learning, memory, and intelligence “the question we have to ask is “is our children...

Learning, Memory, and Intelligence

“The question we have to ask is “Is our children learning?’”

President George W. Bush

Assignment

• Turn over your piece of paper

And…

• Write the National Anthem

Conditioning

• In psychology, learning is also known as conditioning.

• The first type of learning to be formally studied is called classical conditioning, which was discovered by Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov

Classical Conditioning

• Conditioning occurs by connecting a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus, producing an unconditioned response.

• Over time, the neutral stimulus will produce the response without the unconditioned stimulus present.

• At this point, the neutral stimulus is now known as the conditioned stimulus, which produces the conditioned response.

• Note: neutral stimulus must occur before the unconditioned stimulus for the conditioning to take place

Example

1. UCS (reflex hammer) ---> UCR ( knee jerk reflex)

2. NS (Justin Bieber Picture) + UCS - UCR

3. CS (Picture) - CR (knee jerk reflex)Note: Classical conditioning often used to

explain phobias

Issues in Classical Conditioning

Generalization

Discrimination

Extinction

Operant Conditioning

• Most associated with B.F. Skinner (John Watson, of “Little Albert” infamy, began what is called behaviorism)

• Classical conditioning most concerned with activity prior to the behavior, while operant conditioning of what occurs as a response to the behavior

• According to Skinner, behaviors that are reinforced after they occur are more likely to continue

Reinforcing behavior

• Key: Make sure that it is reinforcing for the individual

• Types:1. Primary: satisfies a survival need

2. Secondary: learned

Reinforcing behavior

• Positive Reinforcement: adding a pleasant consequence in order to promote a desired behavior

• Negative Reinforcement: removing something unpleasant as a consequence in order to promote a desired behavior

• Punishment: adding an unpleasant consequence in order to exterminate a behavior

Schedules of Reinforcement• In order to get a desired behavior to continue, it must be

reinforced. There are five different methods to reinforce the desired behavior.

1. Continuous: reinforced every time2. Fixed-ratio: reinforced on specified quantity3. Variable-ratio: reinforced based on unspecified quantity4. Fixed-interval: reinforced on specified amount of time5. Variable-interval: reinforced on unspecified amount of timeNote: variable schedules work best in maintaining the behaviorAlso, for operant conditioning to work the best, the

reinforcement/punishment should follow the behavior as soon as possible.

Shaping and Chaining

• Shaping: crafting new behaviors from old ones (learning to write cursive after printing)

• Chaining: learning to connect a set of different behaviors together in order to form a single behavior

• Shaping/Chaining often reinforced through successive approximations.

Social Learning

• Not all learning takes place through directly doing the behavior

- Some takes place by watching the actions of others, or using prior learned material to master new situations. This is collectively known as social learning

Modeling

• Learning through watching the actions of others

• Also known as imitation or observational learning

• Controversy: Does watching TV make people more likely to engage in destructive/inappropriate behaviors? (Bandura “bobo doll”)

What is Intelligence?

• The capacity to acquire and apply knowledge

• Major controversies: How should an individual’s intelligence be measured? Also, can intelligence be accurately measured?

Measuring Intelligence• IQ = Intelligence Quotient. The term popularized by Dr. Lewis Terman in

1916. Terman later taught Harry Harlow (of wire monkey/attachment fame)

• Terman was also a proponent of eugenics

• Originally, the IQ test was used to compare a child’s intelligence against same-age children.

• First large-scale testing was done on American soldiers during World War I

• Mental Age X 100 = IQ Chronological Age

Intelligence Controversies

1. Nature v. Nurture: Is intelligence a matter of genetics (nature), or is it a product of environment (nurture)?

- research indicates that genetics may account for up to 70% of intelligence (Bouchard).

- however, studies indicate that siblings raised together have more similar IQ scores than

those raised apart- Flynn Effect: Successive generations are scoring higher on

IQ scores. This is evidence that environment plays a role in intelligence (e.g. more people go to college/finish high school than a century ago).

Intelligence Controversies

2. Cultural Bias: some argue that IQ test are slanted toward certain racial/ethnic groups, making the scores unfair to those of certain minority groups

Intelligence Controversies

3. Is there more than one type of intelligence?- traditionally, IQ tests measure only certain types of

ability, typically linked to academic learning- Howard Gardner (1983, 1999) proposed that eight

different types of intelligence exist:1. Linguistic/Verbal 5. Kinesthetic2. Logical/Mathematical 6. Interpersonal3. Spatial 7. Intrapersonal4. Musical 8. Naturalist

Other Intelligence Theories

• Charles Spearman: Two-Factor Theory. Intelligence is made up of general factor (overall intelligence) and specific abilities (s factors).

• Robert Sternberg: Triarchic Theory. Intelligence is made of three parts: Practical (allows one to cope/thrive in their environment); Analytical (logical reasoning), and Creative (inventive problem solving). Think PAC-man.

• Raymond Cattell: intelligence is fluid(rapid processing of information to make new connections/novel solutions, or crystallized (knowledge acquired over lifespan). Fluid intelligence weakens with age.

• Emotional intelligence: ability to recognize emotions in other people and apply that knowledge in specific situations.

Intelligence Controversies

4. How should it be measured? Does it measure what it says it does

-Typically, intelligence is measured using two different types of tests:

A. Achievement: what you have learned (Terra Nova, ISAT, Prairie State)

B. Aptitude: What you are capable of learning (ACT, SAT, LSAT, MCAT)

Intelligence Controversies

• Also, tests are expected to be:

Valid: That the test measures what it claims to measure

Reliable: That the results are consistent over time/attempts