motivation at work chapter 8. definition of motivation motivation – the process of arousing and...

Motivation at WorkMotivation at Work

Chapter 8Chapter 8

Definition of MotivationDefinition of Motivation

MotivationMotivation –– the process of the process of arousing and sustaining arousing and sustaining goal-directed behaviorgoal-directed behavior

3 Groups of 3 Groups of Motivational TheoriesMotivational Theories

InternalInternal Suggest that variables within the individual Suggest that variables within the individual

give rise to motivation and behaviorgive rise to motivation and behavior Example: Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theoryExample: Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory

ProcessProcess Emphasize the nature of the interaction Emphasize the nature of the interaction

between the individual and the environmentbetween the individual and the environment Example: Expectancy theoryExample: Expectancy theory

ExternalExternal Focus on environmental elements to explain Focus on environmental elements to explain

behaviorbehavior Example: Two-factor theoryExample: Two-factor theory

Early Philosophers of Early Philosophers of Motivational TheoriesMotivational Theories

Max WeberMax Weberwork contributes to salvation work contributes to salvation

Protestant work ethicProtestant work ethic

Sigmund FreudSigmund Freuddelve into the unconscious mind to better delve into the unconscious mind to better understand a person’s motives and needsunderstand a person’s motives and needs

Early Philosophers of Early Philosophers of Motivational TheoriesMotivational TheoriesAdam SmithAdam Smith

““enlightened” self-interest; that which enlightened” self-interest; that which is in the best interest and benefit to is in the best interest and benefit to the individual and to other peoplethe individual and to other people

Frederick TaylorFrederick Taylorfounder of scientific management; founder of scientific management; emphasized cooperation between emphasized cooperation between management and labor to enlarge management and labor to enlarge company profitscompany profits

Maslow’s Hierarchy of NeedsMaslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Physiological

Safety and Security

Love (Social)

Esteem

SA

Low

est t

o hi

ghes

t ord

er

Motivational Theories X and YMotivational Theories X and Y

Theory XTheory XA set of assumptions of how to A set of assumptions of how to manage individuals who are manage individuals who are motivated by lower order needsmotivated by lower order needs

Theory YTheory YA set of assumptions of how to A set of assumptions of how to manage individuals who are manage individuals who are motivated by higher order needsmotivated by higher order needs

Theories Applied to Theories Applied to Needs HierarchyNeeds Hierarchy

Physiological

Safety and Security

Love (Social)

Esteem

SA Theory Y – a set of assumptions of how to manage individuals motivated by higher order needs

Theory X – a set of assumptions of how to manage individuals motivated by lower order needs

McGregor’s Assumptions McGregor’s Assumptions About People Based About People Based on Theory Xon Theory X Naturally indolentNaturally indolent Lack ambition, dislike responsibility, Lack ambition, dislike responsibility,

and prefer to be ledand prefer to be led Inherently self-centered and Inherently self-centered and

indifferent to organizational needsindifferent to organizational needs Naturally resistant to changeNaturally resistant to change Gullible, not bright, ready dupesGullible, not bright, ready dupes

Adapted from Table 5.1 which is from “The Human Side of Enterprise” by Douglas M. McGregor, reprinted from Management Review, November 1957. Copyright 1957 American Management Association International. Reprinted by permission of American Management Association International, New York, NY. All rights reserved. http://www.amanet.org.

McGregor’s Assumptions McGregor’s Assumptions About People Based About People Based on Theory Yon Theory Y

Passive and resistant behaviors not Passive and resistant behaviors not inherent; result of organizational inherent; result of organizational experience experience

People possessPeople possess Motivation Motivation Development potential Development potential Capacity for assuming responsibility Capacity for assuming responsibility Readiness to direct behavior toward Readiness to direct behavior toward

organizational goalsorganizational goals

Adapted from Table 5.1 which is from “The Human Side of Enterprise” by Douglas M. McGregor, reprinted from Management Review, November 1957. Copyright 1957 American Management Association International. Reprinted by permission of American Management Association International, New York, NY. All rights reserved. http://www.amanet.org.

McGregor’s Assumptions McGregor’s Assumptions About People Based About People Based on Theory Yon Theory Y

Management’s taskManagement’s task——arrange conditions and arrange conditions and operational methods so operational methods so people can achieve their people can achieve their own goals by directing own goals by directing efforts to organizational efforts to organizational goalsgoals

Adapted from Table 5.1 which is from “The Human Side of Enterprise” by Douglas M. McGregor, reprinted from Management Review, November 1957. Copyright 1957 American Management Association International. Reprinted by permission of American Management Association International, New York, NY. All rights reserved. http://www.amanet.org.

OrganizationGoals

Individual Goals

Alderfer’s ERG TheoryAlderfer’s ERG Theory

Existence

Relatedness

Growth

Physiological

Safety and Security

Love (Social)

Esteem

SA

McClelland’s Need Theory:McClelland’s Need Theory:Need for AchievementNeed for Achievement

Need for Achievement Need for Achievement –– a a manifest (easilymanifest (easily perceived) perceived) need that concerns need that concerns individuals’ issues of individuals’ issues of excellence, competition, excellence, competition, challenging goals, challenging goals, persistence, and overcoming persistence, and overcoming difficultiesdifficulties

McClelland’s Need Theory:McClelland’s Need Theory:Need for PowerNeed for Power

Need for Power Need for Power –– a manifest a manifest (easily perceived) need that (easily perceived) need that concerns an individual’s concerns an individual’s need to make an impact on need to make an impact on others, influence others, others, influence others, change people or events, and change people or events, and make a difference in lifemake a difference in life

McClelland’s Need Theory:McClelland’s Need Theory:Need for AffiliationNeed for Affiliation

Need for AffiliationNeed for Affiliation –– a manifest a manifest (easily (easily perceived) need perceived) need that concerns an that concerns an individual’s need individual’s need to establish and maintain warm, to establish and maintain warm, close, intimate relationships close, intimate relationships with other peoplewith other people

Self-actualization

3 Motivational Need Theories3 Motivational Need TheoriesMaslow Alderfer McClelland

HigherOrderNeeds

LowerOrderNeeds

Esteem selfinterpersonal

Safety and Security interpersonal

physical

Need for Achievement

Need for Power

Relatedness Need for Affiliation

Existence

Growth

Belongingness(social and love)

Physiological

McGregor

Theory Y

Theory X

Herzberg’s Two-Factor Herzberg’s Two-Factor TheoryTheory

Hygiene FactorHygiene Factor – – work condition work condition related to dissatisfaction related to dissatisfaction caused by discomfort or paincaused by discomfort or pain maintenance factormaintenance factor contributes to employee’s contributes to employee’s

feeling not dissatisfiedfeeling not dissatisfied contributes to absence of contributes to absence of

complaintscomplaints

Herzberg’s Two-Factor Herzberg’s Two-Factor TheoryTheory

Motivation FactorMotivation Factor – – work condition work condition related to the satisfaction of related to the satisfaction of the need for psychological the need for psychological growthgrowth job enrichmentjob enrichment leads to superior performance & leads to superior performance &

efforteffort

MotivationMotivation––HygieneHygiene Theory of Motivation Theory of Motivation

Hygiene factors avoid job dissatisfaction

• Company policy and administration

• Supervision• Interpersonal relations• Working conditions• Salary• Status• Security

SOURCE: Adapted from Frederick Herzberg, The Managerial Choice: To be Efficient or to Be Human . (Salt Lake City: Olympus, 1982). Reprinted by permission.

• Achievement• Achievement recognition • Work itself• Responsibility• Advancement• Growth

• Salary?

Motivation factors increase job satisfaction

MotivationMotivation––Hygiene Hygiene CombinationsCombinations

High M Low M

High H high motivation few complaints

low motivation few complaints

Low H high motivation many complaints

low motivation many complaints

(Motivation = M, Hygiene = H)

Questions on Herzberg’s Questions on Herzberg’s TheoryTheory

Is salary a hygiene or a Is salary a hygiene or a motivational factor?motivational factor?

What role do individual What role do individual differences (age, sex, social differences (age, sex, social status, education) play?status, education) play?

What role do intrinsic job What role do intrinsic job factors (work flow process) factors (work flow process) play?play?

New Ideas in Human Motivation: New Ideas in Human Motivation: Eustress, Strength, HopeEustress, Strength, Hope

EustressEustress – – healthy, normal stress healthy, normal stress

Opportunities

Challenges

Energy

Obstacles

Barriers

Frustration

New Ideas in Human Motivation: New Ideas in Human Motivation: Positive Energy and Positive Energy and Full EngagementFull Engagement

Management of Management of EnergyEnergy

Expend Energy

Build Positive Energy

Renewal and

Recovery

Social Exchange Social Exchange & Equity Theory& Equity Theory Equity theory focuses on Equity theory focuses on

individualindividual––environment interactionenvironment interaction Concerned with social processesConcerned with social processes Etzioni—calculated working Etzioni—calculated working

relationshipsrelationships Both parties have demandsBoth parties have demands Both parties make contributionsBoth parties make contributions Expect fair, equitable, ethical Expect fair, equitable, ethical

treatmenttreatment

IndividualIndividual––Organizational Organizational Exchange RelationshipExchange Relationship

Organizational goalsOrganizational goals Departmental objectivesDepartmental objectives Job tasksJob tasks

Physiological needsPhysiological needs Security needsSecurity needs Physical needsPhysical needs

Company statusCompany status BenefitsBenefits IncomeIncome

Developmental potentialDevelopmental potential Employee knowledgeEmployee knowledge Employee skills and abilitiesEmployee skills and abilities

IndividualOrganization

Dem

ands

Con

trib

utio

ns

SOURCE: J. P. Campbell, M. D. Dunnette, E. E. Lawler, III. And K. E. Weick, Jr. Managerial Behavior. Performance and Effectiveness (New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1970. Reproduced with permission from McGraw-Hill, Inc.

Adam’s Theory of InequityAdam’s Theory of Inequity

Inequity Inequity –– the situation in which a the situation in which a person perceives he or she is person perceives he or she is receiving less than he or she is receiving less than he or she is giving, or is giving less than he giving, or is giving less than he or she is receivingor she is receiving

Positive Outcomes > OutcomesEquity Inputs Inputs

Equity Outcomes = Outcomes Inputs Inputs

Negative Outcomes < OutcomesEquity Inputs Inputs

Person Comparison other

Equity and Inequity at WorkEquity and Inequity at Work

Strategies for Strategies for Resolution of InequityResolution of Inequity

Alter the person’s outcomesAlter the person’s outcomes Alter the person’s inputsAlter the person’s inputs Alter the comparison other’s outputsAlter the comparison other’s outputs Alter the comparison other’s inputsAlter the comparison other’s inputs Change who is used as a comparison Change who is used as a comparison

otherother Rationalize the inequityRationalize the inequity Leave the organizational situationLeave the organizational situation

New Perspectives New Perspectives on Equity Theoryon Equity Theory

Equity SensitiveEquity Sensitive

I prefer an equity ratio equal to that of my comparison other

New Perspectives New Perspectives on Equity Theoryon Equity Theory

BenevolentBenevolent

I am comfortable with an equity ratio less than that of my comparison other

New Perspectives New Perspectives on Equity Theoryon Equity Theory

EntitledEntitled

I am comfortable with an equity ratio greater than that of my comparison other

Expectancy Theory of Expectancy Theory of Motivation: Key ConstructsMotivation: Key Constructs

Valence Valence –– value or importance placed value or importance placed on a particular rewardon a particular reward

Expectancy Expectancy –– belief that effort leads to belief that effort leads to performanceperformance

Instrumentality Instrumentality –– belief that belief that performance is related to rewardsperformance is related to rewards

Expectancy Model Expectancy Model of Motivationof Motivation

Performance RewardEffortEffort

Perceived effort –performance probability

Perceived effort –performance probability

Perceived value of reward

Perceived performance – reward probability

“What are my chances of getting the job done if I put forth the necessary effort?”

“What are my chances of getting the rewards I value if I satisfactorily complete the job?”

“What rewardsdo I value?”

3 Causes of 3 Causes of Motivational ProblemsMotivational Problems

Belief that effort will not result Belief that effort will not result in performancein performance

Belief that performance will not Belief that performance will not result in rewardsresult in rewards

The value a person places on, The value a person places on, or the preference a person has or the preference a person has for, certain rewardsfor, certain rewards

Moral MaturityMoral MaturityMoral Maturity –Moral Maturity – the measure of a person’s the measure of a person’s

cognitive moral developmentcognitive moral development

Morally mature people behave and

act based on universal ethical

principles.

Morally immature people behave and

act based on egocentric

motivations.

Cultural DifferencesCultural Differences Motivational theories Motivational theories

are culturally boundare culturally bound Research results Research results

differ among culturesdiffer among cultures

U.S. Results

Other Cultural Results

=

Ways to Motivate PeopleWays to Motivate People

TrainingTraining CoachingCoaching Task assignmentsTask assignments Rewards contingent on good Rewards contingent on good

performanceperformance Valued rewards availableValued rewards available