logic family

Digital IC Terminology Current and voltage parameters Fan-Out Propagation delays Power requirements Noise immunity Invalid voltage levels Current-sourcing and current-sinking action IC Packages

Common IC packages (Courtesy of Texas Instruments)

Voltage Parameters:

VIH(min): high-level input voltage

VIL(max): low-level input voltage

VOH(min): high-level output voltage

VOL(max): low-level output voltage

Current Parameters

• IIH(min): high-level input current, the current that flows into an

input when a specified high-level voltage is applied to that

input.

• IIL(max): low-level input current

• IOH(min): high-level output current

• IOL(max): low-level output current

Power Requirements

Every IC needs a certain amount of electrical power to operate.

Vcc (TTL)

VDD(MOS)

Power dissipation determined by Icc and Vcc.

Average Icc(avg)= (ICCH + ICCL)/2

PD(avg) = Icc(avg) x VccPower Dissipation :-

Power dissipation is the amount of heat (in milliwatts) that the IC dissipates in the form of heat.

ICCH and ICCL

ICCL – current from supply when all outputs are lowICCH – current from supply when all outputs are high

Propagation delays

Measured between 50% points on inputs and outputs

DC noise margins

Noise margins – amount of “noise” a signal can tolerate going from an output toan input.

Currents and voltages in the two logic states

O – outputI – inputH – highL - low

Comparison of current-sourcing and current-sinking actions

Logic Families• RTL : Resistor transistor logic

• DTL : Diode transistor Logic

• TTL: Transistor-transistor logic

• ECL: Emitter-coupled logic.

• IIL : Integrated injection logic.

• MOS ICs: Metal-oxide-semiconductor ICs.

Diode Logic (DL)• In Diode logic, all the logic is implemented with the use of resistors and

diodes• The purpose of the diodes is to perform OR and AND operations.

• Diodes can also be used as a logical switch

o The disadvantage of Diodes is that they tend to degrade the signals quickly.

o Diodes also cannot work for multiple stages, only one stage at a time.

o The diodes also cannot perform the NOT operation which limits their functionality.

Resistor-Transistor Logic (RTL)In resistor-transistor logic, all the logic is implemented with the use of

transistors and resistors

Resistor-Transistor gates are not very expensive and are very simple to construct.

RTL gates can be used as amplifiers as well to amplify small signals.

The drawback in using RTL gates is that they draw a great amount of current from the power supply.

They are used in slower applications, but cannot be used in today's computers as they cannot switch at high speeds.

1. If any input is high the corresponding transistor is driven into saturation

2. This causes output as low

3. If all input are low at 0.2v all transistors are cutoff because VBE<0.6

4. This causes output of circuit is to be high, approaching the value of supply voltage Vcc.

Diode Transistor Logic (DTL)In Diode-transistor logic, all the logic is implemented with the use of diodes

and transistors.

DTL has some advantages over DL and RTL. As the diodes can perform AND and OR operations but along with a transistor the output signal can be amplified

The switching speed of the transistor is limited due to the input resistor to transistor.

DTL was used in early vacuum tube computers.

If all the inputs are high the transistor is driven into saturation region

The voltage at Y equal to VBE plus the two diode drops across D4 & D5.

The diodes are reverse biased and off

With transistor saturation the output drops to VCE of 0.2v, which is low level of gate

Y=(A.B.C)’

8-2 The Transistor-Transistor-Logic (TTL) Logic Family

The NAND gate is a basic TTL circuit.

8-2 The TTL Logic Family TTL circuits have a similar structure The input will be the cathode of a PN junction

A HIGH input will turn off the junction and only a leakage current is generated in Q1 (Q2 and Q4 turn on).

A LOW input turns on the junction and a relatively large current is generated through Q1 (Q2 and Q4 turn off).

Most TTL circuits have some type of totem-pole output configuration

TTL NAND gate in its two output states

TTL NAND gate with output low

TTL NAND gate with output high

Figure 8-9 (a) When the TTL output is in the LOW state, Q4 acts as a current sink, deriving its current from the load. (b) In the output HIGH state, Q3 acts as a current source, providing current to the load gate.

Flow of Current in TTL Output State

TTL NOR gate circuit

• Output is high only when A and B are low.• In this case both Q1 and Q2 are on, Q3 and Q4 are off, and Q6 if off.• Otherwise, if A or B is high, Q6 is on and output is low.

Q2 and Q4 added to TTL inverter

• When A is high, Q3 and Q6 is on, and output is low• When B is high, Q4 and Q6 is on, and output is low

• Output is high only when A and B are low.• In this case both Q1 and Q2 are on, Q3 and Q4 are off, and Q6 is off.

8-3 TTL Data Sheets First line of TTL ICs was the 54/74 series

54 series operates over a wider temperature range Same numbering system, prefix indicates

manufacturer SN – Texas Instruments DM – National Semiconductor S – Signetics DM7402, SN7402, S7402 all perform the same function

Data sheets contain electrical characteristics, switching characteristics, and recommended operating conditions.

Emitter Coupled Logic (ECL)This logic is used in applications with high speed environment.

ECL is considered to be one of the best because there is a very low propagation

delay.

The logic levels for ECL are normally -0.9V for high logic and -1.6 for low

logic.

The design of ECL consists of termination resistors which allows the signals to

propagate with very low reflection.

Data sheet for the 74ALS00 NAND gate IC (Courtesy of Texas Instruments)

8-4 TTL Series Characteristics Standard 74 series TTL has evolved into other series:

Standard TTL, 74 series Schottky TTL, 74S series Low power Schottky TTL, 74LS series (LS-TTL) Advanced Schottky TTL, 74AS series (AS-TTL) Advanced low power Schottky TTL, 74ALS series 74F fast TTL

Refer to Table 8-6 for a comparison between the series characteristics

Ronald Tocci/Neal Widmer/Gregory MossDigital Systems: Principles and Applications, 10e

Schottky-clamped Transistor(a) Schottky-clamped transistor; (b) basic NAND gate in S-TTL series(c) Schottky diode has a smaller junction

voltage than the transistor(d) currently will be shunted from the transistor

when it goes into reverse bias preventing the transistor from going into saturation

(e) fewer carriers will be present in the transistor and it will switch faster.

8-5 TTL Loading and Fan Out Fan out refers to the load drive capability of an IC

output A TTL output has a limit on how much current it can sink

in the LOW state A TTL output has a limit on how much current it can

source in the HIGH state. Exceeding these currents will result in output voltage

levels outside specified ranges

8-5 TTL Loading and Fan Out Determining fan out

Add the IIH for all inputs connected to an output. The sum must be less than the output IOH specification.

Add the IIL for all inputs connected to an output. The sum must be less than the output IOL specification.

Currents when a TTL output is driving several inputs

8-6 Other TTL Characteristics Unconnected (floating) inputs Unused inputs Tied together inputs Biasing TTL inputs low Current transients

Three ways to handle unused logic inputs

Determine the load that gate 1 is driving, the 74LS devices have IIH = 20uA, and IIL = 0.4mA.

• Gates 2 and 3 have one input transistor.

• Gate 4 uses a transistor for each input.

Determining TTL Loads

• Leakage currents. Each input uses current

• Max fan-out of LS to standard TTL (low) = IOL(max) / IIL(max) = 8mA / |-1.6mA| = 5 (max fan-out low).

• Max fan-out of LS to standard TTL (high) = IOH(max) / IIH(max) = |-.4mA| / 40uA = 10(max fan-out high)

• Maximum fan-out is limited by lowest fan-out, 5 in this case. • Maximum sink (implies low output) current = fan-out x IL = 5 x -1.6 mA = -8.0mA.

Calculating fan-out

• Max fan-out when low = IOL(max) / IIL(max) = 8mA/|-.4mA| = 20 (max fan-out low for 74AS devices.

• Max fan-out when high = IOH(max) / IIH(max) = |-0.4mA| / 20uA = 20 (max fan-out high for 74AS devices.• Maximum fan-out is limited by lowest fan-out.

• Max sink current for LS device in low state, fan-out x IIL = 20 x -0.4mA = -8mA.

• Max supply current for LS device in high state, , fan-out x IOH = 20 x -0.4mA = -8mA.

• Magnitude of current needed by load should be less than magnitude of max sink or source current.

Driving Different Families

• Determine max currents that can be supplied and sunk• Determine current needed

Figure 8-56 Problems 8-11 and 8-13. Calculating Propagation Delay Time

TTL Characteristic When Switching from LOW to HIGH

• When a totem pole TTL output goes from LOW to HIGH, a high amplitude current spike is drawn from the VCC supply (because Q4 and Q3 are both on for a short time).

• Ceramic disk capacitors (.01 or .1 F) are used to short these high frequency spikes to ground.

8-7 MOS Technology Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect

Transistors (MOSFETs) Simple and cheap to fabricate Consume very little power More circuit elements are possible Susceptible to static electricity damage

8-7 MOS Technology Schematic symbols for P and N channel

enhancement MOSFETs.

8-7 MOS Technology: N-channel MOSFET

N-channel MOSFET used as a switch: (a) symbol; (b) circuit model; (c) N-MOS inverter operation.

P-channel MOSFET

P-channel MOSFET used as a switch: (a) symbol; (b) circuit model for OFF and ON; (c) P-MOS inverter circuit.

8-8 Complementary MOS Logic The CMOS family uses both P and N channel

MOSFETs Faster Consumes less power More complex fabrication

CMOS Inverter (Figure 8-22) CMOS NAND gate (Figure 8-23) CMOS NOR gate (Figure 8-24)

CMOS INVERTER

CMOS NAND gate

CMOS NOR gate

8-9 CMOS Series Characteristics CMOS devices compete directly with TTL

Pin compatible Functionally equivalent Electrically compatible

4000/1400 series 74C series 74HC/HCT (high-speed CMOS) 74AC/ACT (advanced CMOS) 74AHC/AHCT (advanced high-speed CMOS) BiCMOS 5-volt logic Fan out Switching speed Unused inputs

Loads Act Like Capacitors

Figure 8-26 Each CMOS input adds to the total load capacitance seen by the driving gate’s output.

Figure 8-25 Current spikes are drawn from the VDD supply each time the output switches from LOW to HIGH. This is due mainly to the charging current of the load capacitance.

Current spikes when switching (charging a capacitive load)

8-10 Low Voltage Technology CMOS family:

74LVC (low voltage CMOS) 74ALVC (advanced low voltage CMOS) 74LV (low voltage) 74AVC (advanced very low voltage CMOS) 74AUC (advanced ultra-low voltage CMOS) 74AUP (advanced ultra-low power) 74CBT (cross bar technology) 74CBTLV (cross bar technology low voltage) 74GTLP (gunning transceiver logic plus) 74SSTV (stub series terminated logic) 74TVC (translation voltage clamp)

8-10 Low Voltage Technology BiCMOS family:

74LVT (low voltage BiCMOS technology) 74ALVT (advanced low voltage BiCMOS

technology) 74ALB (advanced low voltage BiCMOS) 74VME (VERSA Module Eurocard)

Voltage-level comparison

8-11 Open Collector/Open Drain Outputs Conventional CMOS outputs and TTL totem pole

outputs should never be connected to the same point. Open-collector/open-drain outputs Open-collector/open-drain buffer/drivers IEEE/ANSI symbols for open collector/drain outputs

Open collector gates – no internal load

Figure 8-30 (a) Open-collector TTL circuit; (b) with external pull-up resistor.

Figure 8-29 Totem-pole outputs tied together can produce harmful current through Q4.

Cannot Connect Outputs of TypicalGates Together

Figure 8-32 An open-collector buffer/driver drives a high-current, high-voltage load.

Open-collector gates are useful for driving high-current loads

Figure 8-31 Wired-AND operation using open-collector gates.

Can connect open-collector to form an AND gate

8-12 Tristate (Three-State) Logic Outputs Three states are possible: HIGH, LOW, and high

impedance. Advantages of tristate devices Tristate buffers Tristate ICs IEEE/ANSI symbol for tristate outputs

Figure 8-35 Three output conditions of tristate.

Hi-Z state is an open circuit

Figure 8-37 (a) Tristate buffers used to connect several signals to a common bus; (b) conditions for transmitting B to the bus.

Tri-state operation

Problem 8-31. Bidirectional transceiver

8-15 CMOS Transmission Gate (Bilateral Switch)

Acts as a single pole, single throw switch Controlled by an input logic level Passes signals in both directions Signals applied to the input can be analog or

digital Input must be between 0 and VDD volts.

CMOS bilateral switch (transmission gate)

Both devices on or both off

Figure 8-45 Example 8-12: 74HC4016 bilateral switches used to switch an analog signal to two different outputs.

Problem 8-37. Determine the waveform at X assuming Ron = 200W

Figure 8-57 Problem 8-14. The master reset is active-high and is activated by a push-button switch. Resistor R is used to hold MR LOW while the switch is open. (a) What is the maximum value that can be used for R? (b) Repeat if using a 74ALS193

Problem 8-14

Make this voltage < VIL(max) to remain a logic 0

Prob. 8.16 Will each clock waveform below reliably trigger a 74LS112 flip-flop?

(a) No. The amplitude is less than VIL.(b) No. Tp of 10ns is less than tw(H) = 20ns minimum (from data sheet)(c) tw(L) not given. However, fmax (from data sheet) is given as 30MHz.

Therefore, Tmin = 1/fmax = 33.3ns.

tw(L)min = Tmin - tw(H)min or 33.3ns – 20ns = 13.3ns.tw(L) (actual) is less than tw(L)min, so the answer is no.

Prob. 8.19 Which of the following are advantages that CMOS generally has overTTL?

(a) Greater packing density, yes – MOS devices are smaller(b) Higher speed, no(c) Greater fan-out, yes – inputs to gates are capacitors(d) Lower output impedance, no – MOS rout~1000ohms(e) Simpler fabrication structure, yes(f) More suited to VLSI, yes – greater packing density(g) Lower PD (below 1Mhz), yes, - MOS essentially an open circuit when off(h) Transistors as only circuit element, yes(i) Lower input capacitance, no – input structure is a capacitor(j) Less susceptible to ESD, no – very thin insulator in gate region

Prob. 8.20 Which of the following operating conditions will probably result in the lowest average PD for a CMOS logic system?

(a) VDD = 5V, switching frequency = 1MHz(b) VDD = 5V, switching frequency = 10kHz(c) VDD = 10V, switching frequency = 10kHz

Power drain generally increases with, an increase in VDD and frequency; therefore, (b) is probably has the lowest average PD.

P = VI, increase in V, increase in P

I = V/R, increase in f, decrease in R (of capacitive load), increase in I (current spike)

Prob. 8.22 Calculate the Noise Margins when a 74HC gate drives a standard 74LS input.

Noise margins: VNL = VIL – VOL, VNH = VOH – VIH

VNL = VIL(LS) – VOL(HC) = 0.8V – 0.1V = 0.7VVNH = VOH(HC) – VIH(LS) = 4.9V – 2.0V = 2.9V

Prob. 8.23 What will cause latch-up in a CMOS IC?

CMOS cross-section

Latch-up can be triggered by high-voltage spikes or ringing at the device inputs and outputs. When latch-up occurs, a larger current flows and may damage the device. Clamping diodes can be used externally, or a regulated power supply.

Prob. 8.27 Determine the logic expression for output X.

Output of wired-AND is (AB)’ (CD)’ (EF)’

X = ((AB)’ (CD)’ (EF)’)’

X = AB + CD + EF

Prob. 8.28 Which of the following would be most likely to destroy a TTL while it is switching from HIGH to LOW?.

(a) Tying the output to 5V(b) Tying the output to ground(c) Applying an input of 7V(d) Tying the output to another TTL output

Prob. 8.29 (a) What will be the voltage of the 7406 output when Q = 0?(b) Find Rs if Vf = 2.4V at If = 20mA for the diode.

(a) 5V since the 7406 has an open collector and Q4 is off.

(b) Voltage across Rs = 5V – Vf – VOL = 5 – 2.4 – 0.4 = 2.2V.

Solve for Rs = V/If = 2.2V / 20mA = 110W

NMOS Circuits

Outputs obtained by using the inputs to either “pull-up” the network to VDD, or “pull-down” to ground.

E. John, S. Yamashita, D. Markovic, and Y. Kado, CMOS Circuits, in Digital Design and Fabrication, Ed. V. G. Oklobdzija , CRC Press 2008, eBook ISBN: 978-0-8493-8604-6.

Pass Transistor/Transmission Gate Logic

• Inputs as well as VDD and ground are steered to the output.

• Simple and fast.

• Complex functions can be implemented with a minimal numbers of transistors (results in reduced parasitic capacitance and faster circuits)

• Simple pass transistor only passes one logic level well.

• Using NMOS and PMOS in parallel allows both logic levels to pass well.

• CMOS transmission gate operates as a bi-directional switch between A and D controlled by S.

• If S is high both transistors are on, providing a low resistance, and if S is low both transistors are off, providing a large resistance.

• Can be used to realize logic gates and functions.

• For a XOR gate, when both A and B are low, the top TG in on and bottom is off; output is A (0). Similarly for other conditions.

• If B and B’ are swapped, the XNOR function is realized.

Sequential CMOS Logic Circuits

• Sequential circuits depend on current and previous values of the inputs.

• Output is stored as a state variable.

• Circuit consists of combinational logic and memory.

Positive-level sensing D-latch using transmission gates and inverters

• When CLK = 0, output remains the same due to feedback loop.

• When CLK = 1, Q = D, and the data is acceptedcontinually.

• Operates as a latch when CLK = 1; positive-levelsensing.

Positive edge-triggered D flip-flop

• Positive and negative sensing latches can becombined to form an edge-triggered flip-flop.

• When CLK = 0, the latches are isolated fromeach other. The positive latch (rightmost latch) holds the previous value and the negative latch follows the input.

• When CLK transitions to 1, the negative latch holds the value of D at the time of the clock transition. That value of D is passed to the output and D is disconnected from the latches.

• When the CLK transitions to 0 the positive latch is isolated and the output will not change.

CMOS implementation of the positive-edge triggered D flip-flop (18 transistors)

Dynamic Logic Circuits

• Use the capacitive input of the MOSFET to store a charge and remember the value for later use.

• Output decays with time unless it is periodically refreshed.

• Dynamic logic gates are used to decrease complexity, increase speed, and lower power dissipation.

• Basic design eliminates one of the switch networks from the CMOS logic circuits (almost 50% reduction).

• Dynamic logic circuits have two-phase operation, a precharge and evaluation phase.

• When CLK = 0, PMOS is on and NMOS is off and the load capacitance is charged to VDD.

• No conducting path between between VDD and ground for this precharge phase eliminates a static current.

• Evaluation phase starts when CLK = 1. The PMOS is off and NMOS is on.

• The logic function in the pull-down network discharges the load capacitance, or keeps it charged if the function is not true.

• When CLK = 0, PMOS is on and NMOS is off and the load capacitance is charged to VDD.

• When CLK = 1, (a) discharges when AB = 1, (b) discharges when A + B = 1, and (c) discharges when ABC + D = 1.

• The load capacitance cannot be charged until the next precharge cycle.

Low-Voltage Design

Four sources of power dissipation in CMOS VLSI design

Silicon on Insulator

• Suited for low-parasitic capacitance, and operation on low supply voltage.

• Copper line and low-permittivity layer between wiring layers..

• A MOSFET is formed on a thin SOI layer over a buried oxide (BOX) layer.

• The entire MOSFET is enclosed in a silicon oxide layer.

• The process technology is similar to conventional CMOS technology.

• Low capacitance near source/drain leads to high-speed operation.

• No body effect (due to difference in source and body voltages) leads to high-speed operation

• Low cross talk leads to mixed-signal circuits.

MOS transistor SOI MOS transistorImproved SOI MOS transistor

• In a conventional device, the drain junction capacitance consists of a capacitance between the drain and the substrate.

• In SOI structures, the capacitance between drain and substrate consists of a series capacitance. The BOX capacitance has a dielectric constant 1/3 smaller than Si.

• Capacitance of SOI structure is about 1/10 that of conventional structure.

• The threshold voltage of the MOSFET is a function of the source-substrate voltage – body effect.

• In SOI structures (unlike the conventional case), the body is floating so there is no body effect.

BiCMOS

CMOS is limited by speed

ECL is 2 to 5 times faster than CMOS but ECL has high power consumption which makes VLSI difficult

BiCMOS combines the high-density integration of MOS logic with the current-driving capabilities of bipolar transistors

BiCMOS Inverter

• Similar to a CMOS gate with a current amplifier as an output stage

• When input is HIGH, M1 is on causing Q1 to conduct, while M2 and Q2 are off. The results is a LOW output.

• When input is LOW, M2 is on causing Q2 to conduct, while M1 and Q1 are off. The results is a HIGH output.

• VOH = VDD – VBE, VOL = VBE

BiCMOS Inverter

• When input is HIGH (output is LOW), current in M2 is multiplied by b in Q2 resulting in more current at the output and faster operation than CMOS.

• Similar to CMOS but better capacitance-driving capabilities.

• Has substantial speed advantage over CMOS gates when driving large capacitive loads.

BiCMOS

• Similar to CMOS but better capacitance-driving capabilities.

• CMOS is better for driving small loads because of the added complexity of BiCMOS. BiCMOS is better for driving large capacitive loads such as gate arrays and memories.

• The use of BiCMOS in ICs like ALUs is not likely because of the complexity of BiCMOS.

• Built-in voltages like VBE(on) do not scale, which limits the range of supply voltages that can be used.

• The non-scalability of built-in voltages is one of the most important deficiencies of bipolar technology.

• BiCMOS probably not used with supply voltages under 3V.

8-14 The ECL Digital IC Family Emitter coupled logic – increased switching speed. Basic ECL circuit ECL OR/NOR gate ECL characteristics

Very fast switching, typical propagation delay is 360 ps -0.8 V logic 1, -1.7 V logic 0 Noise margins approximately 150 mV Output complement is produced, eliminating need for inverters Typical fan out is 25 Typical power dissipation is 25 mW Current flow remains constant, eliminating noise spikes

Figure 8-41 (a) Basic ECL circuit; (b) with addition of emitter followers.

ECL Inverter

Current switches from oneside to the other

Current amplifiers

ECL Circuitry

S, Muroga, Emitter-Coupled Logic, in Logic DesignEd. W.-K., Chen , CRC Press 2003, eBook ISBN: 978-0-203-01015-0, DOI: 10.1201/9780203010150.ch13

Emitter-Coupled Logic (ECL)

• .The basis of the gate is a differential amplifier.

• Current flows to -4V through the transistor with the base grounded or one of the input transistors.

• Current is amplified by emitter-follower amplifiers.

• The basic gate is the NOR/OR gate.

• 50W resistors only used for protecting transistors from large current, and can often be eliminated

F = X + Y + ZF = (X + Y + Z)’

• .When a high voltage is applied to an input X, Y, or Z, it turns on the corresponding transistor. Currently flows through it making its collector have a low voltage, and therefore one output of the gate low. Current will not flow through Tr and its collector will be high, as well as its corresponding output.

• When all input voltages are low, the corresponding transistors are off and the corresponding output is high. Current flows through Tr and its collector will have a low voltage, and therefore the corresponding output will be low.

• When the emitter circuits are connected together they may form a wired-OR circuit; also called emitter-dotting.

• If both transistors T1 and T2 are off, the output is low; otherwise, the output is high.

• Emitter-dotting is an important feature of ECL.

• An OR gate can be eliminated simply by connecting two outputs.

• Once an output has been connected to another emitter, it does not retain its original logic function.

• If an emitter follower circuit is repeated, then the corresponding outputs can be connected independently.

Design of a logic network with ECL

Procedure:• Design a network for given logic function and its complement using NOR gates without

considering fan-in or fan-out restrictions. Use a minimum number of NOR gates.

• Reduce the number of input connections to each gate by providing Wired-Ors, or by using OR-outputs of other gates.

• Repeat for the OR network and choose the “best” one.

The use of OR outputs and wired-Ors generally reduces the number of connections or fan-ins (input transistors), and connections lengths, thus saving chip area.

NOR networkOR network

Series gating

(a) x’ at collector when x is at base(b) consider two transistors: one with x and one with y at base(c) series gating results in OR function: x’ + y’ = (xy)’

Series gating

May create a structure where the complement of minterms are available at collectors

Logic functions in ECL can often be made with fewer transistors than CMOS

Full-adder using series gating, and wired-OR connections in ECL

logic family

diode transistor logic

diode logic

output high flow of

highlevel input current

low input

output low ttl nand

low icch current

output high state

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