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UNIT I
ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT MBA
UNIT IEnvironment and its components Ecology Forest wild
life Biotic and abiotic environment Agricultural fisheries-
cycling of materials in the ecosystem eco friendly farming
Lithosphere atmosphere- hydrosphere stratosphere Food chain-
climate change Carbon credit
1.Environment The term may be defined in a number of ways (in the
context of human beings)
Environment is the sum total of all social, economical, biological,
physical and chemical factors which constitute the surroundings of
humans, who are both the creators and moulders of the
environment.
The terms environment means surroundings, in which the
organisms live.
Environment is sum total of influences which modify and
determine the development of life and its characteristics.
It is the sum of all biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living) factors that
surround and potentially influence an organism (ie, Environment is
the physical and Biotic Habitat that surround us)
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ie, - Environment creates favourable conditions for the existence
and development of living organisms.
- Some component of Environment serve as resource (e.g. soil,
water, etc) while others act as regulatory factor (eg.
Temperature, light, etc)
- Different components of the environment are interlinked and
interdependent
- Everything we need to survive comes from air, water, soil and
energy
- The quality of our lives depends completely on the health
and vigor of the web of living things that clean, the air and
water, create soil, capture sunlight and provides us with food
and resources.
I. (A) Organisms and Environment
- Nature consists of two very much complex
interdependent mutually reactive and interrelated
entities the organisms and the Environment
- The organisms can survive only in appropriate
environments interact with each other, and are
influenced by the whole complex of Environmental
factors.
(a) Organism
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- It is a form of life composed of mutually
interdependent parts that maintain various vital
process
- It is a creature such as a single-celled life form (plant
or animal) or something that has interdependent
parts.
- Single celled microorganisms were the first forms of life
to develop on earth
Examples: Bacteria, protozoa, fungi, algae viruses
- Organisms/micro organisms live in any part of the
Biosphere including soil, hot springs, on the ocean
floor, high in the atmosphere and deep inside rocks,
within the Earths crust.
- Microorganisms are crucial to nutrient cycling in
Ecosystems, as they act as decomposers.
- As some Microorganisms fix nitrogen, they are a vital
part of the nitrogen cycle.
- Recent studies indicate that airbone micro organisms
may play a role in precipitation and weather.
- Micro organisms are often referred to as microbes, but
this usually used in reference to pathogens.
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- Micro organisms are also exploited in Biotechnology
both in traditional food and beverage preparation and
in modern technologies based on genetic engineering.
I(b)Types of Environment
Environment may be divided into the following categories
(i) Natural Environment (ii) Anthropogenic Environment
(Man-made Environment)
I(b) 1. Natural Environment
The Environment that comes into existence without
interference of man is called Natural Environment
- Natural Environment includes such as air, water, soil,
land, forest, wild life, flora, fauna
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- This environment operates through aself- regulatingmechanism, therefore any change brought about by
one component of the Environment is counter
balanced by some other changes in another component
of the Environment.
- The Natural Environment isnever static, the changes
may sometimes be negligible, while at other times,
they may be drastic. These changes may be either
beneficial or harmful to the living in the Environment.
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- That means Natural Environment operates through
self-regulating mechanism called Homoeostatic
Environment Mechanismie, any change in the
Natural ecosystem is brought by Natural process is
counter balanced by changes in other components of
the Environment.
I (b) 2. Concept of Homeostasis (Equilibrium)
- The challenge of every cell is to maintain intracellular
conditions that may differ from the external
environment, yet still communicate with Environment
- The term Homeostasisfound byWalter Cannon
(1929)
- Constancyof milieu interne(stability of its internal
environment) as essential for the existence of free-
living organisms ie the ability of a cell to sustain its
intracellular and extra cellular milieu.
- Broadly defined,homeostasisrepresents the sum of
the physiological process, in an organism, a multi
cellular system, or a cell that maintain the relative
stability of its internal environment, and thus provide
the basis for its survival and function.
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- Maintenance of the internal milieuis an active
process requiring the intricate the interaction of
numerousbiochemicalandbiophysicalprocesses,
using or utilizing most of metabolic energy of the cell.
- Homeostasisis controlled on two different levels. One
is the maintenance of the individualintracellular
milieu. The other is the maintenance of theextra
cellular milieu, within a multi cellular organization.
I (b) 3. The Natural Environment of the Earthis divided
into four realms, namely (i) Lithosphere
(ii)Hydrosphere(iii)Atmosphere(iv)Biosphere(The
four spheres of the earth)
- i.e. The area near the surface of earth can be divided
into fourinter-connected geo-spheres
- The names of the four spheres are derived from the
Greek words for (1) Stone (litho), (2) Water (Hydro) (3)
Air (atmo) and (4) life (Bio)
Fig: Four realms of Earth
I (b) 3.1 Lithosphereis the solid shell of the planet. It is therigid outer most shell of a rocky planet. It can be
identified on the basis of its mechanical properties.
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- On the Earth it comprises thecrustand the portion of
theupper mantleie, the crust and the upper mantle
form the lithosphere.
- The lithosphere extends from the surface of the Earth
to a depth of 70-100 km.
1.b 3.1 (a) Earth Crust
- The outer most layer is called Earths crust
- The crust is inorganic and is composed of rocks
minerals and soil.
- The thickness of the crust varies. Crust has two parts
(i) continental (ii) oceanic Under the oceans the crust
is only about (5-10 km) thick. Under the continents,
the crust thickens to about 35 km and reaches depth
upto 60 km.
1 (b) 3.1 (b) Mantle
- Below the crust is the mantle and mantle makes up
the largest volume of Earths interior. The mantle has
two parts (i) Anupper layer(ii) and alower mantle.
- (i)Upper Mantle
Beneath the crust is a layer of rock materials that is
also solid, rigid and relatively cool, but is made up of
dense material. This layer is called the upper mantle,
and it varies in depth from 50-100 km, below Earth
surface.
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- The combination of the crust, and this upper part of
the upper mantle, which are both composed of
relatively cool and rigid rock material, is called the
lithosphere.
1 (b) 3.1 (c)Temperature of Below Lithosphere
- 1000oC. So there is some molten material at this depth
(about 10%)
1 (b) 3.2Hydrosphere
It includes the surface water and its surrounding interface-
liquid components of earth)
- It includes all liquid and frozen surface waters, ground
water held in soil and rock and atmospheric water
vapour.
- Due to the range of surface temperatures and
pressures, water exist in all three states: solid (ice),
liquid (water) and gas (water vapour) on earth.
- So the hydrosphere includes all the water on the
Earth. Most of which is contained in the oceans. The
presence of water on Earth, gives it the nameBlue
planet
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- The Earths hydrosphere consists chiefly of the ocean,
but technically include clouds, inland, seas, lakes,
rivers and underground water.
- The abundance of water onEarthis a unique feature,
that distinguishes ourBlue planetfrom others in
the solar system.
- Approximately70.8percent of the Earth is covered by
water.
- The Hydrosphere plays a key rolein the development
and sustenance of life.
- The Hydrosphere like the atmosphere is alwaysin
motion. The motion of rivers and streams can be seen
easily, while the motion of water within lakes and
ponds is less obvious. Some of the motions of oceans
and seas can be seen easily, while the large scale
motions that move water greater distance, such as
between tropics and poles or between continents are
more difficult to be seen.
- These types of motions are in the form of currents,
that move warm waters, in the tropics toward the poles
and colder water from the polar regions, toward the
tropics. These current exist on the surface of the ocean
and at great depths in the ocean (upto about 4 km)
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- The characteristics of the ocean which affects its
motion are its temperature and salinity.
I (b) 3.2 (a)Water cycle or Hydrological cycle
- Central to any discussion on Hydrosphere is water
cycle. The water cycle also known as the Hydrological
cycle or the H2O cycle describes the continuous
movement of water on above and below the surface of
the earth ie, the movement of water from the earth
surface to atmosphere through hydrological cycle.
- The mass of water on Earth, remainsfairly constant,
over time, but the partitioning of the water, into major
rivers of ice, fresh water, saline water and atmospheric
water is variable depending on a wide range o climatic
variables.
- The water moves from one reservoir to another, such
as from river to ocean, or from the ocean to
atmosphere, by the physical process ofevaporation,
condensation,precipitation,infiltration,runoffand
substance flow. In doing so the water goes through
different phases : liquid, solid (ice) and gas (vapour).
So due to the range of surface temperature and
pressures, water exist in all three states : solid (ice),
liquid (water) and gas (water vapour) on earth.
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- The water cycle involves theexchange of energy,
which leads to temperature changes. For instance,
when waterevaporates,it takes up energy from thesurroundings and cools the Environment. When it
condenses, it releases, energy and warms the
Environment. These heat exchange influence climate.
- Water cycle is also essential for the maintenance of
most life and ecosystem on the planet.
1 (b) 3.3.Atmosphere (Atmosphere of Earth)
- Atmosphere is a layer of gases, surrounding the
planet earth and that is retained by Earths gravity or
simply the layer of gases surrounding the earth is
called the atmosphere.
- It (Earths atmosphere) is a complex fluid of gases, as
suspended particles, did not have its origin in the
beginning of the plant.
- The atmosphere as of today has been derived from the
Earth itself byChemical- Bio-chemical reactions.
- Atmosphere forms an envelop of gaseous around the
earth.
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- The atmosphere protects the life on Earth by
absorbing ultraviolet-solar radiation, warming the
surface through heat retention (green house effect)
and reducing temperature extremes between day and
night (the diurnal temperature variation).
- The gases like Nitrogen, Oxygen, Argon, CO2and water
vapour, etc together make up the total volume of
Atmosphere.
- Earths Atmosphere, which is mostly nitrogen.
- Its current composition is the product of Billions of
years of Biochemical modifications of the paleo
atmosphere by living organisms.
1 (b) 3.3 (a)Atmospheric composition
There areeleven most abundantgases found in the Earths
atmosphere by volume. Of the gases listed; nitrogen, oxygen, water
vapour, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide and ozone are
extremely important to the Health of Earths Biosphere. Of these
Nitrogen and oxygen, together constitute about 99% of the gas in
the atmosphere.
Average composition of the Atmosphere up to an attitude of 25 km
No. Gas Name Chemical Formula Percentage volume
1. Nitrogen N2 78.08%
2. Oxygen O2 20.95%
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3. Argon Ar 0.93%
4. Carbondioxide CO2 0.036%
5. Neon Ne 0.0018%
6. Helium He 0.0005%
7. Methane CH4 0.00017%
8. Hydrogen H2 0.00005%
9. Nitrous Oxide N2O 0.00003%
10. Ozone O3 0.00004%
11. Water H2O 1-4%
1 (b) 3.3(b).Structure of Atmosphere
Principal Layers (Atmospheric Stratification)
Earths Atmosphere can be divided (calledAtmospheric
Stratification)intofive mainlayers. From the highest to lowest.
(i) Exosphere : >700 Km (>440 miles)
(ii) Thermosphere : 80 to 700 Km (50-440 miles)
(iii) Mesosphere : 50 to 80 Km (31 to 50 miles)
(iv) Stratosphere : 12 to 50 Km (7 to 31 miles)
(v) Troposphere : 0 to 12 Km (0 to 7 miles)
1 (b) 3 (b)(i)Exosphere
- It is the outer most layer of Earths Atmosphere (ie, the
upper limit of the atmosphere).
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- It is located at the top of thethermosphereat an
attitude of about 700 Km above the sea level to about
10,000 Km.
- The exosphere merges with the emptiness of outer
space where there isno atmosphere.
- This layer is mainly composed of extremely low,
densities of hydrogen, helium and several heavier
molecules including nitrogen, oxygen and carbon
Dioxide closer to exobase.
- The atoms and molecules, are so far apart, that they
can travel, hundred of kilometers, without colliding
with one another. Thusexosphereno longer behaves
like a gas and the particlesconstantlyescape in to
space.
1 (b) 3 (b)(ii)Thermosphere
- Thermosphere is the second highest layer of Earths
Atmosphere. It lies at the lower boundary of the
exosphere and hence it is also referred to asexobase.
- The lower part of the thermosphere, from 80 Km to
550 Km above the Earths surface contains the
ionosphere.
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- This atmospheric layer, undergoes a gradual increase
in temperature with height. The temperature of this
layer can rise as high as 1.500oC (2,700oF).
(iii) Mesosphere
The third highest layer of Atmosphere, occupying the region
above the stratosphere.
- It extends from thestratopauseat an attitude of
about 50 Km tomesopauseat 80-85 Km above the
sea level.
- Temperature drops with increasing attitude to the
mesopause that marks, the top of this middle layer of
atmosphere.
- It is the coldest place on atmosphere has an average
temperature around 85oC.Just below, the
mesopause, the air is so cold.
- The Mesosphere is also the layer where most meteors
burn upon atmospheric entrance.
(iv) Stratosphere
- The Stratosphere is thesecond lowestlayer of
Earths Atmosphere. It lies above the troposphere and
is separated from it by thetropopause.
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- This layer extends from the top of the troposphere at
roughly 12 Km above Earths surface to the
Stratopause at an attitude of about 50 to 55 Km.
- Stratosphere defines a layer, in which temperature rise
with increase in attitude.
- This rise in temperature is caused by the absorption of
ultraviolet radiation (UV) from the sun, by the ozone
layer. Although the temperature may be 60oC at the
Tropopause, the top of the stratosphere is much
warmer and may be near 0oC.
- The stratospheric temperature profile creates very
stable, atmospheric conditions, so the stratosphere,
lacks the weather producing air turbulance that is so
prevalent in the troposphere. Consequently the
Stratosphere is almost completely free of clouds and
other forms of weather.
(v) Troposphere
- The troposphere is the lowest layer of Earths
Atmosphere. It extends from the Earths surface to an
average height of about 12 Km, although this attitude
varies from about 9 Km (30,000 ft) at poles of 17 Km
(56,000 ft) at the equator, with some variation due to
weather.
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- The troposphere is bounded above the tropopause.
- Temperature usually declines with increasing attitude,
in the troposphere. The lowest part of the troposphere
(ie, Earth surface) is the warmest section of the
troposphere, because the troposphere is mostly heated
through energy transfer from the surface.
- The troposphere containsroughly 80% of the mass
ofthe Earths atmosphere. Thetroposphere is denser
than all its overlying atmosphere layers, because, a
larger atmospheric weight sits on the top of the
troposphere and causes, it to be most severely
compressed. Fifty percent of the total mass of the
atmosphere is located in the lower 5.6 Km (18,000 ft)
of the troposphere. It is primarily composed of
Nitrogen (78%) and Oxygen (21%) with small
concentration of other trace gases.
- Nearly all atmospheric water vapour or moisture is
found in the Troposphere, so it is the layer, where most
of Earths weather take place.
- Most conventional aviation actively takes place in the
troposphere and it is the only layer, that can be
assessed by propeller driven aircraft.
1 (b) 3 (c) Other layers of Atmosphere
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(1) Ozone layer (2) Ionosphere (3) Planetary Boundary
Layer
1. Ozone Layer
It is contained within the Stratosphere. The ozone
concentrations in the stratosphere are about 2 to 8
PPM (Parts Per Million), which is higher than in the
lower atmosphere.
- The ozone layer is mainly located in the lower portion
of the stratosphere from about 15-35 Km, though thethickness varies seasonally and geographically.
- About 90% of the ozone in our atmosphere is
contained within the stratosphere.
2. Ionosphere
The Ionosphere is a region of the atmosphere, that is
ionized by Solar Radiation. It is responsible for
auroras. During the day time hours, it stretches from
50 to 1,000 Km, which includes the Mesosphere
Thermosphereand parts of theExosphere. However,
ionization in the mesosphere, largely cease during the
night, So auoras are normally seen only in the
thermosphereandlower exosphere.
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- The ionosphere forms the inner edge of
magnetosphere. It has practical importance, because
it influences, for example, radio propagation on earth.
3. Planetary Boundary Layer
The planetary boundary layer, is the part of the
troposphere that is closes to Earths surface and is
directly affected by it, mainly through turbulent
diffusion. During the day, the planetary boundary
layer usually is well-mixed, where as at night it
becomes, stably stratified, withweak or intermittent
mixing.
- The depth of the planetary boundary layer ranges
from, as little as about 100 meters on clear, calm
nights to 3000 m or more during the afternoon in dry
regions.
1 (b) 3 (d) Physical properties of Atmosphere
(i) Pressure
The average atmospheric pressure at sea level.
- Average atmosphere pressure at sea level is 1 standardatmosphere (atm) = 10.3 KPa (Kilo Pascals)
But Atmospheric pressure = Total weight of the air above
Total area
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Ie, Total weight of the air above unit area, where
the pressure is measured.
- Thus the air pressure varies with location and weather
- Atmospheric pressure decreases exponentially with
attitude, dropping by half every 5-6 Km (18,000 ft).
- In summary, the mass of Earth Atmosphere is
distributed approximately as follows.
50% is below 5.6 Km (18,000 ft)
90% is below 16 Km (52,000 ft)
99.99997% is below 100 Km
- Commercial airliners typically cruise between 10 Km
(33,000 ft) and 13 Km (43,000 ft) where thinner air improves
fuel economy.
(ii)Temperature & Speed
- Temperature decreases with attitude starting at sea
level but variations, in the trend begin above 11 Km.
- In the stratosphere, staring above 20 Km, the
temperature increases with highest due to heating
within the ozone layer caused by capture of significant
ultraviolet radiation, from the sun, by the dioxin and
ozone gas in this region.
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- Still another region of increasing temperature with
attitude occurs at very high attitudes, in the
thermosphere above 90 Km.
(iii) Sound
Speed of sound depends only on temperature and not
on the gas pressure or density.
(iv) Density & Mass
- The density air at sea level is about 1.2 Kg/m2.
- Atmospheric density decreases as the attitude
increases.
1 (b) 3.4 Biosphere
- The Biosphere is the thin shell oforganic matteron
surface of earth comprising all the living things.
- It encompasses all zones on the earth in which life is
present ie, entire Bio-resources of the earth.
- It developed on earth since 4.5 Billions year through
evolutionary process.
- It is a part of Earth which includes, air, land, surface
rocks and water, an all components with in which life
occurs.
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- It is the life-zone of earth and includes all living
organism.
- It occupies theleast volumeof all the spheres, but it
is the cause of majority of the flow of matter through
nature.
- Relative to the volume of earth, the Biosphere, is the
onlyvery thin surface layer, that extends from
11,000 meters ie, 8 km below sea level to 15,000
meters ie, 8 km above in to the atmosphere. At the top
of the lithosphere, throughout hydrosphere and into
the lower atmosphere, life of diverse types (Biosphere)
exist. Biosphere layer there fore extends over most of
the surface of earth. It includes the upper layers of the
Earths crust and the thin layer- These bioresourcesand their surrounding constitute Biosphere, where
man kind is acting as the most evolved creature .Crust
and the thin layer soil that support life.
- Biosphere is responsible for the grand scale, recycling
of energy and matter on earth.
- Biosphere is the global sum of all eco systems.
- It is therefore termed as thezone of life on earth, a
closed system and largelyself-regulating.
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- By the most general bio physiological definition the
Biosphere is theglobal ecological system, integrating
all living beings and their relationship, including theirinteraction with the element.
1 (b) 3.4 (a)Biome
With in the Biosphere there are several major regions,
containing specific types of Ecosystems. These major regions
are calledBiomes.
- Biomes are then recognized by the types of dominant
ecosystems tropical rain forest, temperate forests,
deserts, prairies and Arctic Tundra.
- A Biome is ahomogeneous ecologicalformation that
exist over a vast region, such as tundra or steppes.
- The Biosphere comprises all of theEarths Biomes
the entirely of places, where life is possible from the
highest mountains to the depth of the oceans.
- The Biosphere contains great quantities of elements
such as carbon, nitrogenand oxygen. Other
elements, such as phosphorous, calciumand
potassiumare also essential to life, yet are present in
smaller amounts. At the ecosystems and biosphere
levels, there is a continual recycling of all these
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elements which alternate their mineral and organic
states.
- Biomesare regional ecosystems and the Biosphere isthe largest of all possible ecosystems.
I (b), 2. Man made or Anthropogenic Environment (Human
Impact on Environment)
- The environment which has been modified by human
activities is called man made activities.
- Human impact on the Environment or anthropogenic
impact on the Environment includes impacts onbio
physical Environments,biodiversityand other
resources.
- Man is the Highest of all the creatures on this earth.
He is modifying the environment according to his own
needs and ways without taking into account its
consequences.
- Increase in the scientific technologies which are the
product of Human brain is now deteriorating the
environment.
- The term anthropogenicdesignates an effect of
object resulting from Human activity.
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- The term is sometimes used in the context of pollution
emissions that are produced as a result of human
activities but applies broadly to all major, human
impacts on Environment.
Few examples of Human impacts on the Environment
or (Anthropogenic factor) are:
(1) Environmental impacts caused by the application of
Technology (leading to negative Environmental
consequences)
(2) The Environmental Impact of agriculture, varies based
on vide variety of Agricultural practices employed
around the world.
(3) Environmental Impact of fishing: Such as (i) Over
fishing (ii) Pollution (iii) Poor fishery management
(4) Environmental Impact of Irrigation Due to Over
irrigation
- Over irrigating the field causes, the problems of
water logging and increases the salinity of the
soil (changes in the quality of soil and water)
(5) Continuous cutting of trees Deforestation
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- Deforestation increases, soil erosion, loss of
fertility and loss of water, accelerating the
process of desertification
(6) Overgrazing leads to Barren land : Heavy grazing by
the increasing cattle population in grass lands, is
continuously denuding the land area, resulting in the
land becoming barren
(7) Excessive ploughing leads to desertification
- Excessive ploughing makes the soil particles
loose and leads to desertification.
(8) Conversion of pastures to arable land ultimately leads
to desertification
- Where large areas of pasture lands are converted
to arable land, soil is let loose and is easily
blown by winds, further increasing the problems
of desertification.
(8) Excessive use of fertilizers :- Top soil becomes loose
pollution
- Owing to excessive use of fertilizers, the top soil
becomes loose, and is blown, away by the wind.
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III. Components of Environment or Biotic and Abiotic
Components of Environment
- Natural Environment includes all the living and non-
living components occurring naturally on Earth.
- The Biological components of the ecosystem, that is
the Biotic components interact with the physical
entities (abiotic components)
- The scientific study of the interaction of Biotic
components with each other and with abiotic
components is known as Ecology
(a) Abiotic Components
- The abiotic components are also known as abiotic
factors
- The way in which plants and animals grown and carry
out their activities, is a result of several abiotic factors
- The abiotic factors in Ecology consists ofnon-living,
physicalandchemical factorsof the Environment
Examples of abiotic components (physical factors) are
air water, soil, rocks, etc.
The Chemical factors of abiotic components aregas,
acids, inorganic elementsandcomponents(such as
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soil, water, calcium, oxygen and variety of organic
components such as humus and different climatic
conditions, such as light, temperature, wind
precipitation)
- All of these factors, affect different organisms to
different extents. For examples, if there is little or no
sunlight then plants maywither and diefrom not
being able to get enough sunlight to do
photosynthesis.
- Abiotic components are essential for the living world,
as life cannot exist without abiotic factors (such as
sunlight, water, air and minerals).
- Thequality of the abiotic environmentis a critical
factor for life. Water for examples, cannot only vary in
terms of availability, but also in terms of
characteristics such as turbidity, alkalinity, PH
levels, amount of dissolved oxygen and the
concentration and combinations of various chemicals.
- Changes in the abiotic environment can affect the
conditions of living organisms and vice-versa.
- Human activities are currently resulting in
considerable changes, in the abiotic environment of
Earth, including changes in the global cycles, hence
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causing harmful environmental effects such as global
warning.
- So the abiotic or non-living components include
climatic and edaphic factors. The climatic factors
include temperature, humidity, rain snow fall, etc.
- The edaphic factors comprise the soil, substratum etc.
(b)Biotic components of Environment
- Biotic components are the living things that shape an
Ecosystem (ie, the living organisms from the Biotic
Components of Environment).
- ABiotic factoris any living component that affects
another organism, including animals that consume
the organisms in question and the living food that the
organisms consumes.
- Each Biotic factor needs food and energy to work and
for proper growth. Biotic factors include human
influence also.
- Based on the role the biotic components in the
ecosystem, they are categorized in to three main
categories.
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Producers, ie,auto tropes: eg. Plants they convert
the energy (from Photo synthesis) in to food (in the
transfer of sunlight, water and carbon dioxide into
energy)
Ie, producers are organisms, that synthesise
organic substances. Example- plant.
Consumersie, heterotophs eg. Animals, they
depend upon producers (occasionally other
consumers) for food (that is consumers are
organisms that feed on other organisms).
Consumers are of three types(i) primary
consumers(ii)secondary consumers(iii)tertiary
consumers.
Decomposersie, detritivores eg. Fungi and
bacteria. They break down chemicals from
producers and consumers (usually dead) into
simpler form, which can be reused.
- Ie, These aresaprophytes micro organisms that feed
on dead and decayed waste matter
- The non-green organisms like the fungi and some
bacteria, which are in capable of producing their food,
live on the dead and decaying plant or animal parts.
IV. Ecology
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(A) Definition: Ecology is the study of the relationship
between living organisms and their environment
- It is the study oforganisms in their naturalhabitat.
- It is the study onthe set of relationship of a particular
organisms with its Environment.
- Ecology proceeds atthree levels: (1) theindividual
organisms (2) the population (consisting of
individuals of the same species and (3) the
community(consisting of number of populations)
- At thelevel of the organisms, ecology deals with how
individuals are affected by and how they affect their
Environment? For example: Is the green house effect a
real danger? and what are the implications for human
life as the earth heats up further?
- At the level ofpopulationecology (population ecology)
deals with the presence or absence of particular
species and with trends and fluctuations in their
numbers. It is concerned with interrelationship of co-
actions between individuals within and between
species. Co-actions may be beneficial to participants or
harmful to them.
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- Community ecologydeals with the composition or
structure of communities and with the natural
resources, affected by them.
- Ecologisttry to predict what will happen to
organisms, populations or communities under a
particular habitat.
- The topic of interest to ecologists include thediversity,
amount (biomass), number (population) of
organisms, as well as competitionbetween them
within and among ecosystems
- Ecology is aninterdisciplinary fieldthat includes
Biology and Earth science.
- It is usually considered as a branch of Biology.
- The wordecology(Okologie) was coined in1896 by
the German Scientist Ernst Haeckel(1834-1919)
- Ancient Greek Philosophers, such asHippocrates and
Aristotle, laid the foundations of ecology in their
studies on Natural History.
- Modern Ecology transformed into more rigorous
science in the late 19thcentury.
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- Evolutionary concepts on adaptationand natural
selectionbecame corner stones, of modern ecological
theory.
- Ecology is not synonymous with environment,
environmentalism, natural history or
environmental science.
- It is closely related toevolutionary biology, genetics
and ethology.
- An understanding of how biodiversity affects ecological
functions, is an important area in ecological studies.
Role of Ecologists
- Ecologists try to predict, what will happen to
organisms(any form of life, it includes, all plants and
animals),Populations(group of individuals organisms
of the same species living within an area) or
communities(any assemblage of populations in a
prescribed area or physical habitat that has
characteristics, in addition to its individual and
population components) under a particular habitat.
- Ecologists, seek to explain.
Life processes, interactions and adaptations
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The movement of materials and energy through living
communities.
The successional development of Ecosystems and
The abundance and distribution of organisms and
biodiversity in the context of environment
(C) Ecologyis a human science as well.
(i) There are many practical applications ofecology
inConservation Biology.Wet land Management,
natural resource management (agro ecology,
agricultural, forestry, agro forestry, fisheries) City
Planning (urban ecology) Community health
economics, basic and applied science and human
social interaction (human ecology).
(ii) Ecology is a multi-disciplinary science. Because of
its focus on the Higher levels of the organization of life
on earth and on the interrelations between organisms
and their environment, ecology draws, heavily on many
other branches of science, especially Geology and
Geography, Meterology, Pedology, Chemistry and
Physics. Thus, ecology is said to be aholistic science,
one that over arches old disciplines, such as biology,
which in this view become sub-disciplines,
contributing to ecological knowledge.
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(iii) The termsEcologyis sometimes confused with the
term Environmentalism.Environmentalism is a
social movement aimed at the goal of protecting
natural resourcesof the environment and which may
involve political lobbying, activism, education and so
forth.
(iv) Ecology is the science that studies, living
organisms and their interactions with the
Environment. As such ecology involves scientific
methodologyand does not dictate what is right or
wrong. However findings in ecology may be used to
support or counter various goals, assets or actions of
environmentalists.
(v) Disciplines of Ecology :
Ecology is a broad science, which can be subdivided
into major and minor sub-disciplines. The major sub-
disciplines include
(1) Physiological ecology of (eco physiology)
(2) Behavioural ecology
(3) Population ecology
(4) Community ecology (or synecology)
(5) Ecosystem Ecology (which studies the flow of
energy and matter through eco system)
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(6) Medical Ecology
(7) Landscape Ecology
(8) Evolution Ecology
Ecology can be sub-divided on the basis ofTarget group
(1) Annual Ecology (2) Plant Ecology (3) Insict Ecology
(4) Human Ecology, etc
Basic concepts of Ecology are:
(1) Ecological unit (2) the ecosystem (3) energy flow (4)
nutrient cycles (5) species interaction (6) productivity (7)
Ecological challenges
IV (D)Eco system
- An Ecosystem is abiotic assemblage of plants,
animals and microbes(a community of living
organisms) taken together with their physio-chemical
environment.
* The Physio chemical environment are :
(1) Light, temperature, humidity, rain, mineral, soil,
etc.
(2) Gases acids, water, inorganic elements, organic
substances, etc.
- ie, an Ecosystem is a community of living
organism, in conjunction with non-living
components.
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- The Ecosystem concepts was introduced by the British
Ecologist,Arthur Tansleyin 1935.
- An ecosystem consists of two components (i)Biotic
and (ii)Abiotic
Biotic components consists of (1) Producers
(2) Consumers (3) Decomposers.
The essentialAbiotic componentsconsists of(1) Water
(2) Nitrogen (3) Soil (4) Mineral,etc.
- In an ecosystem theBiological cyclingof material is
maintained by threegroups viz (1) Producers
(2)Consumersand (3)Decomposers/recyclers
- In an ecosystem thebioticandabiotic components
are regarded as linked together through nutrient
cyclesandenergy flow.
- The Energy that flows, through Ecosystem is obtained
primarily from the sun. It generally enters the system
through photosynthesis.
- Energydoes not recycle through an ecosystem. But
chemicals do
- Eco systems are (1) Natural Ecosystemand
(2)Artificial Ecosystem
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- Natural Ecosystems are (1)Terrestrial (Forest, grass
land, dessert)(2)Aquatic (Fresh water, marine)
- Artificial Eco systems are (1)Lentic(standing water)
Lake, pond, swamp (2)Lotic(Running water)- River,
spring stream.
(a)Major Ecosystems are :
(1) Forest Ecosystem (2) Grass Land Ecosystem (3) Desert
eco system (4) Aquatic Ecosystem
Few examplesof Ecosystems in Indiaare
(1) Mountains Himalayas
(2) Mountains Nilgiris
(3) Indo-gangetic plains.
(b)Biome and Ecosystem
- In Ecology, a Biome is a majorregional group of distinctive
plantandanimal communitiesbest adapted to regions
physical natural environment, latitude, elevation, terrain.
- Biomes are defined asthe worlds major communities,
classified according to the predominant vegetation and
characterized by adaptations of organisms to that particular
Environment.
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- Anecosystem is often much smaller than a Biome,
although the size varies.
- Biome ismajor habitat type
Classification: Biomes are classified in various ways (five major
types)
(1)Aquatic (2) Desert (3) Forest (4) Grass Lands (5) Tundra
(c)Major Biomes of the World
Mountain (High Elevation)
Tundra
Temperate Forest
Marine/Island
Desert
(d) Biome in Local name
Biomes are often known in English by local names.
For example : a temperate grass land or shrub land biome is
known commonly a steppein Central Asia Praisie inNorth
America,Pampas inSouth America.
- Tropical grassland are known asSavannain Australia
Climate is a major factordetermining the distribution of
Terrestrial Biomes. Most important climate factors, are (1) Latitude
(2) Humidity (3) Elevation
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Tropical Dry Forest
Cold climate Forest
Grass land
Savannah
Tropical Rain Forest
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IV (e)Cycling of materials in the Ecosystem
The movement of materials in an ecosystem ismaterial cycling.
The conceptcyclesin Ecology refers tocirculationof certain
elements like water or carbon, in the atmosphere. The circulation is
from the Environment organisms and back to the Environment.
It is also called nutrient cyclingor mineral cycling, because
elements such as (1) Nitrogen (2) Phosphorous (3) Potassium are
minerals that provide nutrient to plants.
- Materials move through ecosystem in a cycle of
productionandconsumption. The most important element
are carbon, hydrogen and oxygen which are required for
photosynthesisand nitrogen, phosphorous, sulphur,
calcium and magnesium which are required for the
construction of proteins and other structuralcompounds
in the bodies of living organisms.
- Potassium and some minor elements (iron, copper,
boron, zinc, manganese) are also necessary to plant growth.
- These elements are transferred from soil and water to
green plants when the plants grow (ie, production). They are
returned to soil and water whenever, carbon chains are
broken, apart during consumption.
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- Consumersuse the carbon chains in their food, as
building blocks, for their bodies. When consumers derive
more, mineral nutrients from their bodies than they need for
their own, bodies, they release, the extra minerals, into their
environment. For example, nitrogen is excreted as ammonia
or urea. The minerals return to the soil where they serve as
nutrients for plants.
- Most of the micro organisms aredecomposerswhich
consume, the bodies, of dead plants, animals and othermicro organisms, to obtain the carbon, (chain building
blocks) that they need for their growth. They release, any
surplus, mineral nutrients from their food into the
environment, where the mineral nutrients are available for
use by plants. The basic function of discomposes, in the
ecosystem is in many ways similar to consumers.
IV (E) A metaphor for material cycling and energy flow in ecosystem
- Let us consider a plot of water on a stove. A fire heats the
water at the bottom of the pot changing it to a higher energy
level (hot objects have a higher energy level than the cold
objects). Because the warmer water is lighter in weight than
cold water, the heated water rises to the top of the pot while
the heated water is at the top of the pot, it becomes cooler as
heat energy moves from the heated water to the cooler air
above. After losing heat, the water (which is now cooler and
heavier) sinks to the bottom of the pot, to replace, newly
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heated water, that is rising. The result iswater circulation
a physical cycle. The fire is the energy input to the system
and the heat loss, from the water at the top of the pot, is the
energy output the system.
- Because of the energy input (the fire) the water in the pot is
self-organising. It makes, its own structure. The water in
the pot forms amaterial cycle, but the energydoes not
cycle. Energy enters the pot from fire, moves from the
bottom of the pot to the top with the heated water and
leaves, the pot as low-level heat. This known asenergy flow.
If the fire (the energy input) is turned off, the water, in the
pot stops cycling energy stops flowing and the water loses its
self-organizing structure.
V. Matter cycle / Bio- Geo Chemical Cycles (Cycling of materials
in the Ecosystem or Nutrients cycle or substance turnover)
- Movement of nutrient within an ecosystem is called
Biogeochemical cycles or Nutrient cycle.
- In Earth Science Biogeochemical cycle or substance
turnover, or cycling of substanceis a path wayby
which a chemical substance moves through both biotic
(Biosphere) and abiotic (Lithosphere, atmosphere and
hydrosphere) Components of Earth.
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- A cycle is a series of change whichcomes back to the
starting pointand which can be repeated.
- Waterfor example is always recycled through water
cycle: Water undergoes evaporation, condensation and
precipitation falling back to earth.
- Elements, chemical compounds and other forms of
matter are passed from one organism to another and
from one part of the Biosphere, through Bio chemical
cycles.
- The term Biogeochemical cyclestell us that
Biological, geological and chemical factors are all
involved.
- The circulation of chemical nutrients like carbon,
oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorous, calcium, water, etc
through the biological and physical world are, known
as Bio chemicals.
- In effect the element is recycled although in some
cycles, there may be places (called reservoirs) where
the element is accumulated or held for a long period of
time (such as an ocean or lake for water)
- SoReservoirsare those parts of cycle where the
chemical is held in large quantities for a long period of
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time. The length of time a chemical is held in an
exchange pool or reservoir is termed itsresidence
time.
- The oceans are a reservoir for water, while a cloud is
anexchange pool(where the material/water held for
shorter period of time). Water may reside in an ocean
for thousand of years, but in a cloud for a few days
only.
- TheBiotic communityincludes all living organisms.
This community may serve an exchange pool and also
serve to move chemicals from one stage of cycle to
another.
For instance, the trees of the tropical rain forest bring
water up from the forest floor to be evaporated into the
atmosphere. The energy for most of the transportation
of chemicals from one place to another, is provided
either, by the sun or by the heat released from the
mantle, and core of the earth.
V (a)Important matter cycles or biogeochemical cycles are:
1. The Carbon cycle
2. The Nitrogen cycle
3. The Oxygen cycle
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4.The Phosphorous cycle
5.The Sulfur cycle
6.The Water cycle
7.The Rock cycle
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V (b)Newly studied Bio geochemical cycles are
1). The mercury cycle, 2) The Human Caused cycle of
atrazine. They affect some species.
- They are relativelyunknown cycles
- As the Bio geochemical cycles describe the movement
of substance, on the entire globe, the study of these is
inherently multi disciplinary. The carbon cycle may be
related to research in ecology and atmosphericsciences.
- Biogeo chemical dynamics, would also be related to the
fields of geology and pedology (soil study)
V (c)Two types of Material cycles
There are two types material cycles (i) the gaseous cycle
and (ii) the sedimentary cycle.
In the gaseous cycle of the material cycle, the element
or compound can be converted to a gaseous form, diffuse through
the atmosphere and they arrive over land or sea, to be used by the
Biosphere, in a much shorter time.
- In a gaseous cycle the air is the reservoir or oceans
(via evaporation).
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- The gaseous cycles include those of nitrogen, oxygen,
carbon and water.
In the sedimentary cycle, the compound or element, isreleased from the rock by weathering, then follows, the movement
of running water either, in solution or as sediment to the sea.
Eventually, by precipitation and sedimentation these materials are
converted into rock. When the rock is uplifted and exposed to
weathering the cycle is completed.
- In the sedimentary cycle, Earth Crust is the reservoir.
- Sedimentary cycle include those of iron, calcium,
phosphorous and other earth bound elements.
VI. AGRICULTURE
1. Definition: Agriculture or Farming is the cultivation of animal,
plant and other life forms for food, fibre, bio fuel, medicinals and
other products used to sustain and enhance human life.
- Agriculture was not only for growing food for people
and animals but also for growing other things like flowers,
ornamental plants, nursery plants, animals, etc.
- Agriculture was the key development dates back to
thousands of years.
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- Until the Industrial Revolution, the vast majority of
Human population laboured (labored) in agriculture.
2. Subsistence Agriculture
Pre industrial agriculture was typically subsistence
agriculture/self sufficiency agriculture in which the farms raised
most of their crops for their own consumption, instead of crash
crops for trade.
In other words, the Subsistence Agriculture means growing
only enough to feed the farmer his family and his animals.
3. Agriculture in India
The written history of agriculture in India dates back to
Rig Vedawritten about 1100 B.C.
- The Rig Veda hyms for example, describes, ploughing,
fallowing, irrigation, fruit and vegetables cultivation. Other
historical evidence suggests, rice and cotton were cultivated
in the Indus Valley. The middle ages saw irrigation channels
reach a new level of sophistication in India. Land and Water
Management systems were developed with the aim of
providing uniform growth.
- Today India ranks second world wide in farm output.
Agriculture and allied sectors like forestry and fisheries
accounts for 13.7% of the G.D.P in 2013.
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- The Economic contribution of Agriculture in Indias GDP is
steadily declining with countrys broad based economic
growth. Still agriculture, is demographically, thebroadest
economic sectorand plays a significant role, in the overall
socio-economic fabric of India.
4. Agriculture and colonism
- Over 2500 years ago, Indian Farmers had discovered
and begun many species and sugar cane.
- Prior to 18thcentury cultivation of sugar cane was
largely confined to India.
- Sugarcane does not grow, in cold, frost prone climate.
Therefore tropical and semi tropical colonies were sought.
- The history and past accomplishments of Indian
Agriculture thus influenced, in part,colonism, first slavery,
then slavery like indentured labor practices in the new
world.
5. Indian Agriculture since 1947
- 68 years, since its independence, India has made immense,
progress towardsfood security(to be sure that, there is
enough food for everyone). Indian population has tripled, but
food-grain production, more than quadrupled, there has
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thus been substantial increase in available food grain per
capita.
6. Green Revolution in India
- Prior to the mid 1960s India, relied on imports and
food aid to meet domestic requirements. However, two years
of severe drought in 1965 and 1966, convinced India to
reform its agricultural Policy and that India, could not rely
on, foreign aid and foreign imports for food security. India
adopted significant policy reforms, focused on the goal of
food grain self sufficiency. This ushered in IndiasGreen
Revolution.
- It began with the decision to adoptsuper yielding,
disease resistant, wheat varieties in combination with better
farming knowledge to improve productivity.
- The Indian state of Punjabled Indias Green
Revolution and earned itself the distinction of being the
countrys bread basket.
- The initial increase in production, was centered on the
irrigated areas of the Indian states of Punjab, Haryana and
Western Uttar Pradesh. With both the farmers and
Government officials focusing on farm productivityand
knowledge transfer, Indias total food grain, production
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soared. A hectare of Indian wheat farms, that produced on
average of 0.8 tonnes of wheat in 948, produced 4.7 tonnes
of wheat in 1975, from the same land. Such rapidly growths
in farm productivity enabled India to becomeself-sufficient
by the 1970s. By 2000, Indian farms were adopting wheat
verities , capable of yielding 6 tonnes of wheat per hectare.
- With agricultural policy success in wheat Indias
Green Revolution Technologyspread to rice. However,
since irrigation infrastructure, was very poor, Indian farmer
innovated with Tube wells, to harvest ground water. When
grains from the new technology reached their limits in the
states of initial adoption, the technology spread in the 1970s
and 1980s to the states of Eastern India- Bihar , Odisha and
West Bengal.
- In the 1980s Indian Agricultural policyshifted to
evolution of a production pattern in line with the
demand pattern leading to a shift, in emphasis, to other
agricultural commodities like oil seed, fruit and vegetables.
Farmers began adopting, improved methods and
technologies in dairying, fisheries and livestock and meeting
the diversified food needs of Indias growing population.
- As with rice the lasting benefits of improved seeds and
improved farming technologies now largely depends on,
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whether India develops infrastructure such as irrigation
network, flood control systems, etc.
- Indias Agricultural economy isundergoing structural
changes between1970 and 2011, the G.D.P share of
Agriculture has fallen from 43 to 16%. This is not because of
reduced importance in Agriculture or a consequence of
Agricultural policy. This is largely because of rapid growth in
services, industrial output non agricultural sectors in India
between 2000 to 2012.
(7) Environmental Impact of Agriculture
(1) Change of climate (2) Deforestation (3) Genetic Engineering
(4) Irrigation (5) Pollutants (6) Soil retrogruism and degradation (7)
Waste
1. Change of climate
- Climate change and Agriculture are interrelated
processes.
- Agriculture has been shown to produce significant
impacts on climate change, primarily, through the
productionand release of green house gases, such as
carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide, but also by
altering the Earths Land corer, which can change its ability
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to absorb or reflect heat and light, thus contributing to radio
active forcing.
- Land use change such as deforestationand
desertification together with use of fossil- fuels are the
major anthropogenic sources of Co2is Agriculture itself with
major contributor to increasing methane and nitrous oxide
concentration in earths atmosphere.
- Agriculture becomes more dependent on fossil-basedinputs.
- Intensification of rice production leads to
agricultural waste
- Ultimately Leads to production of methane with
atmosphere.
2. Deforestation
- One of the causes of deforestation is to clear land for
pasture or crops.
3. Genetic Engineering: Genetic Engineering has caused
controversies. Seed contamination is problematic. In genetic
Engineering seed contamination may refer to unwanted
genes found in a seed or pieces of DNA from other genetically
engineered seeds. It (seed contamination) is the mixing of
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seeds used for Agriculture with other seeds, which are not
desirable. (An example is mixing corn seed with weed seed).
- Contamination in this area is most likely caused by
other genetically engineered seeds cross pollinating,
with unchanged seeds. The new seeds, that are
produced will have significantly altered DNA than the
parent seed. This mutation could potentially then be
passed down to generation. It is possible that the
alterations could affect plant growth and development.
- Preventing seed contamination in genetic engineering
is fairly difficult, almost impossible. It is simply a
matter of separating pure seeds from contaminated
ones. This will keep a supply of unaltered seeds for
future use, if they are allowed to cross pollinate.
- Government agencies, especially within the United
States are setting up programes to stop seed
contamination from generate Engineering.
4. Irrigation
Irrigation can lead to a number of problems.
Depletion of underground aquifers throughover
drafting.
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Poor management of wastes water, chemicals may lead to
water pollution.
Deep drainage (from over-irrigation) may result in rising
water tables, which in some instances, will lead to problems
of irrigation salinity requiring water table control by some
form of subsurface land drainage.
Irrigation without adequate drainage leads to salinistion.
Irrigation with saline or high-sodium water may damage soil
structure owing to formation of alkaline soil.
Runoff causing surface water and ground water aquifer
hydrologic cycle water pollution.
5. Pollutants (Environmental impact of pesticides
Land and water are contaminated through chemical
fertilizers (chemical pollution). Chemical fertilizer is the source of
Nitrous Oxide.
- Sprayed insecticides, herbicides, reach of a destination
other than their target species, because they are
sprayed or spread across, entire agricultural fields.
- Runoff can be carry pesticides, into aquatic
environment, while wind can carry them to other
fields, grazing areas, human settlement.
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6. Soil retrogression and degradation
They are tworegressive evolutionprocesses associated
with the loss of equilibrium of stable soil.
- Retrogression is primarily due to soil erosion and it is
the main factor for soil retrogression. To certain extent
it is a natural evolution.
- But Degradation is an evolution different from Natural
evolution. It is related to Human activities.
Such as (i) road which increase impermeable surface,
lead to streaming and ground loss.
- Agriculture increases the risk ofsoil erosion, through
its disturbance of vegetation, by way of
Overgrazing of animals
Crop removal
Monoculture planting
7. Waste: Plastic culture, the use of plastic materials, in agriculture,
raises problems around how to carry out the recycling of
agricultural plastics.
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Land use
conversion
Row cropping
Excessive tilling or
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- The term plastic culturerefers to the practice of
using plastic materials in agricultural applications.
- The use ofplastic cultureis growing rapidly
- One significant component of plastic culture is the
disposal of used plastics. Few Technologies exist for
recycling the plastics. But more environmental friendly
plastic culture and recycling are to be developed.
VI (a)Sustainable agriculture
Sustainable Agriculture can be understood, as an eco
system approachto agriculture.
- The exponential population increase in recent decades
has increased the practice of agriculture land
conversion to meet demand for food, which in turn,
has increased the effects on the Environment.
- Sustainable Agriculture : integratesthreemain goals.
(1)Environmental Health
(2)Economic Profitability
(3)(3) Social and Economic Equality
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Sustainable agriculture is the act of farming using the
principles of Ecology, the study of relationship between
organisms and their environment.
- The phrase sustainable agriculture, was coined by an
Austrial Agricultural Scientist Gordon McClymont
Definition of Sustainable Agriculture
It is defined anintegrated system of plant and animal
production practiceshaving a sitespecific application, thatwill last over, the long term.
For example :
Enhance environmental qualityand the
natural resource base up on which this
agricultural economy depends.
Satisfy humanfood and fibre needs
Make the most efficient on ofnon-renewable
resources and on-farming resources and
integrate, where, appropriate, natural biological
cycles and controls.
Sustain the economic viabilityof farm
operations.
Enhance, the qualityof life for farmersand
society as a whole.
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VII. Eco friendly Farming
- Modern Intensive Agriculture has created ecological
impacts. Over the few decades, of modern Agricultural
activities, it was realized that sustainability of
production and consequent environment damage was
rampant. As such, there needs, an alternative practice
where more ecological rationale will be adopted into
sustaining agricultural production. Eco-friendly
farming is one of the alternative measures proposedfor sustainable agriculture.
VII (a)Few problems of Eco-friendly farming
(1) Use of Renewable Energy in Eco-friendly faming
Twelve percent of global green house gas emissions come
from agriculture. It is one of the drawbacks of modern
Agriculture.
- Six to nine percentage of farm expenses are energy
related. These comes the question renewal sources for
farming.
- Using renewable energy in agriculture has benefits for
both the economy and the Environment and many
farms, around the world are using the abundance of
on-site renewable resources to produce energy.
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- With expenses of land and a need to source power to
remote locations, solar energy is well suited for life on
the farm.
- Photo synthesis to photovoltaicsis one of the
principles of Eco-friendly farming.
(2) Use of wind power for farms
- Wind energy is another alternative for energy in Eco-
friendly farming. Hence it is also an important
resources in farms.
- The majority of this energy comes from large scale
wind farms. Wind turbines can be installed along
crops or even on the same land where animals gaze
on.
- The turbines can generate, enough energy to power the
farm or even produce extra energy to sell back to the
grid.
VII (b)Better utilization of Waste
Waste not, want not: Producing Energy from Waste
- The energy from agricultural waste can be converted to
Biogas. Biogas is comprised mostly ofmethane, the
same compound that gives natural gas its power and
can be used in Turbines designed for natural gas.
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- Anaerobic digesters can be used to convert, animal
waste to Biogas. In addition, to generating electricity,
these microbes also treat the waste and produce
fertilizer.
- From solar power to microbial digestionis also
one principles of Eco-friendly farming.
VII (c)Use Organic farming methods
- Organic farming is a form of eco-friendly farming. The
organic farming methods combines scientific knowledge of
ecology and modern technology with traditional farming
practices based n naturally occurring biological processes.
VII (d)The principal method of Organic farming includes
(1)Crop rotation
(2)Green manuers
(3)Compost
- Organic farming is an ecological production
management system that promotes and enhance
biodiversity, bio cycles and soil biological activity.
- It is based on minimal useoff-farm inputsand on
management practices, that restore, maintain and enhance
the ecological harmony.
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((4) Biological Pest control and
(5)Mechanical cultivation
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- Organising farming strictly limits or excludes, the use
of various methods such as
(i) Chemical Fertilisers
(ii) Pesticides
(iii) Plant growth regulations such as use of hormones,
antibiotics in live stock, genetically organized
organisms to reasons including sustainability health
and safety
- Organic agricultural methods are internationallyregulated
and legallyenforced.
VIII.Climate change
- Climate change is theaverage weatherpattern in a
place over many years.
- Climate in our place on the globe controls the weather
we live.
- Weatheris the mix of events that happen everyday in
out atmosphere including temperature, rainfall and
humidity.
- The termweatherrefers to the short term properties
of the atmosphere (such as temperature pressure,
humidity, rainfall, sunshine, cloud cover and wind, etc)
at a given place and time.
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- Theaverage weatherof an area including general
pattern of atmospheric conditions, seasonal variations
and weather extremes averaged over a long period oftime is calledclimate.
- Thus,weather refers to the hourly, daily, a weekly
changes, in the above properties, climate reflects
long periods such as season or years.
- The most generaldefinition of climate change is a
change in the statistical properties of the climate
systemwhich considered over long periods of time,
regard less ofcause.
- The climate is largely determined by the temperature
and rainfall of an area.
Climate change is caused by factors such as Biotic
process, variation in solar radiations, received by the
Earth, plate tectonics and volcano rivers.
- Certain Human activities have also been identified as
significant causes of recent climate change often
referred to asGlobal warming
- So in the context of environmental policy, the term
climate change has became synonymouswith
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anthropogenic global warming. Within scientific
journals, global warming refers to surface
temperatureincrease, while climate change includes
global warming and everything else that increase
green house gas levels, will affect.
VIII (a)Forcing Mechanisms for climate change
- Factors that can shape climate are called forcing
mechanisms of climate forcing.
- Forcing mechanisms can be either internal or
external.
VIII (b)Internal forcing Mechanisms
They are natural processes within the climate system.
The examples include :
(1) Type and distribution of species.
(2) The changes in ocean currents.
VIII (c)External Forcing Mechanisms
(1) Orbital variations
- Slight variations in Earth orbit lead to changes in the
seasonal distribution of sunlight reaching the Earths
surface.
Three types of orbital variations are :
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(1) Variations in the Earths eccentricity
(2) Changes in the tilt angles, earths axis of rotation
(3) Precession of the Earth axis
- Combined together these variations produce
MilanKovitch Cycles: which have a large impact on climate and
are notable for their correlation to glacial and interglacial periods.
VIII (d)Evidence for climate change
Evidence for climate changes is taken from a variety of sources
than can be used to reconstruct the past climates.
(1) Historical and archaeological evidence
- Corresponding changes in the agricultural pattern,
human settlement
- Climate change have been linked to the collapse of
various civilizations.
(2) Glaciers
- Glaciers are considered among the most sensitive
indicators of climate change.
- Their size is determined by Mass balance between
snow and melt output.
- As temperature warm, glaciers retreat unless snow
precipitation increases to make up for the additional
melt.
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(4) Arctic sea ice loss
The decline in Arctic sea ice, both in extent and thickness
over the last several decades is further evidence for rapid
climate changes.
(4)Vegetation: A change in the type, distribution and the
coverage of vegetation may occur due to a change in the
climate.
- Some changes in climate may result in increased
precipitation and warmth resulting in improved plant
growth and the subsequent sequestration of air born
Co2. A gradual increase in warmth in a region will lead
to earlier flowering and fruiting items, driving a change
in the timing of life cycles of dependent organisms.
(5) Pollen Analysis
- Different groups of plants have pollen, with distinct
shapes and surface structures and since the outer
surface of pollen is composed of a very resilent
material, they resist decline.
- The changes in the types of pollen found in different
types of sediment in takes, or river deltas indicate
change in plant communities.
(6) Dendro climatology:is the analysis of tree ring growth pattern
to
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determine, past climate variations. Wide and
thick rings indicate a fertile well watered growing
period. Whilst thin, narrow rings, indicate a time
of lower, rainfall and less-than-ideal growing
conditions.
(7) Seal level change: Using (1) Allimeter measurements (2) From
Satellite orbit (3) Coral reefs (4) Coastal
sediments (5) Marine terraces, etc
VIII (e)Inter governmental panel on climate change (IPCC)
- It is a scientific inter governmental body under the
auspices of the United Nations, setup at the request of
member of Governments.
- Established in 1988. It is open to all members of the
UN and WMO (World Meteorological Organisation)
- The IPCC doesnot carryout research nor does it
monitor climate related dataor relevant parameters.
It bases its assessmentmainly on peer reviewedand
published scientific / technical report.
- The IPCC Secretariat is hosted by WMO. Head
Quarters at Geneeva.
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- IPCC in now chaired byMr. Rajendra K.Pachauri
elected in May 2002. The former Chairman was
Robert Watson.
- The ultimate purpose of IPCC is to stabilize green
house gas concentrations in the atmosphere, at a
level, that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic
(human induced) interference with the climate
system.
- Thousands of Scientists and other experts contribute
(on a voluntary basis, without payment form IPCC) to
writing and reviewing reports, which are then reviewed
by Government. The IPCC reports contain a
summary of policy makerswhich is subject to line
by line approval delegates from all participating
Governments. Typically this involves the Governments
of more than 120 Countries.
VIII (f)Aims of IPCC
To asses scientific information relevant to
(1) Human induced climate change
(2) Options for adaptation and migration.
VIII (g)Tackling climate change
(1) The emissions of green house gas has to be reduced
(2) Forest conservation
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(3) Transport : More fuel efficient vehicles. Transport to rail
and public transport systems. Promote non-motorised
transport (cycling, walking)
(4) Buildings : Efficient lighting, more efficient electrical
appliances, passive & active solar design for heating and
cooling.
(5) Industry : (1) More efficient electrical equipment (2) material
recycling (3) control of gas emissions.
(6) Forest Afforestation: use of forestry products forbio energy
to replace fossil fuel use.
(7) Agriculture Improved crop and gazing land management
to increase, soil carbon storage, reduce NO2emissions,
dedicated energy crops to replace fossil fuel use.
(8) Waste : Waste incineration with energy recovery composing of
organic waste, controlled waste water treatment, recycling
and waste minimization.
IX.Carbon credit
(a) Introduction
- A carbon credit is a generic term for any tradable
certificate or permit, representing the right to emit one
tonne of Carbon dioxide or the mass of another Green
House Gases (GHGS).
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- On carbon credit in equal to one metric tone of Carbon
Dioxide or in some market, Carbon dioxide equivalent
gases.
(b) Definition
- The Collins English Dictionary defined a Carbon
Credit as a Certificate showing that a Government or
company has paid to have certain amount of Carbon
Dioxide removed from the Environment.
(c) Background
- The burning of fossil fuel is a major source of Green
House Gas Emissions especially for power, cement
and other industries which rely on fossil fuels (coal,
electricity derived from coal, natural gas and oil)
- The major green house gases emitted by these
industries are Carbondioxide, Methane, Nitrous
Oxide, Hydro flouro Carbons (HFCS)etc. all of which
increase, the atmospheric ability to trap infrared
energy and thus affect the climate.
- The concept ofCarbon creditcame to existence, as a
result of increasing awareness of the need for
controlling emissions. The IPCC has observed that
Policies that provide a real or implicit price of
Carbon could create, incentives for producers and
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consumers to significantly invest in low GHG
Products, technologies and processes. Such
policies could includes economic instruments,
Government findings and regulations.
- The mechanism was formalized in theKyoto Protocol
and international agreement between more than 170
countries.
(d)Kyotos Flexible Mechanism
The Kyoto protocol provides threemechanisms that enable
counties or operations in developed countries to acquiregreen house
gas credits.
Under joint implementation (JI) a developed country with relatively
high cost of domestic green house reduction would set up a project
in another developed country.
Under theClean Development Mechanism(CDM), a developed
country, can sponsor a green house reduction project in a
developing country, where the cost of Green House reduction
project activities is usually much lower, but the atmospheric effect
is globally equivalent. The developed country would be given,
credits for meeting its emission, reduction targets while the
developing country would receive the capital investment and clean
technology or beneficial change in land use.
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Under theInternational Emission Trading (IET)Countries can
trade in the International Carbon Credit market to cover, their
short fall, in Assigned amount Units. Countries with Units can sell
them to countries that are exceeding their emission.
(e)How can you make money from Carbon Credit ?
Carbon dioxide, the most important gas produced by the
combustion of fuels, has become a cause for global panic (global
warming) as its concentration in the Earths Atmosphere has been
rising alarmingly. This devil, however is now turning into a profitthat helps people, countries, consultant, traders, Corporations and
even farmers, earn Billions of rupees. This was an unimaginable
trading not more than a decade ago.
Carbon creditis a part ofInternational Emission trading
norms. They incentivise companies or countries that emit less,
Carbon. The total annual emissions, arecappedand the market
allocates a monetary value to any short fall, through trading
business can exchange, buy or sell carbon credits in international
markets at the prevailing market price.
India and China are likely to emerge as thebiggest, sellersand
Europe is going to thebiggest buyersof Carbon Credits.
Last year global Carbon Crediting was estimated as 5 Billion U.S
Dollars with India Contribution at around one Billion. India is one
of the countries that havecreditsfor, emitting less Carbon. India
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and China have surplus, credits to offer to countries that have a
deficit.
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