life span development late adulthood: psychosocial development – ch. 25 july 27, 2004 class #14
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Life Span Development
Late Adulthood: Psychosocial Development – Ch. 25
July 27, 2004Class #14
Theories of Late Adulthood
• Three Types of Theories– self theories– stratification theories– dynamic theories
Based on premise that adults make choices, confront problems, and interpret reality to be themselves as fully as possible people begin to self-actualize, as Maslow
described it each person ultimately depends on himself or
herself
Self Theories
Integrity vs. Despair
Individuals experience this during late adulthood In the later years of life, we look back and evaluate
what we have done with our lives Through many different routes, the older person may
have developed a positive outlook in most of all of the previous stages of development
If so, the retrospective glances will reveal a picture of a life well spent, and the person will feel a sense of satisfaction (integrity will be achieved)
If the older adult resolved many of the earlier stages negatively, the retrospective glances likely will yield doubt or gloom (despair)
Identity Theory
Identity Challenged in Late Adulthood as health, appearance, employment, crumble
Two Extremes of Coping identity assimilation—new experiences
incorporated into stable sense of identity distortion of reality and denial anything major
changed identity accommodation—altering self-
concept to adapt to new experiences viewed as an over-adjustment
Selective Optimization
Older person chooses to cope with physical and cognitive losses
Older person makes selective changes to cope with losses
This readiness to make changes is a measure of strength of the self
Support From Behavioral Genetics
Behavioral genetics support self theories twin studies: some inherited traits more
apparent in later adulthood Power of genetics extends beyond the
environments we seek even self-concept, including assessment of
abilities, partly genetic but environment always plays major role
Stratification Theories
Social forces limit individual choice and direct life at every stage, especially late adulthood
Stratification By Age
Disengagement Theory vs. Activity Theory Disengagement theory—aging increasingly
narrows one’s social sphere, resulting in role relinquishment, withdrawal, passivity
Activity theory—elderly people need to remain active in a variety of social spheres—with relatives, friends, and community groups. If elderly withdraw, they do so unwillingly due to ageism dominant view now supports activity theory
Stratification by Gender and Ethnicity
Sexual Discrimination Feminist theory draws attention to
gender divisions demographics make aging women’s issue because most social structures and
economic policies have been established by men, women’s perspectives and needs not always given a high priority, or even recognized
Stratification by Gender and Ethnicity
Many older women impoverished because of male-centered economic policies pension plans based on continuous
employment; more unlikely to be situation for women with children
medical insurance pays more for acute illness (more common in men) and less for chronic disease (more common in women)
women more likely to be caregivers for frail relatives, often sacrificing their independence and well-being
Stratification by Gender and Ethnicity
Critical race theory views ethnicity and race as social constructs whose usefulness is determined by one’s society or social system
Ethnic discrimination and racism cause stratification, shaping experiences of both minorities and majorities minority elderly more likely to be poor
and frail less access to senior-citizen centers,
clinics, etc.
Better Female, Non-European, and Old?
Positive Effects of Non-European American’s Strong Familism: fewer elderly in nursing homes elderly feel more respected elderly feel more appreciated by families in one study, minority women outlived
majority women who were economically better off but had less family support
Better Female, Non-European, and Old?
Current stratification effects may not apply to cohort shift happening now more women are working younger African-Americans less strongly
tied to church and family and have fewer children
To better understand stratification theory, we need to take a multicultural perspective
Dynamic Theories
Dynamic theories—emphasize change and readjustment rather than either the ongoing self or legacy of stratification
Continuity theory—each person experiences changes of late adulthood and behaves towards others in much the same way as he or she did earlier in life adaptive change dynamic response
Keeping Active
Reality of older people’s lives does not correspond exactly with either disengagement or activity theories
Chosen Activities
Employment has many advantages, but it is not typically something person has a choice about doing
One positive aspect of retirement: allows freedom to be one’s own person—to choose one’s main activities e.g., in areas of education, helping others,
religion, politics
Continuing Education
Elderhostel—program in which people aged 55 and older live on college campuses and take special classes Usually during college vacation periods Life-Long Learners here at Three Rivers
Around the world, thousands of learning programs filled with retirees
Many elderly hesitate to take classes with mostly younger students if they overcome this fear, typically find they
earn excellent grades
Volunteer Work Higher percent of elderly adults have strong
commitment to their community and believe they should be of service older adults especially likely to volunteer to assist
the young, very old, or sick 40 percent of the elderly are involved in
structured volunteering many of the other 60 percent volunteer informally
elderly benefit, but not if forced to volunteer
Religious faith increases with age increase in prayer and religious practice
Research shows religious institutions are particularly important to older Americans who may feel alienated from overall society
Religious Involvement
Political Activism
Elderly more so than any other age group Know more about national and local issues Political participation translates into power
ARRP—major organization representing elderly, is largest U.S. special interest group
Most elderly are interested in wider social concerns—e.g., war, peace, the environment
Home, Sweet Home
Many busy maintaining home and yard Some move, but most want to age in
place, even if adult children have moved far away naturally occurring retirement community
(NORC) created when they stay in neighborhood they moved into with young children
One result of aging in place is that many elderly live alone
The Social Convoy
Collectively, the family members, friends, acquaintances, and even strangers who move through life with an individual We travel our life in the company of others Special bonds formed over lifetime help in
good times and bad People who were part of a person’s past
help him or her to maintain sense of identity
Long-Term Marriages
Spouse buffers many problems of old age
Married elders generally are healthier wealthier happier
Long-Term Marriages
Nature of long-lasting relationships tends to get better over time sharing of accumulated experiences affectionate acceptance of each other’s
frailties with feelings of affection passionate love still exists
Divorce is rare in late adulthood Widowhood is common Death of a spouse eventually occurs
for half of all older married people Adjustment to loss varies depending
on sex of surviving partner Many older widows come to enjoy their
independence
Losing a Spouse
4 x as many widows as widowers Because women take better care of
their health, they live longer than men Husband’s death is never easy Death can mean loss of close friend,
social circle, income, and status Widows do not usually seek another
husband
Widows
Living without a spouse is more difficult for men
Widowers often lack social support Historical gender differences make
adjustment more difficult have restrictive notions of masculine
behavior
Widowers
Widowers
Over course of marriage, tend to become increasingly dependent on wives for social support of all kinds
After death of spouse, more likely to be physically ill than widows or married people of their age
Many widowers prefer not to remarry, but with favorable gender ratio and loneliness, often find themselves more likely to remarry than widows
Men are lonelier than women Those without partners are lonelier
than those with partners Divorced or widowed are lonelier Recent losses heighten loneliness The more partners lost, the lonelier
one is
Differences in Loneliness
Friendship
4 percent of people over 65 have never married most married cohort in U.S. history
Never marrieds quite content contentment is linked more to friends than
family Older women do more befriending Even oldest adjust to changes in social convoy Many elderly keep themselves from being
socially isolated
The Frail Elderly
Defined as—over 65, physically infirm, very ill, or cognitively impaired
Activities of daily life (ADLs) bathing, walking, toileting, dressing, and
eating inability to perform these tasks sign of
frailty
The Frail Elderly
Instrumental activities of daily life (IADLs) vary from culture to culture require some intellectual competence in developed countries: phone calls,
paying bills, taking medication, shopping for groceries
in rural areas of other nations: feeding chickens, cultivating the garden, getting water from the well
When caregiver has feelings of resentment and social isolation, he or she typically experiences stress, depression,
and poor health may be more likely to be abusive if he or
she suffers from emotional problems or substance abuse that predate the caregiving
other risk factors: victim’s social isolation, household members’ lack of education and/or poverty
Elder Abuse
Elder Abuse
Maltreatment usually begins benignly but can range from direct physical attack to ongoing emotional neglect
Frail elderly particularly vulnerable to abuse Most abuse is perpetrated by family
member(s) Simplest form is financial—a relative or
stranger gets elderly to sign over life savings, deed to house, or other assets
Nursing Homes
Most elderly want to avoid them at all costs believe they are horrible places
In U.S., the worst tend to be those run for-profit, where patients are mostly on Medicare and Medicaid But, overall, abuse has been reduced
In the United States and Europe, good nursing-home care available for those who can afford it
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