memory _ cognitive learning
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Memory & Cognitive Learning
CONSUMER BEHAVIOR
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Learning Concepts
Multiple store modelof memory
Involvement & short-term capacity
Recognition & Recall Picture vs Word
Memory Memory ControlProcess
Encoding Process Retrieval & Response
Generation
Three types ofknowledge
Gestalt Theory of
Cognitive Knowledge Associationist theoryof knowledge
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Memory . . .
. . . affects the exposure, attention,
and comprehension stages
. . . allows consumers to anticipate the
stimuli they might encounter
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Multiple-Store Model of Memory
Three different types of memory storage:
Sensory Memory
Short-Term Memory
Long-Term Memory
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Inputs
Sensory memory
Short Term Memory
( Working MemoryAvailable Capacity
Affectand
arousal Long TermMemory
RetrievalEncoding
A Simplified Memory Model
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Sensory memory happens in the pre-attention
stage where a stimulus is briefly analyzed todetermine if it will receive additionalprocessing.
Short-term memory is where information istemporarily stored while people are activelyprocessing it. Is like RAM in a computer.
Long-term memory is connected to short-
term memory through encoding and retrievalprocesses. Is like the disk drive in acomputer.
Memory works like parallel processors.
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Encoding is the transfer of information
from short-term memory to long-termmemory for permanent storage.
Retrieval is the process of accessinginformation stored in long-term memory
so that it can be utilized in short-termmemory.
Retrieval is a constructive process.
Information in ads received afterproduct experience can change theperception of the experience.
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Relationship amongst Memory Systems
Sensory Memory
temporary storage of
sensory information
capacity: High
Duration:
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Sensory Memory . . .
. . . consists of firingof nerve cells, short-term in duration,usually less than a
second.
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Short-Term Memory. . .
. . . is the site where information istemporarily stored while being processed.
Is also called working memory.
Rehearsal is silently repeating information toencode it into long-term memory.
If information in short-term memory is notrehearsed it is lost within 30 seconds.
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The Limited Capacity of
Short-Term Memory
Millers Law is the recognition that people can handle 7(+/- 2) bits of information at a time. In consumer contexts, however, STM is closer to 5 +/- 2 bits of
information.
Information Overload describes the situation in whichmore information is received than can be processed inshort-term memory.
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Marketing Implications
Two questions with marketing implications:
i. Can consumers become overloaded? Researchhas yielded an unequivocal yes to the question
ii. Do consumers become overloaded?Controversial research:
a. People actively manage the information theyreceive to avoid becoming overloaded i.e. stop
far short of being overloadedb. Yes they do; this information overload actually
decreases the quality of their purchase decision
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Involvement & Short-Term Capacity
High involvement makes the consumer morearoused and attentive, expanding the short-termmemory capacity to full 7 +/-2 bits. (Caffeine has
the same effect.) Low involvement tends to keep a consumers
arousal levels low so the consumer focusesrelatively little memory capacity on the stimulus.
Under low involvement, which is common in CBcontexts, capacity is at 5 +/1 bits.
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Marketing Implications
Television advertising
In low involvement keep copy points
maximum to four (copy point isconsidered equivalent to a chunk) .
For companies that advertise on TV and
radio the lesson is keep your messagesimple
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Time Required to Transfer
Information. . .. . . the consumer's goal to eitherrecognize or recall a task. Itrequires 2-5 seconds for recognition
task and 5-10 seconds for recalltask to transfer the information toLTM.
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Recognition and Recall
Recognition tasks are when information is placedbefore the consumer. The goal is to determine ifthe information has been seen before.
Recall tasks are when the consumer must retrievethe information from long-term memory withoutany prompting. Requires greater depth ofencoding. Recall impacts the size of the
consideration set, which is the set of productchoices retrieved from memory that are deemedsatisfactory options.
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Universe ofpotential brands
Awareness SetKnown Brands
Unawarenessset
ConsiderationSet: Brands given
consideration
Inert SetBrands viewed
with Indifference
Inept SetUnacceptable
brands
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Clutter iswhen there
are toomany stimulimaking recall
moredifficult.
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Long-Term Memory
. . . has essentially unlimited capacity to store
information permanently. Stored information is either semantic or visual.
Semantic memory deals with the encoding andstorage of words and meanings. Visual deals with
the storage of images. Long term memory is essentially permanent.
l f
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Relative Superiority ofPicture Versus Word Memory
Visual images or pictures tend to be morememorable than their verbal counterparts,especially when there is low-involvement on thepart of the consumer.
Words that have high-imagery content are easierto encode and retrieve than words low in imageryand concreteness.
Words and pictures should be used to complementeach other in ads.
Verbal material is better recalled in highinvolvement conditions.
In high involvement information processingadvertisers usually get better results if theypresent different information via verbal andpictorial means
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Memory-Control Processes . . .
. . . are the methods ofhandling informationwhich may operate
consciously orunconsciously toinfluence the encoding,placement, and retrieval
of information.
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Encoding Process
Rehearsal influences whether or not information will betransferred from STM to LTM
The way information is coded will have great impacton speed of transfer as well as on the placement ofthat information
For a new topic repetition of stimulus during rehearsalor attempt to link it to other information alreadypresent in the LTM is required.
With familiar topics person becomes more adept at
coding information on it by drawing associationsbetween it and the information they already have inmemory, and storage process speeds upproportionally
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Encoding Process
Marketing Implications:
i. Understanding of encoding process in developingbrands
ii. The closer the brand name fits with consumersassociation about the product class, the better will behis/her ability to recall the name
iii. Highly concrete names ( ocean, orchestra, frog, andblossom) are easily visualized and remembered betterthan less concrete names (history, truth, moment)
because they are coded both visually and verbally andalso because they fit better into consumers existingknowledge structure,.
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Retrieval and Response
Generation Response generation is when a person developsa response by actively reconstructing thestimulus. Information received after exposure to
a stimulus (e.g., ads) can impact responsegeneration of the original stimulus.
Retrieval cues create a response by providing ameans of assisting the active reconstruction ofthe stimulus.
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Retrieval and response GenerationMarketing Implications
A major goal of advertisers is to improveconsumers ability to retrieve information frommemory
i. Provide retrieval cues on the packaging ofproducts to assist consumers memories duringdecision making.
ii. Assisting consumers retrieval and responsegeneration to employ music in advertisements.There is evidence that people retrieve sungmessages better than spoken one
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Consumer Knowledge . . .
. . . is the amount of experience with and
information a person has about particularproducts or services.
As knowledge increases, a consumer canthink about a product across a greaternumber of dimensions and make finerdistinctions between brands.
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Three Types of Knowledge:
Objective knowledge is the correctinformation about a product class that aconsumer has stored in long-term memory
Subjective knowledge is the consumersperception of what or how much he or sheknows about a product class.
Knowledge of others is what information aconsumer has about another.
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How Do Consumers Gain
Knowledge? Cognitive Learning: process offorming associations, solving
problems, and gaining insights. Learning Through Education:
Obtaining information from firms who
are trying to teach the consumer. Learning Through Experience: Actualcontact/use of products.
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Consumer KnowledgeMarketing Implications
i. As consumers knowledge increases, theybecome better organized, grow more efficientand accurate in their information processing,and display better recall of information.Managers need to consider the state of
consumer knowledge when they aredeveloping a productii. Information on the extent of consumer
knowledge should influence promotion
strategy. A message targeted toknowledgeable prospects can be much morecomplex than addressed to a novice
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Gestalt Theory of CognitiveKnowledge
Gestalt psychologists believe that biological andpsychological events do not influence behavior
in isolation of each other.
People perceive the inputs from the environment aspart of the total context.
Focused on the active, creative nature of learning
and action.
Key idea: whole is greater than sum of parts.
1 1 3+ =
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Associationist Approaches to
Cognitive Knowledge Serial learning concerns how people put into
memory and recall information that is received
in a sequential manner. Serial-Position effect occurs when the order of
presentation of information in a list influencesrecall of the information in the list.
The S-P effect is the basis for the higher pricepaid for book-end ads i.e., ads at thebeginning and end of a commercial TV break.
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Serial Position Effect
Explanation:Beginning and end of the list become anchors inlearning. Because of limitation of STM, people
pick reference points for when to start and endthe learning process. Since only limited amountsof information can be stored in STM at a time, itis those items right around the beginning andend of the list (the reference points) that are
recalled most readily. Many more repetitions ofthe material may be required before items in themiddle can be recalled
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Serial Position Effect
Marketing Implications
i. Key information in the advertisement
should be placed at the beginning andend of the message
ii. Advertisers should strive to get theircommercials placed either at the
beginning or end of series of televisionads
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Serial Position Effect
Position
in series
early Late
Trials
to
Learn
Few
Many
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Paired Associate Learning People are asked to pair response word with
stimulus word Example: Stimulus and Response Pairs:GilletteThe best a man can getMcDonalds Im lovin it
LiptonChai Chaheyai Learning is speeded up if stimulus and responseitems can be readily associated with each otherand already familiar to the subject
Learning is especially rapid if mental images aredeveloped of the linkage of stimulus andresponse words
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Conditions for paired associatelearning
The stimulus and response words are easilypronounceable
The person is familiar with both the stimulus andresponse words
Stimulus and response words are meaningful The stimulus and response words are easily
associated Visual images are created to link the stimulusand response words together
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Law of Contiguity
Stimuli that are experienced together becomeassociated in memorye.g., Nike-TigerWoods; called paired associate learning.
Some findings: Make pairs (i.e. stimulus-response words) easily
pronounceable, familiar, meaningful. Use visual images to link stimulus-response words
together.
Remember: Negative associations can occurbetween product and another stimulusattack style political ads seek to create suchassociations for opposing candidates.
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Semantic Memory Networks . .
.. . . refer to how people store themeanings of verbal material in long-
term memory. Semantic memory is organized into
networks each of which is a series ofmemory nodes that represent the storedsemantic concepts.
Information is recalled via spreadingactivation.
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Five Types of Information Stored in Nodes
Types of information Brand names
Brands characteristics/attributes
Ads about brand Product category
Evaluative (affective) reactions to the brand and thead
This information represents a consumers brandknowledge i.e., a brand node and theassociations in memory connected to it.
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Measuring Semantic MemoryNetworks
Guided Associations Think of your university/college
What are the first three words or images thatcome to mind. (e.g., Ph.Ds, BBA program,HEC Ranking)
Select one of these words (e.g., BBA), nowthink of three words or images that youassociate with BBA program, etc.
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Semantic Memory Network:important for semiosis analysis.
I.U.
Ph.Ds BBA Program HEC Ranking
Dr. X Dr. Y Jobs Acad. Further edu. Other Inst.
Q.T Bus. Eco. Companies Best value CBM IBA
Grades Cl.fellows Class Money Career Friends
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Schemas . . .
. . . are organized sets of expectations andassociations about an object.
When new information is inconsistent with a
schema, consumers engage in more diligentprocessing and, consequently, have improvedmemory about the stimulus.
Can derive from network analysis.
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Forgetting
People forget because
even though informationhas been placed in long-term memory, it may beextremely difficult toretrieve. This is called a
retrieval failure.
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Interference Processes
Retroactive interference occurs when laterlearned material interferes with the recallof information learned earlier.
Proactive interference occurs when earlierlearned material interferes with learning
and recall of information learned later.
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The von Restorff Effect . . .
. . . occurs when a highly unique item in aseries is recalled more easily.
Illustrated by absurdity in advertisements,e.g. some of the recent Mountain Dew ads
Also illustrates information salience, which isthe idea that unique, novel, moving,
contrasting, colorful, etc. stimuli are moreeasily encoded and retrieved.
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The von Restorff Effect
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The Zeigarnik Effect . . .
. . . occurs if a task
is interrupted,material relevant tothe task tends to beremembered. E.g.,
stories that are cutin the middle----,
Here, build a storyabout a person doing
something difficult, andthen stop just beforeclimax. Will increaseinterest in and recall
of story.
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Zeigarnik Effect
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Time and Forgetting
The recall of verbalinformation decreasesover time.
Rapid forgetting thatoccurs immediatelyafter learning has
been shown to occurin advertising as well.
Time and Forgetting
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Time and Forgetting
After people learned a list of words, the percentage ofwords they could remember decreased dramatically atfirst, and then leveled off. The rapid forgetting takesplace in advertising as well.
Zielske had an advertisement for a product run for agroup of housewives once a week for 13 weeks.
At the end of 13 weeks period 63% of respondentscould recall having seen the ad. The ad was not shownto them for 13 weeks. After 20 weeks, those who couldrecall had dropped to under 30%, by the 9th monthfewer than 10% of respondents could remember the ad.
In another experiment one group of housewives wasshown the ad 4 weeks apart. In this group the ability torecall the ads increased slowly, by the end of the year48% of respondents could remember the ad.
Time and Forgetting
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Time and ForgettingMarketing Implications
i. If advertisers goal is awareness of a product, thanhigh frequency of ads over short period of time will bemost effective. However consumer will rapidly forgetthe commercial message after the burst ofadvertisements end
ii. If advertisers goal is to build long-term awareness ofthe ad, the commercial should be pulsed so that adsare seen by consumers over a long period of time
iii. Some advertisers prefer to combine these approachesby using a high-intensity ad campaign to bring out a
product, and then pulsing regularly after theintroduction to maintain consumers awareness of thead.
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Affect and Memory
People are better able to recall informationthat has the same affective quality as theirmood state.
Affect refers to the feelings, emotions, andmoods that consumers may experience.
Mood is a transient feeling state that occurs ina specified situation or time.
How can Marketers help consumers to
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premember RemindersInvolves reminding them of what the
company wants them to rememberRetrieval cues at the point of purchase Saying it again and again: The value of
repetition
Encourage elaborationStimulus is linked or related to various
concepts in memory: make use of semanticmemory networks
Self referencing : relating a stimulus to onesown self and experience (this product is forpeople just like you who are--------------)
H i h l b
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How companies can help consumers remember Encourage Multiple Representation in Memory Information stored in long term memory may be
represented semantically and visual imageryDepending on how people typically represent the to-be-remembered information in memory, efforts toencourage additional forms of representation may beworthwhile
Importance of consistencyConsistency facilitates remembering. Greaterconsistency among elements within an advertisementincreases what consumer remembers about the adand advertised product
The product benefits described within an ad arebetter remembered when these benefits areconsistent with those suggested by the advertisedproduct name
How Companies can help consumers remember
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How Companies can help consumers remember
Use Easy-to-remember stimuli
Use of concrete words instead ofAbstract words
Stimuli that are distinctive or unique
are also easier to remember. Put Consumer in a good mood
Brand Image and Product Positioning
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Brand Image and Product Positioning
Brand ImageSchematic memory of a brand
It contains the target markets interpretation of theproducts attributes, benefits, usage situations,users and manufacturers / marketer characteristics
It is what we think and feel when we hear or see
a brand nameo Product PositioningA decision taken by marketer to try and achieve a
defined brand image relative to competition withina market segment
Product positioning decisions are strategicdecisions
The term product positioning involves an explicitreference to brand image relative to another brand.
Perceptual Mapping and Product Repositioning
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Perceptual Mapping and Product Repositioning
Product PositioningA useful technique in measuring and developing
products positioning
Takes consumers perception of how variousbrands are to each other and relates these
perception to product attributes Product Repositioning:Refers to a deliberate decision to significantly alter
the the way a product is viewed by the market
This could involve its level of performance, thefeelings it evokes, the situation in which it shouldbe used, or even who uses it
Perceptual Mapping of Automobiles
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Stylish, Prestigious, Distinctive
Practical, Common, Economical
Staid,
Conservative
Older
Fun
Sporty
FastNissan Sentra
Plymouth Voyger
Dodge Caravan
Geo Metro
Kia Sephia
Volvo 850 R
Chrysler LHS
Buick Park
Avenue
Mercedes 400 SE
Porsche 914Lexus LS 400
Jeep Grand Cheroke
Acura Integra
Ford Taurus
Honda Civic
Dodge Neon
TM1
TM3
TM2
Brand Equity and Brand Leverage
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Brand Equity and Brand Leverage Brand EquityThe value consumers assign to a brand above and
beyond the functional characteristics of the productBrand Equity is nearly synonymous with the
reputation of the brand
Is based on the image consumers have of the brand
Brand Leverage (family branding, brand extension,or umbrella branding)
Refers to marketers capitalizing on brand equity byusing existing brand for new products
If done correctly , consumers will assigncharacteristics of existing brand to the new brand
Brand Leverage
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Brand LeverageSuccessful brand leverage requires that:a. Original brand has a strong positive image
b. The new product fits well with the originalproduct on at-least one of the threedimensions:
1. Complement: The two products are used
together.2. Transfer: The new product is seen by
consumers as requiring the same
manufacturing skills as the original3. Image: The new product shares a keyimage component with the original
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