14. ' similar accumulation o orani"
sulphur has been observed in mangrove peats /'ltschuler et al., 1?3$ but the
underlying mechanisms behind this accumulation are not #ell understood. Eo#ever$
the burial o inorganic sulphur appears to be limited by the availability o iron
/Eolmer et al., 14$ #hich may favor formation of organic sulphur compounds.
.G)"E 'a '6
;EA0/ ME+A
<levated concentrations of heavy metals have been recorded in mangrove
sediments all over the #orld$ #hich often reflects the long>term pollution caused by
human activities /5acerda et al.$12: &erdomo et al.$ 1?: Earris and ,antos$ 2000:
!am and ;ong$ 2000. ue to their 8nherent physical and chemical properties$
mangrove muds have an e"traordinary capacity to accumulate materials discharged to
the near shore marine environment /Earbison$ 1?A.!he cycling of trace metals in
mangrove ecosystems has been the subject of recent studies$ due to the potential role
of mangroves in the abatement of trace metal pollution /5acerda$ 1?.
!race metals enter mangrove ecosystems #ith the incoming tide associated
#ith suspended particles$ iron and manganese o"i>hydro"ides /5acerda et al.$ 1?.
;hen reaching the reducing conditions$ dominant in most mangrove environments$
these o"i>hydro"ides are reduced and dissolved$ and can release their trace metal load
to the #ater column. ,ince mangrove #aters can have as much as 10 mgJ5 of
dissolved sulfide$ due to the predominant sulfate reduction metabolism of mangrove
sediments$ many trace metals are efficiently precipitated as insoluble sulfides
/Earbinson$ 1?Aa$ b: 5acerda et al.$ 1(: 6lark et al.$ 1(. ue to permanent
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anaerobic conditions of mangrove sediments and high sedimentation rates in
mangrove environments$ trace metals suffer rapid accumulation and burial in the
sedimentary column. !hus$ mangroves can act as biogeochemical barriers to trace
metal transport in coastal #aters /5acerda$ 1?. !he mechanisms described above
may also hamper trace metal uptake by mangrove plants. Eo#ever$ trace metals
#hich do not form stable sulfides$ #ill not be affected by this precipitation process
/5acerda$ 1(.
Table '
Many studies on trace metals in mangrove plants have sho#n concentration
factors /leaf concentration to sediment concentration ratio lo#er than 1.0 for most
trace metals$ the only e"ception being Mn$ #hich al#ays has concentration factors
higher than 1.0. If all trace elements studied$ Mn generally$ sho#s a significant
correlation bet#een sediment and leaf concentrations /5acerda$ 1(.
Mangrove sediments are anaerobic and reduced$ as #ell as being rich in
sulphide and organic matter. !hey therefore favor the retention of #ater>borne heavy
metals and the subseuent o"idation of sulphides bet#een tides allo#s metal
mobiliation and bioavailability /,ilva et al.$ 10: !am and ;ong$ 2000.
6oncentrations of heavy metals in sediments usually e"ceed those of the overlying
#ater by 3H) orders of magnitude /Gabetoglou et al.$ 2002 and$ #ith such high
concentrations$ the bioavailability of even a minute fraction of the total sediment
metal content assumes considerable importance #ith respect to bioaccumulation
#ithin both animal and plant species living in the mangrove environment. ,ince
heavy metals cannot be degraded biologically$ they are transferred and concentrated
into plant tissues from soils and pose long>term damaging effects on plants. Eo#ever
!am and ;ang /13 suggested that the mangrove soil component has a large
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capacity to retain heavy metals$ and the role of mangrove plants in retaining metals
#ill depend on plant age and their biomass production.
Many mangrove ecosystems are close to urban development areas /,hriadiah$
1$ !am and ;ong$ 2000: MacBarlane$ 2002: &reda and 6o"$ 2002 and are
impacted by urban and industrial runoff$ #hich contains trace and heavy metals in the
dissolved or particulate form.
MANG"O0E AS A S.N% O N)+".EN+S
Mangrove ecosystems are one of the major types of natural #etlands in
tropical and subtropical regions$ flooded by fresh river #ater as #ell as by salty
sea#ater. ,imilar to other estuarine ones$ mangrove ecosystems also receive a large
amount of #aste from their related drainage and rivers and have become a massive
pollution sink. =ecent studies have also uestioned the importance of mangroves as a
source of inorganic nutrients and have sho#n that certain mangrove ecosystems may
not be as significant sources as accepted before and may even represent sinks of
inorganic nutrients !he use of a mangrove ecosystem$ the same as other natural
#etlands$ as an alternative lo# cost se#age treatment facility has been proposed by a
number of researchers /Eenley$ 1(?: 6lough et al.$ 1?3: =ichardson and avis$
1?(: !am and ;ong$ 13: reau" and ay$ 14: 6orredor and Morell$ 14$
!am.$ 1A: ;ong et al.$ 1) especially in coastal regions #ith pressing needs for
#aste#ater treatment. 5ike other trees$ mangrove trees absorb nutrients and
pollutants from the inerstitial #aters or sediment solution in the vicinity of the roots
hairs /,adi$ 12. Eo#ever$ there seems to be a kno#ledge gap as to the role of
these cations for phytoplankton dynamics in mangrove ecosystems. Bor sea#ater$
these cations are usually treated as conservative$ yet relatively little is kno#n about
15
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their sources or sinks in mangrove creeks and the biotic andJor abiotic processes
controlling their concentrations /6ohen et al 1.
!he effectiveness of a #etland system to remove the input pollutants is highly
dependent on the chemical$ biological andJor physical processes$ and the entire soil>
plant>#ater system is important in the reduction of pollutants from #aste#ater
/unbabin and o#mer$ 12: Fale et al.$ 13. !he performance of a natural
#etland #aste#ater treatment system therefore depends very much on the #etland
characteristics$ #hich are e"tremely variable. 8t is difficult$ if not impossible$ to
translate results from one geographical area to another$ or from one type of #etland to
another /!rattner D ;oods$ 1?. espite their significance in purifying #aste#ater$
natural #etlands in many countries including the nited ,tates are legally limited to
providing only tertiary treatment of secondary #aste /reau" D ay$ 14. Most
studies #ere focused on the removal mechanisms of suspended solids$ organic matter
and nutrients from domestic or livestock #aste#ater by #etlands /#orredor and
$orell, 14..
Conclusion
Mangroves ecosystem demonstrate close link bet#een vegetation assemblage
and geomorphologic defined habitats. Eo#ever despite of their close link$ the
prevailing geomorphologic and ecomorppholgical vie# are uite contrary the
ecologist vie# mangrove as highly productive source of organic matter from #here$
there is a net out #elling of energy supporting comple" estuarine and near shore food
#ave. Feologists$ ho#ever$ vie# mangrove sediments as a sink for nutrients
characteried by long term import of sediments. !hough a lot #ork has been done in
order to get a clear picture of nutrient cycling in mangrove ecosystem$ but still the
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dynamics is not completely understood. 8t is also felt that there is an urgent need of
establishment of the detailed database in order to have a more cleare picture of the
cycling of nutrients
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