lecture 4 - cognition i
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PL1101E: Introduction to Psychology 1
Cognition I
Learning and Memory
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PL1101E: Introduction to Psychology 2
Lecture Outline
What is Cognition?
Learning
Classical Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
Other LearningPhenomena
Memory
Types of Memory
Sensory Memory
Short-term Memory Long-term Memory
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PL1101E: Introduction to Psychology 3
What is Cognition?
From Colman (2001) in the OxfordDictionary of Psychology:
The mental activities involved in acquiring andprocessing information.
Its study includes cognitive psychology,psycholinguistics, artificial intelligence, andcognitive neuropsychology.
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What is Cognition?
Cognitive Psychology is the branch of psychology thatstudies topics such as: Attention
Perception
Learning Memory
Thinking
Problem solving
Decision making
Language
These will be surveyed in greater depth in PL3233Cognitive Psychology.
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Learning
What is learning? Any relatively lasting change
in behaviour resulting fromexperience.
The key points are behaviourand experience.
Contrast with maturationalchange, which is due togenetic dispositions E.g. height, weight, brain size Walking (can only occur once
nervous and muscular systemhas reached some level ofmaturity).
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Classical Conditioning: the association oftwo stimuli in the environment.
Does the mere sight of thegolden arches in front ofMcDonalds makes you feelpangs of hunger and thinkabout hamburgers?
If it does, you are displaying anelementary form of learningcalled classical conditioning.
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Classical Conditioning
Applies to reflexive, involuntary behaviour.
Learning to make a reflex response toanother stimulus that is not the naturalstimulus that would normally invoke thatparticular reflex.
Discovered (by chance) by Ivan Pavlov.
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Classical Conditioning
Important Concepts Stimulus Response
The stimulus refers to any object, event, or experience thatcauses a reaction (response) in the organism.
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS or US)A naturally occurring stimulus that produces the involuntary
response.
Unconditioned means unlearned or naturally occurring.
Unconditioned response (UCR or UR)An involuntary, reflexive reaction to a naturally occurring
stimulus.
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Classical Conditioning
Conditioned stimulus (CS)
Stimulus that is subsequently capable of invoking a learnedreflex response on its own because it has been paired withthe original unconditioned stimulus.
Conditioned means learned.A neutral stimulus can become a conditioned stimulus when
paired with an unconditioned stimulus.
Conditioned response (CR)
Learned reflex reaction to a conditioned stimulus.
Sometimes called a conditioned reflex.
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Classical Conditioning
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Classical Conditioning
UCSKiss
UCRRacing Heart
CSSight of
Significant Other
UCSKiss
UCRRacing Heart
CSSight of
Significant Other
CRRacing Heart
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Classical Conditioning
Basic principles and findings
CS must come before UCS.
CS and UCS must follow each other closely in time -ideally, only several seconds apart.
Several to many pairings between the neutralstimulus and the UCS must take place beforeconditioning can occur.
CS is usually some distinctive stimulus that stands outfrom other competing stimuli.
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Classical Conditioning
Stimulus generalization
A stimulus that is similar to the original CS can elicit a CR.
Stimulus discrimination
Organisms can learn to be more discriminating if the similarstimulus is never paired with the UCS.
Extinction
When a learned response disappears or is weakened becauseof the removal or absence of the UCS.
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Classical Conditioning
Spontaneous recovery
A learned response canreappear even afterextinction has occurred.
Learning is a relatively
permanent change inbehavior.
Higher-order conditioning
Another neutral stimulus
can become a second CSwhen it is paired with anexisting strong CS.
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Classical Conditioning
Conditioned emotional response (CER) Classical conditioning of emotional responses to learned stimuli, e.g. fear of
dogs or the emotional reaction that occurs when seeing an attractiveperson. CERs may lead to phobias irrational fear responses.
Vicarious conditioning Watching the reactions of other people can induce classical conditioning of a
reflex response or emotion.
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Laws of Learning
Acquisition(conditioned response andunconditioned responsepresented together)
Training CS alone Pause Spontaneous recovery
STRONG
WEAK
Strength
ofConditioned
R
esponse(CR)
TIME
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Laws of Learning
TIME
Training CS alone Pause Spontaneous recovery
Extinction (conditioned stimulus by itself)A basic phenomenon of learning that occurswhen a previously conditioned responsedecreases in frequency and eventuallydisappears.Acquisition
STRONG
WEAK
Strength
ofConditioned
R
esponse(CR)
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Laws of Learning
TIME
Training CS alone Pause Spontaneous recovery
Spontaneous Recovery
The reemergence of anextinguished conditionedresponse after a period of restand with no furtherconditioning.Acquisition Extinction
Spontaneous recovery ofconditioned response
Extinction follows(conditionedstimulus alone)
STRONG
WEAK
Strength
ofConditioned
R
esponse(CR)
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Operant Conditioning
Term coined by B. F. Skinner.
Applies to voluntary behaviour. Learning through the effects of pleasant and unpleasant
consequences to responses. Learning depends on what happens after the response the
consequence.
Developed from Thorndikes Law of Effect If a response is followed by a pleasurable consequence, it will
tend to be repeated, and if followed by an unpleasantconsequence, it will tend not to be repeated.
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Operant Conditioning
Why is credit card use so insidious? (fromFeinberg, 1986). Hand card over to salesperson (behaviour).
Immediate delivery of desired item (reinforcer pleasant consequence).
Behaviour increases.
Having to pay for your purchases, or rackingup a debt (unpleasant consequence) occursmuch later, and may not be linked to theoriginal behaviour.
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Operant Conditioning
Differences between classical and operantconditioning
Classical: Behaviour changes are due to the
association of two stimuli (CS-UCS) presented prior tothe response (CR).
Focuses on elicitedbehaviours.
Operant: Behaviour changes as the result of theconsequences that follow it (reinforcement orpunishment).
Focuses on emittedbehaviours.
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Operant Conditioning
Important Concepts Reinforcement
Any event or stimulus, as a consequence of a response, thatincreases the probability that the response will occur again.
Positive reinforcement The reinforcement of a response as a result of the addition or
experiencing of a pleasurable stimulus. E.g. getting an A grade for studying hard.
Negative reinforcement The reinforcement of a response as a result of the removal, escape
from, or avoidance of an unpleasant stimulus. E.g. Taking Panadol is a negative reinforcer it removes your
headache.
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Intended Results
Increase in behaviour(reinforcement)
When stimulus is added, the result is . . .
Positive Reinforcement
Example: Giving a raise for goodperformance.
Results: INCREASE in response of goodperformance.
Operant Conditioning
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Increase in behaviour(reinforcement)
When stimulus is removed, the result is .. .Negative Reinforcement
Example: Applying ointment to relieve itchy rashleads to higher future likelihood of applyingointment.
Results: INCREASE in response of using ointment
Intended Results
Operant Conditioning
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Operant Conditioning
Shaping
Breaking down the desired, complex behaviour into simplerones and reinforcing those simpler steps so as to reach thedesired behaviour.
Successive approximations the small steps in behaviourthat will sequentially lead to a particular goal behavior.
Extinction
Occurs if the behavior (response) is not reinforced.
Generalization, discrimination, and spontaneousrecovery also occur in operant conditioning.
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Operant Conditioning
Reinforcement Schedules
Partial reinforcement effect
If a response is reinforced inconsistently (i.e., some, but notall, correct responses are reinforced), the response will tendto be very resistant to extinction.
Continuous reinforcement
All correct responses are always reinforced.
More easily extinguished.
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Operant Conditioning
Partial Reinforcement Schedules
Ratio (response) based
Fixed ratio - number of responses required forreinforcement is consistent and does not change. E.g. get a stamp for every purchase and when you
collect 10 stamps, your 11th purchase is free!
Variable ratio - number of responses required forreinforcement changes for each trial or event. E.g. Jackpot machines.
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Partial Reinforcement Schedules:
Cum
ulativefrequenc
yof
responses
Time
Fixed-Ratio Schedule:A schedule by whichreinforcement is given onlyafter a specific number ofresponses are made.
Typical Outcome:Short pauses occur after eachresponse. Because the moreresponses, the more
reinforcement, fixed-ratioschedules produce a high rateof responding.
There are shortpauses after each
response.
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Partial Reinforcement Schedules:
Cum
ulativefrequencyof
responses
Time
Variable-Ratio Schedule:A schedule by whichreinforcement occurs after avarying number of responsesrather than after a fixed
number.
Typical Outcome:Responding occurs at a highrate.
Responding occursat a high, steadyrate.
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Operant Conditioning
Interval (time) based
Number of responses does not matter.
Fixed interval - the same amount of time must pass before
reinforcement becomes possible. Response rate tends to increase as the end of the interval
approaches
E.g. cramming for final exam.
Variable interval - the amount of time that must pass beforereinforcement becomes possible is not predictable.
E.g. consistent studying for potential pop quizzes.
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Partial Reinforcement Schedules:
Variable-Interval Schedule:A schedule by which the timebetween reinforcements variesaround some average ratherthan being fixed.
Typical Outcome:Produces a fairly steadystream of responses.
Cum
ulativefrequencyof
responses
Time
Responding occurs
at a steady rate.
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Operant Conditioning
PunishmentAny event or object that follows a response and
makes that response less likely to happen again. Dont confuse with negative reinforcement, which is meant
to increase the likelihood of the response!
Punishment by application Punishing a response with an unpleasant stimulus.
E.g. spanking Punishment by removal
Punishing a response by removing a pleasurable stimulus. E.g. youre grounded!
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Decrease inbehaviour(punishment)
When stimulus is added, the result is . . .
Positive Punishment
Example: Yelling at a teenager forstealing a bracelet.
Results: DECREASE in frequency ofresponse of stealing.
Intended Results
Operant Conditioning
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Decrease inbehaviour(punishment)
When stimulus is removed, the result is .. .Negative Punishment
Example: Teenagers access to car restricted byparents due to teenagers breaking curfew.
Results: DECREASE in response of breaking curfew.
Intended Results
Operant Conditioning
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Operant Conditioning
Illustration of difference between negativereinforcement and punishment byremoval:
Desired behaviour submitting term paperson time:Negative reinforcement hand in paper before
deadline to avoid late penalty.Punishment by removal deduct 10 marks for
each day the paper is late.
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Operant Conditioning
Effective Punishment
Immediacy punishment should immediately follow
the behaviour it is meant to punish.
Consistency punishment should be consistent.
Punishment of the wrong behaviour should be paired,whenever possible, with reinforcement of the rightbehaviour.
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Operant Conditioning
Real-life applicationdealing with naughtychildren (as seen inSupernanny,
previously aired onArts Central):
Punishment time-outs, withdrawal of
privileges. Extinction ignore tantrums so they are not
reinforced.
Positive reinforcement praise, stars, treats.31 Jan 11
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Other Learning Phenomena
Learned helplessnessA history of repeated failures in the past may result in
a tendency for not trying to escape from a situationeven when escape is possible.
Observational learning Learning new behavior by watching that behaviour
being performed by someone else. Learning/performance distinction - referring to the
observation that learning can take place without actualperformance of the learned behavior.
TV violence?
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Memory
What is it?An active system that receives information from the
senses, organizes and alters it as it stores it away,and then retrieves the information from storage.
Three Major Memory Processes Encoding
Conversion of sensory information into a form that is usablein the brains storage systems.
Storage Keeping information for some period of time.
Retrieval Getting stored information into a form that can be used.
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Sensory MemoryThree-stage model of memoryIn this model, memory has three major components:(1) Sensory memory, which briefly holds incoming sensory information.
Sensory memory:+ iconic storage+ echoic storage
Types of Memory
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Types of Memory
Sensory memory
The stage where information first enters the nervous systemthrough the sensory systems the very first stage of memory.
Iconic memoryVisual sensory memory, lasting only a fraction of a second. Large capacity whatever that can be seen at one time.
Eidetic imagery - the rare ability to access a visual memory for 30seconds or more.
Echoic memory The brief memory of something that was just heard. Capacity - limited to what can be heard at any one moment and is
smaller than the capacity of iconic memory Duration lasts longer than iconic about 2 to 4 seconds.
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Short-term Memory:Three-stage model of memory(2) Working (short-term) memory, which processes certain information receivedfrom sensory memory and information retrieved from long-term memory.
Short-term memory: Lasts 12-30 secondsCapacity of 7 +/- 2 chunks of information
Types of Memory
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Types of Memory
Short-term memory (STM) (working memory)
Information is held for brief periods of time while being used. Used for selective attention:
Focusing on only one stimulus or task from among all sensory input.
Capacity magic number 7 (+ or 2). Maintenance rehearsal:
Practice of saying something over and over in ones head in order tomaintain it in STM.
Information in STM tend to be encoded in auditory form.
Duration lasts from about 12 to 30 seconds without rehearsal Susceptible to interference
e.g., if rehearsal is interrupted, have to start over.
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Long-term Memory:Three-stage model of memory(3) Long-term memory, which stores information for longer periods of time.Source: Adapted from Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968.
Long-term memory:+ Permanent method of
storing memories+ Unlimited capacity
Types of Memory
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Types of Memory
Long-term memory (LTM) Where information is kept more or less permanently.
Information is primarily organized in semantic andconceptual associations.
Types of LTM Nondeclarative (procedural) memory
Memory for skills, procedures, habits, emotional associations,and conditioned responses.
These memories are not conscious (implicit memory) but areimplied to exist because they affect conscious behavior.
Amnesia typically does not affect procedural memory.
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Types of Memory
Declarative memory
Memory containing information that is conscious (explicitmemory) and known.
Semantic memory
Memory for facts. General knowledge, knowledge of language, and
information learned in formal education.
Episodic memory
Memory for events.
Contains personal information not readily available toothers, such as daily activities and occurrences.
Amnesia typically affects declarative memory.
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Long-Term Memory
Semantic Memory(general memory)
Episodic Memory(personal knowledge)
Declarative Memory(factual information) Procedural Memory(skills and habits)
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Long-Term Memory
Semantic Memory(general memory)
Episodic Memory(personal knowledge)
Procedural Memory(skills and habits)Declarative Memory(factual information)
Example:Yusof Ishakwas the first presidentof Singapore
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Semantic Memory(general memory)
Episodic Memory(personal knowledge)
Declarative Memory(factual information)
Example:Riding a bicycle
Procedural Memory(skills and habits)
Long-Term Memory
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Long-Term Memory
Declarative Memory(factual information)
Example:Yusof Ishak is Malay.
Procedural Memory(skills and habits)
Semantic Memory(general memory)
Episodic Memory(personal knowledge)
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Declarative Memory(factual information)
Example:Remembering your visit to YusofIshak House in NUS
Procedural Memory(skills and habits)
Semantic Memory(general memory)
Episodic Memory(personal knowledge)
Long-Term Memory
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References
Colman, A. M. (2001). A dictionary ofpsychology. Oxford: Oxford UniversityPress.
Feinberg, R. A. (1986). Credit cards asspending facilitation stimuli: A conditioninginterpretation. Journal of Consumer
Research, 13, 348-356.
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Summary
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Summary
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Summary
3 stages of memory Encoding
Storage
Retrieval
3 types of memory
Sensory (iconic and echoic) Short-term (working)
Long-term (declarative and nondeclarative)
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Take Home Message
Can you remember what you have learnedtoday?
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