journal of research in biology volume 3 issue 2
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An International Research Journal for Biology
Volume 3 Issue 2 May 2013
http://www.jresearchbiology.com
The new horizon of spreading research
Aim and Scope
Journal of Research in Biology is an international scientific journal committed to the development and spread of
research in Biological sciences. It accepts research articles with affiliation to biological science from all around the globe and publishes them in the journal. The submitted articles are peer-reviewed by experts in the field and editorial board members. Make the most of your research by publishing articles in Journal of Research in Biology.
Journal of Research in Biology works as a portal for biological scientific research publication. It works to promote the use of biological sciences knowledge in the world public policy, and to develop and advance science policy that serves the needs of
scientific research and education communities, particularly the biological sciences.
The journal has been uniquely positioned to help members of the scientific community; become effective advocates for their science and to be better known for the public that relate to or impact the biological sciences.
Call for Papers
Journal of Research in Biology seeks Research Articles, Short Communications and Mini reviews. The Journal will accept and review submissions in English from any author, in any global locality. A body of international peers will review all submissions with potential author revisions as recommended by reviewers, with the intent to achieve published papers that:
Relate to the field of Biology
Represent new, previously unpublished work
Advance the state of knowledge of the field
Conform to a high standard of presentation.
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List of Editors of Editors in the Journal of Research in Biology
Managing and Executive Editor:
Abiya Chelliah [Molecular Biology]
Publisher, Journal of Research in Biology.
Editorial Board Members:
Ciccarese [Molecular Biology] Universita di Bari, Italy.
Sathishkumar [Plant Biotechnologist]
Bharathiar University.
SUGANTHY [Entomologist]
TNAU, Coimbatore.
Elanchezhyan [Agriculture, Entomology]
TNAU, Tirunelveli.
Syed Mohsen Hosseini [Forestry & Ecology]
Tarbiat Modares University (TMU), Iran.
Dr. Ramesh. C. K [Plant Tissue Culture] Sahyadri Science College, Karnataka.
Kamal Prasad Acharya [Conservation Biology]
Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Norway.
Dr. Ajay Singh [Zoology]
Gorakhpur University, Gorakhpur
Dr. T. P. Mall [Ethnobotany and Plant pathoilogy]
Kisan PG College, BAHRAICH
Ramesh Chandra [Hydrobiology, Zoology]
S.S.(P.G.)College, Shahjahanpur, India.
Adarsh Pandey [Mycology and Plant Pathology]
SS P.G.College, Shahjahanpur, India
Hanan El-Sayed Mohamed Abd El-All Osman [Plant Ecology]
Al-Azhar university, Egypt
Ganga suresh [Microbiology]
Sri Ram Nallamani Yadava College of Arts & Sciences, Tenkasi, India.
T.P. Mall [Ethnobotany, Plant pathology]
Kisan PG College,BAHRAICH, India.
Mirza Hasanuzzaman [Agronomy, Weeds, Plant]
Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University, Bangladesh
Mukesh Kumar Chaubey [Immunology, Zoology]
Mahatma Gandhi Post Graduate College, Gorakhpur, India.
N.K. Patel [Plant physiology & Ethno Botany]
Sheth M.N.Science College, Patan, India.
Kumudben Babulal Patel [Bird, Ecology]
Gujarat, India.
CHANDRAMOHAN [Biochemist]
College of Applied Medical Sciences, King Saud University.
B.C. Behera [Natural product and their Bioprospecting]
Agharkar Research Institute, Pune, INDIA.
Kuvalekar Aniket Arun [Biotechnology]
Lecturer, Pune.
Mohd. Kamil Usmani [Entomology, Insect taxonomy]
Aligarh Muslim university, Aligarh, india.
Dr. Lachhman Das Singla [Veterinary Parasitology]
Guru Angad Dev Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, Ludhiana, India.
Vaclav Vetvicka [Immunomodulators and Breast Cancer]
University of Louisville, Kentucky.
José F. González-Maya [Conservation Biology]
Laboratorio de ecología y conservación de fauna Silvestre,
Instituto de Ecología, UNAM, México.
Dr. Afreenish Hassan [Microbiology]
Department of Pathology, Army Medical College, Rawalpindi, Pakistan.
Gurjit Singh [Soil Science]
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Amritsar, Punjab, India.
Dr. Marcela Pagano [Mycology]
Universidade Federal de São João del-Rei, Brazil.
Dr.Amit Baran Sharangi [Horticulture]
BCKV (Agri University), West Bengal, INDIA.
Dr. Bhargava [Melittopalynology]
School of Chemical & Biotechnology, Sastra University, Tamilnadu, INDIA.
Dr. Sri Lakshmi Sunitha Merla [Plant Biotechnology]
Jawaharlal Technological University, Hyderabad.
Dr. Mrs. Kaiser Jamil [Biotechnology]
Bhagwan Mahavir Medical Research Centre, Hyderabad, India.
Ahmed Mohammed El Naim [Agronomy]
University of Kordofan, Elobeid-SUDAN.
Dr. Zohair Rahemo [Parasitology]
University of Mosul, Mosul,Iraq.
Dr. Birendra Kumar [Breeding and Genetic improvement]
Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, Lucknow, India.
Dr. Sanjay M. Dave [Ornithology and Ecology]
Hem. North Gujarat University, Patan.
Dr. Nand Lal [Micropropagation Technology Development]
C.S.J.M. University, India.
Fábio M. da Costa [Biotechnology: Integrated pest control, genetics]
Federal University of Rondônia, Brazil.
Marcel Avramiuc [Biologist]
Stefan cel Mare University of Suceava, Romania.
Dr. Meera Srivastava [Hematology , Entomology] Govt. Dungar College, Bikaner.
P. Gurusaravanan [Plant Biology ,Plant Biotechnology and Plant Science]
School of Life Sciences, Bharathidasan University, India.
Dr. Mrs Kavita Sharma [Botany]
Arts and commerce girl’s college Raipur (C.G.), India.
Suwattana Pruksasri [Enzyme technology, Biochemical Engineering]
Silpakorn University, Thailand.
Dr.Vishwas Balasaheb Sakhare [Reservoir Fisheries]
Yogeshwari Mahavidyalaya, Ambajogai, India.
Dr. Pankaj Sah [Environmental Science, Plant Ecology]
Higher College of Technology (HCT), Al-Khuwair.
Dr. Erkan Kalipci [Environmental Engineering]
Selcuk University, Turkey.
Dr Gajendra Pandurang Jagtap [Plant Pathology]
College of Agriculture, India.
Dr. Arun M. Chilke [Biochemistry, Enzymology, Histochemistry]
Shree Shivaji Arts, Commerce & Science College, India.
Dr. AC. Tangavelou [Biodiversity, Plant Taxonomy]
Bio-Science Research Foundation, India.
Nasroallah Moradi Kor [Animal Science]
Razi University of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources, Iran
T. Badal Singh [plant tissue culture]
Panjab University, India
Dr. Kalyan Chakraborti [Agriculture, Pomology, horticulture]
AICRP on Sub-Tropical Fruits, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya,
Kalyani, Nadia, West Bengal, India.
Dr. Monanjali Bandyopadhyay [Farmlore, Traditional and indigenous
practices, Ethno botany]
V. C., Vidyasagar University, Midnapore.
M.Sugumaran [Phytochemistry]
Adhiparasakthi College of Pharmacy, Melmaruvathur, Kancheepuram District.
Prashanth N S [Public health, Medicine]
Institute of Public Health, Bangalore.
Tariq Aftab
Department of Botany, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India.
Manzoor Ahmad Shah
Department of Botany, University of Kashmir, Srinagar, India.
Syampungani Stephen
School of Natural Resources, Copperbelt University, Kitwe, Zambia.
Iheanyi Omezuruike OKONKO
Department of Biochemistry & Microbiology, Lead City University,
Ibadan, Nigeria.
Sharangouda Patil
Toxicology Laboratory, Bioenergetics & Environmental Sciences Division,
National Institue of Animal Nutrition
and Physiology (NIANP, ICAR), Adugodi, Bangalore.
Jayapal
Nandyal, Kurnool, Andrapradesh, India.
T.S. Pathan [Aquatic toxicology and Fish biology]
Department of Zoology, Kalikadevi Senior College, Shirur, India.
Aparna Sarkar [Physiology and biochemistry] Amity Institute of Physiotherapy, Amity campus, Noida, INDIA.
Dr. Amit Bandyopadhyay [Sports & Exercise Physiology]
Department of Physiology, University of Calcutta, Kolkata, INDIA .
Maruthi [Plant Biotechnology]
Dept of Biotechnology, SDM College (Autonomous),
Ujire Dakshina Kannada, India.
Veeranna [Biotechnology]
Dept of Biotechnology, SDM College (Autonomous),
Ujire Dakshina Kannada, India.
RAVI [Biotechnology & Bioinformatics]
Department of Botany, Government Arts College, Coimbatore, India.
Sadanand Mallappa Yamakanamardi [Zoology]
Department of Zoology, University of Mysore, Mysore, India.
Anoop Das [Ornithologist]
Research Department of Zoology, MES Mampad College, Kerala, India.
Dr. Satish Ambadas Bhalerao [Environmental Botany]
Wilson College, Mumbai
Rafael Gomez Kosky [Plant Biotechnology]
Instituto de Biotecnología de las Plantas, Universidad Central de Las Villas
Eudriano Costa [Aquatic Bioecology]
IOUSP - Instituto Oceanográfico da Universidade de São Paulo, Brasil
M. Bubesh Guptha [Wildlife Biologist] Wildlife Management Circle (WLMC), India
Rajib Roychowdhury [Plant science]
Centre for biotechnology visva-bharati, India.
Dr. S.M.Gopinath [Environmental Biotechnology]
Acharya Institute of Technology, Bangalore.
Dr. U.S. Mahadeva Rao [Bio Chemistry]
Universiti Sultan Zainal Abidin, Malaysia.
Hérida Regina Nunes Salgado [Pharmacist]
Unesp - Universidade Estadual Paulista, Brazil
Mandava Venkata Basaveswara Rao [Chemistry]
Krishna University, India.
Dr. Mostafa Mohamed Rady [Agricultural Sciences]
Fayoum University, Egypt.
Dr. Hazim Jabbar Shah Ali [Poultry Science]
College of Agriculture, University of Baghdad , Iraq.
Danial Kahrizi [Plant Biotechnology, Plant Breeding,Genetics]
Agronomy and Plant Breeding Dept., Razi University, Iran
Dr. Houhun LI [Systematics of Microlepidoptera, Zoogeography, Coevolution,
Forest protection]
College of Life Sciences, Nankai University, China.
María de la Concepción García Aguilar [Biology] Center for Scientific Research and Higher Education of Ensenada, B. C., Mexico
Fernando Reboredo [Archaeobotany, Forestry, Ecophysiology]
New University of Lisbon, Caparica, Portugal
Dr. Pritam Chattopadhyay [Agricultural Biotech, Food Biotech, Plant Biotech]
Visva-Bharati (a Central University), India
Table of Contents (Volume 3 - Issue 2)
Serial No Accession No Title of the article Page No
1 RA0335 Checklist of land birds in Tenkasi and Ambasamudram Taluk, Tirunelveli District: at the Foot Hills of Southern Western Ghats.
Sudhakaran MR, Valliselvam K, Esakkiammal M and Jayanthi A.
797-808
2 RA0298 Heavy metal accumulation by Amaranthus hybridus L . Grown on waste dumpsites in South-Eastern Nigeria.
Uka UN, Chukwuka KS and Okorie N.
809-817
3 RA0322 Treatment of digestive tract ailments in cattle with herbal folk-medicines: A preliminary study in Ganjam District. Dibakar Mishra.
818-827
4 RA0330 An assessment of Floristic Diversity of Daroji Sloth bear Sanctuary, Hospet, Bellary District, Karnataka, India. Harisha MN and Hosetti BB.
828-839
5 RA0331 Butterfly fauna of Daroji Sloth Bear Sanctuary, Hospet,
Bellary District, Karnataka, India.
Harisha MN and Hosetti BB.
840-846
6 RA0334 Toxicity of copper to tropical freshwater snail (Pila ovata).
Ariole CN and Anokwuru B.
847-851
Jou
rn
al of R
esearch
in
Biology
Checklist of land birds in Tenkasi and Ambasamudram Taluk, Tirunelveli
District: at the Foot Hills of Southern Western Ghats
Keywords: Land birds, ambasamudram, diversity.
ABSTRACT:
Birds present everywhere and are important ecological indicators. The study area Tenkasi (8.97°N 77.3°E) and Ambasumudram (8.7°N 77.47°E) region of Tirunelveli district, Tamilnadu state is at the foothills of Southern Western Ghats. Studies on distribution of birds in this part have been recorded from the yester years but due to various reasons it had been confine towards aquatic ecosystem. To fulfill this lacuna, present study was carried out. A total of 100 species of land birds were documented that belongs to 36 orders and 48 families. Study on nesting pattern, breeding pattern was also carried out. 30% of the birds had their breeding periods during rainy season and 50% of the birds had their breeding periods during harvesting time. Insectivores breeds during rainy season and granivores breeds during harvest season which supports ‘food availability-breeding time’ hypothesis.
797-808 | JRB | 2013 | Vol 3 | No 2
This article is governed by the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0), which gives permission for unrestricted use, non-commercial, distribution and reproduction in all medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
www.jresearchbiology.com
Journal of Research in Biology
An International
Scientific Research Journal
Authors:
Sudhakaran MR,
Valliselvam K,
Esakkiammal M and
Jayanthi A.
Institution:
Department of Zoology,
Sri Paramakalyani College,
Alwarkurichi 627 412 India.
Corresponding author:
Sudhakaran MR.
Email:
sudhakaranmr@gmail.com
Web Address: http://jresearchbiology.com/documents/RA0335.pdf.
Dates: Received: 07 Feb 2013 Accepted: 14 Feb 2013 Published: 22 Feb 2013
Article Citation: Sudhakaran MR, Valliselvam K, Esakkiammal M and Jayanthi A. Checklist of land birds in Tenkasi and Ambasamudram Taluk, Tirunelveli District: at the Foot Hills of Southern Western Ghats. Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(2): 797-808
Journal of Research in Biology An International Scientific Research Journal
Original Research
INTRODUCTION
Diversity studies have assumed a greater
urgency, partially as a result of incorporating habitat and
demographic information towards conservation. Birds
use diverse habitat and select their own habitat for
successful living. Out of more than 9,000 bird species of
the world, Indian subcontinent contains 1,300 species or
over 13% of the world’s bird species (Grimmet et al.,
1999). The study area Tenkasi and Ambasamudram
region of Tirunelveli district, Tamilnadu state is at the
foothill of Southern Western Ghats. This area has part of
Kalakad Mundunthurai Tiger Reserve (KMTR) and
Courtallam hills, got a rich amount of flora and fauna
and a good vegetation that give food and nest resources
for birds. Nearly 160 species of birds were observed to
present in KMTR (Joshua and Johnsingh, 1988). An
annotated check list of the birds of Tamilnadu is not
available, but more than 450 species are likely to occur
(Rathinam, 2002). Studies on distribution of birds in this
part have been recorded from early 1945 (Webb-Pelope,
1945), but the studies had limited towards wet-land
birds. It is mainly due to the climatic condition prevails
in this area. This region enjoys both the north east and
south west monsoon, with good wetland ecosystem that
provides habitat for aquatic birds. Koonthankulam bird
sanctuary is present in this region that inhabits more than
100 species of wetland birds. Hence most of the studies
on birds (Johnson,1971; Wilkinson, 1961;
Subramaninan, 2003; Johnsingh, 2001) were restricted
towards wetland birds and their conservation. As birds
are observed to be an ideal bioindicator and a useful tool
for studying a variety of environmental problems, the
habitat ecology of bird community should be evaluated
for their conservation (Kattan and Franco, 2004).
The Indian bird population has been declining due to
habitat loss, fragmentation, anthropogenic disturbances
that necessitates documentation, monitoring and
conservation.
In order to bring forth the avian diversity in this
area, an extensive survey was made to document the land
bird distribution with a note on their habitat and breeding
in Ambasumudram and Tenkasi Taluk of Southern
Tamilnadu.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Study Area
Tenkasi (8.97°N 77.3°E; Elevation 554 feet) and
Ambasumuram (8.7°N 77.47°E; Elevation 229 feet)
taluk are regions of Tirunelveli district of Tamilnadu
(map) described as a microcosm of the state, owing to its
mosaic and diverse geographical and physical features
such as lofty mountains and low plains, thorn scrub
jungles, rivers and cascades, thick inland forest, sandy
soils and fertile alluvium, a variety of flora, fauna, and
protected wild life. The mean daily maximum
temperature is 32.1ºC. The weather is quite hot in
May and June and the maximum temperature some
times reaches 43ºC. This region enjoys winter
(December to March), Summer (April-June), Southwest
monsoon (June to September and North east monsoon
(October to November). The month of November is
generally with maximum rainfall. The average rainfall in
the district is 814.8 mm per annum.
Sudhakaran et al., 2013
798 Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(2): 797-808
Map: Study Area
Survey
This study on survey of land bird was conducted
from January 2012 to December 2012 for a period of one
year. Weekly field observations were made throughout
the study period, a total of 52 observations were done
during the study and birds in the study area
were documented. Survey was done in the nesting sites,
and information were gathered from local peoples and
villagers. With high precise birds were monitored during
morning (06 00 to 10 00 hrs) and evening
(15 00 to 18 30 hrs). Binoculars and monoculars were
used for observation. Nest sites were surveyed there by
getting information from local villagers. Birds were
identified using key reference books of birds of India
(Salim Ali, 2002) and Tamilnadu (Rathinam, 2002).
Diveristy Indices
Species richness was calculated by using
Margalef’s index and species dominance was calculated
by using Berger-Parker index. They were calculated by
using the formulae given below,
Margalef’s index
Species richness measures provide an instantly
comprehensible expression of diversity. It is calculated
using the formula,
Dmg = (S – 1)/ In N
Where,
S = Number of species present in each taluk
N = Number of individuals
Berger-Parker diversity index
Berger-Parker index is employed to determine
whether there is any change in the dominance of species
in each taluk. It expresses the proportional importance to
the most abundant species. The formula for calculating
the Berger-Parker index is
d = N max/N
Where,
N = the total number of individuals
Nmax = Number of individuals in the most abundant
species.
RESULT AND DISCUSION
A total of 100 species of birds that belongs to
16 orders and 36 families were recorded during the
study, of which order Passeriformes was observed to
have 19 families with 48 species (Table 1). Family
Sylviinae of order Passeriformes have a maximum
number of 8 species of total 100 species observed.
Passeriformies are group of birds that inhabit in a
vegetative rich area, that provide nesting and feeding
areas (Balachandran et al., 2005). Study area was
observed to provide a good resource for the bird
community. Of the 100 species observed, 75 were
observed to be residents and 16 were observed to
migrants, and 9 were both resident and migrant. Migrants
were observed to be from the western ghats region.
Study on species richness revealed that
Passeriformes shows a higher species richness.
Passer domesticus (Dmg: 1.598) Pirnia socialis
(Dmg: 1.497), Acrocephalus agricola (Dmg: 1.401),
Orthotomus subtorius (Dmg: 1.401), Corvus splendens
(Dmg: 1.400), Dendrocitta vagabunda (Dmg: 1.399),
Corvus macrorhynchos (Dmg: 1.387), Ardeola grayii
(Dmg: 1.350), Egretta grazetta (Dmg: 1.351),
Cosmerodius albus (Dmg: 1.320) were observed to have
a higher species richness. Species richness depends on
the habitat, climatic condition, food resource and
evolutionary history of the area (Jayson, 1994). On
estimating the dominance of species Corvus splendons
(d=0.393), Acridotherse tristis (d=0.390) had a greater
dominance. Dominance and richness of the species
depends mostly on the resource availability (Recher and
Davis, 2002).
Considering the feeding habit of bats 37 were
insectivorous, 22 were omnivores, 13 were granivore,
4 were piscivores, 4 were frugivores, 7 were carnivores,
3 were predators, 1 was nectarivore, 3 were insectivore
and piscivore, 2 were insectivore and frugivore, 1 was
carnivore and frugivore, 1 was predator and insectivore,
and 2 were insectivore and nectarivore. Insectivore and
Sudhakaran et al., 2013
Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(2): 797-808 799
Sudhakaran et al., 2013
800 Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(2): 797-808
S.NO COMMON NAME SCIENTIFIC NAME VERNACULAR
NAME
FEEDING
HABIT STATUS
Order:Ciconiiformes
Family:Ardeidae
1 Indian pond-heron Ardeola grayii Curuttu kokku IN, P R
2 Little egret Egretta garzetta Chinna kokku IN, P R
3 Large egret Casmerodius albus Paria kokku IN, P RM
Order:Gruiformes
Family:Rallidae
4 White-breasted waterhen Amaurornis phoenicurus Kampul koli IN R
Order:Falconiformes
Family:Accipitridae
5 Black kite Milvus migrans Kalla parunthu C R
6 Brahminy kite Haliastur indus Semparunthu C R
7 Pallied harrier Circus macrourus Punai parunthu C M
8 Black eagle Ictinaetus malayensis Karumparunthu C R
9 Shikra Accipiter badius Valluru PR R
Order:Galliformes
Family:Phasianidae
10 Grey francolin Francolinus
pondicerianus Cowthari GR
R
11 Common quail Coturnix coturnix Katai GR R
12 Indian pea fowl Pavo cristatus Nila myil OM R
13 Chesnut-bellied sand
grouse Pterocles exustus Kalcowthari GR
R
14 Painted francolin Francolinus pictus Varna Kowthari GR R
15 Indian Roller Coracias benghalensis Panagkatai IN R
Order:Charadriiformes
Family:Charadriidae
16 Red-wattled lapuing Vanellus indicus Chivappumuku
alkatti CR
R
Order:Columbiformes
Family:Columbidae
17 Blue-rock pigeon Columba livia Madapura GR R
18 Spotted dove Streptopelia chinensis Pullipura GR R
19 Red collared dove Streptopelia
tranquebarica Thavittupura GR
R
20 YellowLegged Green-
Pigeon Treron phoenicoptera Pachaipura GR
R
21 Eurasian collared Dove Streptopelia decaocto Kallipura GR R
Order:Psittaciformes
Family:Psittacidae
22 Rose-ringed parakeet Psittacula krameri Senthar pynkili FR R
Order:Cuculiformes
Family:Cuculidae
23 Brainfever bird Hierococcyx varius Akka Kuyil IN R
24 Indian cuckoo Cuculus micropterus Kuyil IN R
25 Drongo cuckoo Surniculus lugubris Karisaan Kuyil IN,FR R
26 Asian koel Eudynamys scolopaceus Kokilum CR,FR R
27 Greater coucal Centropus sinensis Senbagam PR R
Table 1. Check list of birds in the study area
Sudhakaran et al., 2013
Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(2): 797-808 801
Order:Strigiformes
Family:Strigidae
28 Eurasian eagle owl Bubo bubo Compan anthai CR R
29 Motted wood owl Strix ocellata Poripulli owl PR R
30 Spotted owlet Athene brama Pulli anthai OM R
Family:Tytonidae
31 Barn owl Tyto alba Cukai anthai OM R
Order:Apodiformes
Family:Apodidae
32 Indian edible-nest swiftlet Collocalia unicolor China ulavaran IN R
33 House-swift Apus affinis Nattu ulavaran IN RM
34 Asian plam swift Cypsiurus balasiensis Panai ulavaran IN R
Family:Hemiprocnidae
35 Creasted tree swift Hemiprocne coronata Kontai ulavaran IN R
Order:Coraciiformes
Family:Alcedinidae
36 Small blue kingfisher Alcedo atthis Ciral menkoththi P RM
37 Oriental dwarf kingfisher Ceyx erithaca Ciru menkoththi P R
38 White-breasted kingfisher Halcyon smyrnensis Wenmarbu menkoththi P R
39 Wood lane Jeannine miesle Menkoththi P M
Family:Meropidae
40 Small bee-eater Merops orientalis Chinna panchurutan IN R
41 Blue tailed bee-eater Merops philippinus Nilaval panchurutan IN M
42 Chesnut-heated bee-eater Merops leschenaulti Chanthalai pancurutan IN R
Family:Upupidae
43 Hoopoe Upupa epops Saval kuruvi IN,PR RM
Order:Piciformes
Family:Capitonidae
44 White-checked barbet Megalaima viridis China kukkuruvan FR R
45 Brown-headed barbet Megalaimia zeylanica Kattu pachai Kukkuruvan FR R
Family:Picidae
46 Small yellow-napal
woodpecker Picus chlorolophus Marangkothi IN,FR
R
47 Golden backed
woodpecker Dinopium javanense Marangkothi CR
R
48 Greater golden-backed
woodpecker Chrysocolaptes lucidus Marangkothi IN
R
49 Heart-spotted woodpecker Hemicircus canente Marangkothi IN R
50 Brown-capped pygmy
woodpecker Dendrocopos nanus Marangkothi IN
M
Order:Passeriformes
Family:Pittidae
51 Indian pitta Pitta brachyura Arumani kuruvi IN M
Family:Hirundinidae
52 Common swallow Hirundo rustica Thagaivilan IN RM
53 Wire-tailed swallow Hirundo smithii Kampi-valThagaivilan IN RM
Sudhakaran et al., 2013
802 Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(2): 797-808
Family:Motacillidae
54 Large-pied wagtail Motacilla maderaspatensis Karuppuvalati IN R
55 Grey wagtail Motacilla cinerea Karum sampal valati IN M
Family:Campephagidae
56 Large cuckoo-Shrike Coracina macei Kuyil kisaan IN R
57 Common-woodshrike Tephrodornis pondiorianus Kassappakaram IN R
Family:Pycnonotidae
58 Red-whiskered bulbul Pycnonotus jocosus Chivappu mesai cinnan OM R
59 Red-vented bulbul Pycnonotus cafer Kondai kuruvi OM R
60 Black-crested bulbul Pycnonotus melanicterus Karungontai cinnan OM R
61 Black bulbul Hypsipetes leucocephalus Karun cinnan OM R
Family:Irenidae
62 Gold-fronted chloropsis Chloropsis aurifrons Pachai cittu OM R
63 Asianfairy-bluebird Irena puella Vannachittu OM M
Family:Turdinae
64 Malabar whisting-thrush Myiophonus horsfieldii Pung kuruvi OM M
65 White-rumbed shama Copsychus malabaricus Shama OM R
66 Indian robin Saxicoloides fulicata Carkuruvi IN R
67 Pied bushchat Saxicola caprata kathirkuruvi IN R
Family:Timaliidae
68 Large gray babbler Turdoides malcolmi Chilampan OM R
69 Jungle babbler Turdoides striatus Chilampan OM R
70 White-heated babbler Turdoides affinis Chilampan OM R
Family:Sylviinae
71 Jungle prinia Prinia sylvatica Kattukathir kuruvi IN R
72 Ashy prinia Prinia socialis Sampal kathirkuruvi IN R
73 Plain prinia Prinia inornata kathirkuruvi OM M
74 Paddyfied warbler Acrocephalus agricola vayelKathirkuruvi IN RM
75 Indian greatreed warbler Acrocephalus stentoreus Nanal kathir kuruvi IN M
76 Common tailer bird Orthotomus sutorius Thyal cittu IN R
77 Red-throated flycatcher Ficedula parva Epedippan IN M
78 Nilgiri flycatcher Eumyias albicaudatus Epedippan IN M
Family:Monarchinae
79 Asian paradise-flycatcher Terpsiphone paradisi Arasaval kuruvi IN RM
Family:Muscicapidae
80 Kashmir flycatcher Ficedula subrubra Epedippan IN M
granivore was observed to be greater in number in this
area due to the availability of food resources.
Study on nesting pattern of birds showed that
they were found to have a various pattern of nest. Birds
build cup nest (25 species), hole nest (24 species),
platform nest (15 species), pendent nest (5 species), bell
shaped nest (3 species), ground nests (2 species) and
oyster shaped nest (1 species). Birds were observed to
use variety of materials for nest construction (Table 2).
Study on breeding period of avifauna in the study
area revealed that 28 bird species had their breeding
period during June to November, 24 birds had their
breeding periods during December to March, and 17
birds had their breeding periods during April to June, and
6 birds had breeding period without any specificity
depending only on food and climatic conditions. 30% of
birds had their breeding periods during the rainy season
and 50% of birds had their breeding periods during
Sudhakaran et al., 2013
Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(2): 797-808 803
Family:Dicaeidae
81 Tickell’s flower pecker Dicaeum erythrorhynchos Pakku chittu FR R
Family:Nectariniidae
82 Purple-rumbed sunbird Nectarinia zeylonica Manjal thenchittu NR R
83 Small sunbird Nectarinia minima China thencittu IN,NR M
84 Purple sunbird Nectarinia asiatica Uthathenchittu IN R
Family:Estrildidae
85 White-throated munia Lonchura malabarica Thiinai kuruvi GR R
86 Black-headed munia Lonchura malacca Thinaii kuruvi GR R
Family:Passerinae
87 House sparrow Passer domesticus Chittu kuruvi GR R
Family: ploceinae
88 Baya weaver Ploceus philippinus thuknanagkuruvi GR R
Family:Sturnidae
89 Grey-headed starling Sturnus malabaricus Sampal thalai myna OM R
90 Commom myna Acridotheres tristis Narathan kuruvi OM R
Family:Oriolidae
91 Black-headed oriole Oriolus xanthornus Mangkuyil OM R
Family:Dicruridae
92 Black Drongo Dicrurus macrocercus Karuvatuvalli IN R
93 Ashy Drongo Dicrurus leucophaeus Karisaan IN M
94 White-bellied Drongo Dicrurus caerulescens Vellai-vaittu Karisaan IN R
95 Spangled Drongo Dicrurus hottentottus Kontai karisaan IN,NR R
96 Bronzed Drongo Dicrurus aeneus Karumpachai karichan IN M
Family:Corvidae
97 Indian treepie Dendrocitta vagabunda Valkakkai OM R
98 White-bellied treepie Dendrocitta leucogastra White valaivaettukakai OM M
99 House crow Corvus splendens Manikagam OM R
100 Jungle crow Corvus macrorhynchos Andakagam OM R
IN-Insetivore, P-Piscivore, CR-Carnivore, GR-Granivore, OM-Omnivore, FR-Frugivore, PR-Predators, NR-Nectarivore. ;
R – Resident; M – Migrant.
Sudhakaran et al., 2013
804 Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(2): 797-808
COMMON NAME AND
SCIENTIFIC NAME NEST SITE NEST TYPE NEST MATERIALS
BREEDING
TIME
Egretta garzetta Little Egret
Trees around lake
area Platform nest Twigs Nov-Feb
Casmerodius albus
Large egret
Trees around lake
area Platform nest Twigs Nov-Feb
Ardeola grayii
Indian Pond-Heron
Trees around lake
area Platform nest Twigs, small stems Nov-Apr
Milvus migrans
Black kite Tree canopy Platform nest Twigs, cloth, paper Sep-Apr
Haliastur indus
Brahminy kite Trees in water area Platform nest Twigs, cloth, jute, coir Dec-Apr
Ictinaetus malayensis
Black eagle Trees in hilly area Platform nest Twigs, stems, Rootlets Nov-Mar
Francolinus pictus
Painted francolin Ground Cup nest Dry Grass, leaves Jun-Sep
Coturnix coturnix
Common Quail Ground Cup nest Dry Grass, twigs Mar-Jul
Pavo cristatus
Indian Peafowl Bushes Platform nest Grass, twigs Jan-May
Amaurornis phoenicurus
White-breasted water hen Bushes Cup nest
Twigs, leaves, small
stems Apr-Oct
Vanellus indicus
Red-wattled Lapwing Ground Ground nest Mud, twigs, grass Mar-Sep
Pterocles exustus
Chestnut-bellied sand
grouse
Ground Ground nest Mud, twigs, grass Jan-Apr
Columba livia
Blue Rock pigeon
Temple towers/
stone buidings Platform nest Small sticks, fibres Annual
Streptopelia tranquebarica
Red collared-Dove Bushes,Small trees Platform nest Twigs, small sticks Annual
Treron phoenicoptera
Yellow-legged Green-pigeon Bushes,small trees Platform nest Twigs, Small stems Mar-Jun
Psittacula krameri
Rose-ringed parakeet Tree holes Hole nest - Jan-Apr
Tyto alba
Barn Owl
Temple towers/
Tree holes Hole nest - Annual
Bubo bubo
Eurasian Eagle Owl Sandy riverbanks Hole nest - Nov-May
Strix ocellata
Mottled Wood-Owl
Tree holes/
Cavities Hole nest Twigs, feathers Jan-Mar
Athene brama
Spotted Owlet
Tree holes/
Cavities Hole nest Fibrers Nov-Mar
Table 2. Nesting details of birds in the study area
Sudhakaran et al., 2013
Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(2): 797-808 805
Collocalia unicolor Indian Edible-nest Swiftlet
Building towers (Sirpi) shape Saliva, grass, fibres,
alga Mar-Jun
Cypsiurus balasiensis Asian Palm Swift
Trees (Palm trees) Cup nest Soft flower, feathers Annual
Not in winter
Apus affinis House Swift
Temple towers/
Bridges Cup nest
Feathers, paddy leaves
Annual
Not in winter
Alcedo atthis Small Blue kingfisher
Sandy river banks Hole nest - Feb-Sep
Ceyx erithaca Oriental Dwarf kingfisher
Sandy river banks Hole nest - July-Sep
Halcyon smyrnensis White-breasted kingfisher
Sandy river banks Hole nest - Jan-Jul
Nyctyornis athertoni Blue-beared Bee-eater
River banks Hole nest - Feb-Aug
Merops orientalis Small Bee-eater
Sandy road side Hole nest - Feb-Jun
Merops leschenaulti Chestnut-headed Bee-eater
Sandy river banks Hole nest - Feb-Jun
Coracias benghalensis Indian Roller
Tree holes Hole nest Grasses, straw, cloth Jan-Apr
Upupa epops
Hoo poe
Tree holes,
cavities, building
towers
Hole nest - Jan-Apr
Megalaima zeylanica Brown-headed barbet
Tree holes Hole nest - Feb-May
Megalaima viridis White-checked Barbet
Tree holes Hole nest - Dec-Jun
Dendrocopos nanus Brown-capped pygmy
Woodpecker
Tree holes Hole nest - Feb-Jul
Picus chlorolophus Small yellow-naped
Woodpecker
Tree holes Hole nest - Jan-May
Dinopium javanense Golenden backed
Wood Pecker
Tree holes
Hole nest - Feb-Jul
Chrysocolaptes lucidus Greater Golden-backed
Wood pecker
Tree holes Hole nest - Dec-Mar
Hemicircus canente Heart-Spotted Wood pecker
Tree holes Hole nest - Nov-Apr
Motacilla maderaspatensis Large Pied Wagtail
Water source
Near Cup nest
Root, grasses,
threads, jute Dec-Jun
Tephrodornis pondicerianus Common Wood Shrike
Trees Cup nest Barks, fibres Feb-Jul
Sudhakaran et al., 2013
806 Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(2): 797-808
Pycnonotus melanicterus Black-crested Bulbul
Small trees Cup nest Grasses, Twigs, spider
threads, leaves Jan-Aug
Pycnonotus jocosus Red-whiskkered Bulbul
Bushes, house roof Cup nest Twigs,leaves,spider
threads, root lets Dec-Jun
Pycnonotus cafer Red-vented Bulbul
Trees Cup nest Fibres, twigs Feb-Nov
Hypsipetes leucocephalus
Balck Bulbul Trees Cup nest
Grasses, dry leaves,
wood Alga, wood
mushrooms
Mar-Jun
Chloropsis aurifrons Gold-fronted cholropsis
Tree canopy Cup nest Fibres Jan-Feb
Irena puella Asian Fairy-Blue bird
Forest-trees Platform nest Twigs, stems Jan-Jun
Myiophonus horsfieldii Malabar whistling-thrush
Opportunistic Cup nest None Apr-Sep
Copsychus malabaricus White-rumped Shama
Tree holes
Hole nest None Apr-Jun
Saxicoloides fulicata Indian Robin
Cavities, wall tree
Holes Hole nest Grasses, feathers, straw Feb-Jul
Saxicola caprata Pied bushchat
Bushes, wall,
tree holes Hole nest Grasses feathers ,straw Feb-May
Turdoides malcolmi Large Gray Babbbler
Bushes, small trees Cup nest Grasses, fibres, rootlets,
twigs Mar-Sep
Turdoides striatus Jungle Babbbler
Bushes, small trees Cup nest Grasses, roots, twigs Mar-Oct
Turdoides affinis White-headed Babbler
Bushes, small trees Cup nest Grasses, roots, twigs Mar-Oct
Prinia sylvatica Jungle prinia
Bushes Ball shapped
Nest Grasses Mar-Oct
Prinia Socialis Ashy prinia
Bushes Cup nest Fibres, small sticks Apr-Aug
Orthotomus sutorius Common Tailor bird
Trees Cup nest Fibres, leaves, cotton
wool Apr-Dec
Eumyias albicaudata Nilgiri Flycatcher
Tree holes Cup nest Green tree’s Alga,
Rootlets Feb-Jun
Terpsiphone paradisi
Asian Paradise-Flycatch Trees Cup nest
Fibres, twigs, rootlets,
leaves May-Jul
Dicaeum erythrorhynchos Tickell’s Flower pecker
Trees Pendant nest Fibres, grasses, rootlets,
Spider thread Jan-Jun
Nectarinia zcylonica Purple-rumped sunbird
Bushes, small trees Pendant nest Grasses, fibres, spider
Threads Feb-Apr
Nectarinia minima Small sunbird
Small trees Pendant nest Grasses, papers, spider
Threads, fibres Dec-Apr
harvesting periods. Two harvesting season prevails in the
study area, first during the month of February to March
and second during the month of November. 24 birds had
their breeding during first harvesting season and another
24 during the second harvesting season. An interesting
fact was observed that the bird species which had their
breeding periods during rainy season were observed to
be insectivores and omnivores, and bird species that had
their breeding period during harvesting periods were
insectivores, granivores and omnivores. They had their
chance of survival to a maximum by adapting a
successful feeding strategy. During the rainy season
insect population will be more, hence insectivore breeds
during this time and they can feed their young one with
sumptuous amount of food, similarly birds that breed
during harvesting season were granivores, where they
got food at a greater amount to feed their young ones.
Food is believed to be one of the most critical resources
for the survival and reproduction of animals. A
wellknown theory in ecology known as the ‘food
availability-breeding time’, most birds breed at the time
when plenty of food is available for their chicks. Habitat
selection in birds is an account for their reproductive
success (Danchin et al., 1998).
CONCLUSION
Due to habitat loss, fragmentation and
urbanization a vast land area that provide roost resource
Sudhakaran et al., 2013
Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(2): 797-808 807
Nectarinia asiatica Purple Sunbird
Small trees Pendant nest Grasses, leaves, fibres,
Spiderthread Jan-Jun
Lonchura malabarica White-throated Munia
Bushes, small trees Ball shaped
nest Feathers, cotton wool Dec-May
Lonchura Malacca Black-headed Munia
Small trees Ball shaped Grasses, fibres, straw Oct-May
Passer domesticus House sparrow
Building roof,
Holes, avities Cup nest
Grasses, straw, cotton,
many waste material Annual
Ploceus philippinus Baya Weaver
Trees Pendant nest Paddy leaves, grasses Depending
Rainy season
Sturnus malabaricus Grey-headed starling
Tree holes Hole nest - Apr-Jul
Acridotheres trists Common Myna
Treeholes,
Building cavities Cup nest
Twigs, roots, leaves,
Polythene, feathers Mar-Sep
Dicrurus macrocercus Black Drongo
Trees Cup nest Fibres, twigs Mar-Jul
Dicrurus caerulescens White-bellied Drongo
Trees Cup nest Twigs, fibres Mar-Jun
Dicrurus hottentottus Spangled Drongo
Trees Paltform nest Twigs, grasses, rootlets Mar-Apr
Dendrocitta vaga bunda Indian Treepie
Trees Platform nest Twigs, fibres, coir, fine
cloth Mar-May
Dendrocitta leucogastra
White-bellied Treepie Trees Cup nest Leaves, twigs, rootlets Feb-Apr
Corvus splendens House Crow
Trees, lamp post,
House towers Platform nest
Twigs, fine cloth, coir,
fibres Mar-Aug
Corvus macrorhynchos
Jungle Crow Trees Platform nest
Leaves, twigs, fine
cloth, coir, fibres Feb-May
for birds starts depleting at a greater rate. Hence study on
the diversity and habitat is a need of the hour in order to
make conservation priorities. This study generated a base
line data on the avifauna of this region, which may
enlighten for further studies.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We acknowledge Dr. A. J. A. Ranjit singh, Dr.
K. R. Narayanan, and Mr. P.Parvathiraj., Department of
Zoology, Sri Paramakalyani College, for their help in
identification of bird species.
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esearch
in
Biology
Heavy metal accumulation by Amaranthus hybridus L. grown on
waste dumpsites in South-Eastern Nigeria.
Keywords: Heavy metal, Amaranthus hybridus, accumulation, pollution, Safety risk.
ABSTRACT: The accumulation of some heavy metals by Amaranthus hybridus grown on two waste dump sites within Abakaliki metropolis, South-Eastern Nigeria was studied using atomic absorption spectrophotometer. The results indicate that Cd, Cu and Pb in the two dump sites were above the stipulated standard, while Zn was within the stipulated standard in the soil. The two dumpsites had high level of Pb in the plant leaves; in Site 2, Cu and Zn showed the highest value while Zn in site 2 has the lowest value. Although all the values obtained in the leaves of Amaranthus hybridus were within recommended limits, but it may be dangerous to consume Amaranthus hybridus grown on dump sites since it can accumulate most of these toxic metals. The BCF value was >2 for Pb and Cd in site 1 while in site 2 the BCF value was >2 for Pb, Cu, Zn and Cd, showing that Amaranthus hybridus can tolerate and sequester these metals from soil and translocate them to the shoots. The TLF in Amaranthus hybridus indicate the following: in Iyiudele stream (Site 1) the rate of Cd and Zn in Amaranthus hybridus up take is >1 and in site 2 the rate of Pb, Cd, Cu, and Zn up take in Amaranthus hybridus were >1. The results obtained from this study showed that heavy metals in soils at the waste dump sites ended up in the studied plant, Amaranthus hybridus, cultivated on such land. Therefore farmers should be discouraged from cultivating their crops on these waste dump sites.
809-817 | JRB | 2013 | Vol 3 | No 2
This article is governed by the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/
licenses/by/2.0), which gives permission for unrestricted use, non-commercial, distribution and reproduction in all medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
www.jresearchbiology.com Journal of Research in Biology
An International
Scientific Research Journal
Authors:
Uka UN1, Chukwuka KS2, 3
and Okorie N1.
Institution:
1.Department of Applied
Biology, Ebonyi State
University, Abakaliki-
Nigeria.
2. Department of Botany,
University of Ibadan,
Ibadan-Nigeria.
3. Department of Plant
Science and Biotechnology, Abia State University,
Uturu-Nigeria.
Corresponding author:
Chukwuka KS.
Email: kanayodrchukwuka97@gmail.com
Web Address: http://jresearchbiology.com/
documents/RA0298.pdf. Dates: Received: 31 Oct 2012 Accepted: 14 Nov 2012 Published: 22 Feb 2013
Article Citation: Uka UN, Chukwuka KS and Okorie N. Heavy metal accumulation by Amaranthus hybridus L . grown on Waste dumpsites in South-Eastern Nigeria. Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(2): 809-817
Journal of Research in Biology An International Scientific Research Journal
Original Research
INTRODUCTION
Vegetables constitute important functional food
components by contributing protein, vitamins, iron and
calcium which have marked health effects in all
organisms (Arai, 2002). Vegetables, especially leafy
vegetables, grown in heavy metal contaminated soils,
accumulate higher amounts of metals than those grown
in uncontaminated soils (Al Jassir et al., 2005). Heavy
metals are important contaminants and are found in the
surface and tissues of vegetables in environments with
such contaminants. The quest for urbanisation and
industrialization has resulted to the contamination of soil
and metal accumulation in soils and crops, resulting to
metal contamination exceeding the maximum
permissible level. Plant species have a variety of
capacities in removing and accumulating heavy metals,
so there are reports indicating that some species may
accumulate specific heavy metals, causing serious health
risk to human health when plant based food stuff are
consumed (Wenzel and Jackwer, 1999).
Odai et al., (2008) studied the concentration
levels of heavy metals in vegetables grown on urban
waste dump sites. This study was carried out on three
waste dump sites in Kumasi where vegetables cultivation
(cabbage, lettuce and spring onions) are practiced. Crops
and soil samples were collected and analyzed for the
presence of four heavy metals: Cadmium, lead, copper
and zinc. The levels of the two most toxic heavy metals
were far higher in the vegetables than the WHO/FAO
recommended values and the transfer factors of these
two metals were also the highest suggesting that
consumption of vegetables grown on such sites could
be dangerous to human health. Chove et al.,
(2006) carried out a study to determine the levels of
two heavy metals, Lead (Pb) and Copper (Cu), in two
popular leafy vegetables grown around Morogoro
Municipality in Tanzania. Vegetable samples of
Pumpkin leaves (Cucurbita moschata) and Chinese
cabbage (Brassica chinensis) were collected from three
sites and analyzed for the concentrations of the
two metals using an Atomic Absorption
Spectrophotometer. The results showed that levels
of Lead and Copper in the two vegetables were found to
be below the maximum permissible levels recommended
by FAO/WHO for the two metals in the vegetables.
In Abakaliki, South-eastern Nigeria, there is an
indiscriminate and inappropriate waste disposal. This
implies that the concentration of heavy metals in both
plant and soil is expected to be high. In this study,
Amaranthus hybridus was chosen for phytoremediation
study as well as heavy metal contamination because
it is a vegetable crop, rich in proteins, vitamins and
minerals. Its yield, ability to grow in hot weather
conditions, high nutritive value and their pleasant taste
and the fact that they grow all year round, makes it a
popular vegetable. (Grubben, 1976). This study was
undertaken to determine:
the status of heavy metal (Pb, Cu, Zn and Cd)
contamination in the selected waste dump soil in
Abakaliki Urban.
heavy metal concentrations in Amaranthus hybridus
from these waste dump sites and compare the levels
with WHO/FAO permissible levels.
the extent of heavy metal uptake from these sites
using transfer factor
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The study was carried out during the month of
October, 2011 which is part of the rainy season
in the area under investigation. Samples of
Amaranthus hybridus and soils were collected from 2
dump sites located at Iyiudele street and Abakaliki-
Enugu Expressway located within Abakaliki Urban,
Ebonyi State. Ebonyi State lies within the Cross River
plain, approximately between 7°30’ N and 8°30’ N
latitude and 5°40’E and 6°45’E longitude
(Nnamani et al, 2009). A total of 12 plants and soil
samples were collected from the two dump sites (six per
Uka et al., 2013
810 Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(2): 809-817
dump site). The plants were washed with tap water to
remove sand from the leaves, stem and roots. The plants
were put into separate polythene bags, labelled and taken
to the laboratory. In the laboratory the plants were
further washed with distilled water.
Identification of plants
The selected plant was collected in triplicate.
The identification and taxonomic characterization was
performed at the herbarium facility of the Ebonyi State
University, Abakaliki through botanical keys where the
vouchers were deposited.
Sample preparation and analysis
The plants were separated into leaves, stem and
root and air dried for 21 days to remove moisture. Soil
samples were air dried for 21 days, then sieved through
2 mm mesh. 0.5 g dried, grinded and sieved plant and
soil samples were analysed according to methods of
Umoren and Onianwa (2005). Concentrations of Pb, Cu,
Zn and Cd were determined using atomic absorption
spectrophotometer model sp-9 (Pye Unicam). The mean
values of three determinations per composite sample
were recorded.
The Bioconcentration Factor (BCF) of metals
was used to determine the quantity of heavy metals that
were absorbed by the plant from the soil (Ghosh and
Singh, 2005a) and is calculated using the formula:
BCF = Metal Concentration in whole plant
Concentration of metal in soil
To evaluate the potential of plants for
phytoextraction the translocation factor (TF) was used,
according to Marchiol et al., (2000) and is calculated as
follows:
TF = Metal Concentration (Stem + leaves)
Metal concentration (roots)
RESULTS
The mean concentration of the four heavy metals
(Pb, Cu, Zn and Cd) in soil samples from the waste dump
sites in Abakaliki Urban are presented in Table 1. The
mean concentration of Pb ranged from 0.07±0.01 in site
2 to 0.12±0.01 Mg/g in site 1 (Table 1and Fig 1). Mean
concentration of Cu ranged from 0.06± 0.01 Mg/g in site
2 to 0.24±0.01 Mg/g in site 1. These differences were
significant (P<0.05). The mean concentration of Zn
(0.01±0.00) in both sites were similar, while the highest
mean concentration of Cd (0.08±0.01) was found in
Uka et al., 2013
Sample Location Pb Cu Zn Cd
Site 1 0.12±0.01 0.24±0.01 0.01±0.00 0.05±0.01
Site 2 0.07±0.01 0.06±0.01 0.01±0.00 0.08±0.01
Table 1 Heavy metal variations (Mg/g) in soil sample from
some waste dumpsites in Abakaliki Urban.
Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(2): 809-817 811
Site 1 Site 2
Figure 1 Concentration of metals in soil samples from the waste dump soil samples
Co
ncen
trati
on
Mg
/Kg
Co
ncen
trati
on
Mg
/Kg
site 2 compared to ‘site 1’ (0.05± 0.01). However, the
differences were not significant (P >0.05).
The comparison of the maximum levels of the
various heavy metals in the dump site soil from site 1
and site 2 to acceptable standards is as shown in Table 2.
Cd, Cu and Pb were above the stipulated standard. Zn
was within the acceptable standard.
The accumulation of metals in the
Amaranthus hybridus parts from Iyiudele stream were
varied with Pb ranging from 0.01 mg/g- root, 0.33 mg/g-
stem and 0.5 mg/g leaf, Cu ranged from 0.12 mg/g-
root,0.07 mg/g stem and leaf (not detected); Zn ranging
from 0.01 mg/g for leaf, while it was detected in root and
stem. Cd ranged from 0.02 mg/g for root, 0.43 mg/g
for stem, while in leaf it was not detected (Figure 1,
Table 2). The concentration of Pb in leaf and stem in site
1 were above the WHO/FAO limit for vegetables, while
Cu and Zn were within the acceptable standard. Cd
concentration in stem was also above WHO/FAO Limit.
Amaranthus hybridus from old Kpirikpiri ranged
as follows: Pb-0.2 mg/g for root,0.04 for stem and
0.6 mg/g for leaf. Cu ranged from 0.08 mg/g-root,
0.05 mg/g-stem, 0.08 mg/g for leaf. Zn ranging from
0.03 mg/g-root, 0.04 mg/g-stem and 0.09mg/g leaf and
Cd ranging from 0.05 mg/g- root, 0.38 mg/g- stem and
0.15 mg/g - leaf (Figure 1, Table 2). Pb concentration in
leaf at site 2 was above the recommended dietary
allowance. The concentration of Cd in stem was above
the WHO/FAO allowance.
812 Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(2): 809-817
Uka et al., 2013
Site 1 Site 2
Metal/Plant Part Root Stem Leaf Root Stem Leaf *WHO/FAO
Pb 0.01±0.00 0.33±0.08 0.5±0.11 0.2±0.06 0.04±0.01 0.6± 0.12 0.30 Cu 0.12±0.01 0.07±0.01 ND 0.08±0.01 0.05±0.01 0.08±0.02 73.30
Zn ND ND 0.01±0.00 0.03±0.01 0.04±0.01 0.09±0.01 99.40
Cd 0.02±0.01 0.43±0.01 ND 0.05±0.01 0.38±0.01 0.15±0.01 0.20
WHO/FAO = Guideline for heavy metal concentration in leafy vegetables
Table 2 Heavy metal contamination of Amaranthus hybridus (Plant parts) (Mg/kg)
at waste dumpsites in Abakaliki Urban.
Figure 2 Comparison of metal content in soil from the study sites
Pb
Co
ncen
trati
on
Mg
/Kg
Cu
Co
ncen
trati
on
Mg
/Kg
Zn
Co
ncen
trati
on
Mg
/Kg
Cd
Co
ncen
trati
on
Mg
/Kg
Determination of the movement of metals from soil to
plant
The Bioconcentration factor (BCF) represented
in Table 4 showed the ability of Amarathus hybridus to
extract heavy metals from the soil. BCF Value at the site
1 was highest for Cd followed by Pb, Zn and Cu. At site
2, the BCF index was highest for Zn followed by Pb, Cd
and Cu.
Translocation Factor
Metals that are accumulated by plants and mostly
stored in the roots of plants are indicated by TF values
<1. Values >1 indicate translocation to the aerial parts of
plant. These are represented in Table 5. Values <1 were
found for Cu and Zn in site 1, while values >1 were
found for Pb and Cd in site 1. TF values were >1 in
site 2.
DISCUSSIONS
A study of Pb, Cu, Zn and Cd in soils and
naturally growing Amaranthus hybridus from selected
waste dump sites in Abakaliki urban was carried out. The
results show that Cd, Cu and Pb concentration in the soil
from the studied sites were above the stipulated standard,
while zinc was within the acceptable standard (Table 2).
The high levels of heavy metals in the dump site could
be attributed to huge amount of waste products disposed
of at the dump site (Ebong et al., 2007). The high levels
of these metals present the sites as potentially hazardous
and highly inimical to the food chain and biological life
and a clean environment. Al Jassir et al., (2005) reported
that leafy vegetables grown in heavy metals
contaminated soils, accumulate higher amount of metals
than those grown in uncontaminated soils because of the
fact that they absorb these metals through their leaves.
Pb is a chemical pollutant in the environment and
an element that is toxic to plants. (Sasmaz et al., 2008).
Kabata-Pendias and Pendias (2001) reported that
Pb contents of plants grown in uncontaminated areas
varied between 0.05 and 3.0 mg/kg. Carranza- Alvarez et
al., (2008) also reported that Pb concentration ranged
from 10 to 25 Mg/kg. In this study, Pb accumulation was
higher in the leaves of Amaranthus hybridus in the two
sites. According to Zurera-Cosano et al., (1989),
vegetables take up metals by absorbing them from
contaminated as well as from deposits on different parts
of vegetables exposed to the air from polluted
environment.
The ranges of Cu obtained in all the plant parts
in both dump sites are lower than 11.50±2.16, 2.50,
0.923 mg kg-1 as reported in different types of vegetables
by Farooq et al., (2008). In site 1 there was no trace of
Uka et al., 2013
Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(2): 809-817 813
This Study Maximum Standards
Pb 0.13 0.0066
Cu 0.26 0.0066
Zn 0.02 0.05 Cd 0.08 0.07
Table 2 Mean concentration (Mg/g) found in the
dumpsite soil and maximum permissible
metal content in soil
Source: Kabata-Pendias and Pendias 1992;
Figure 3 Heavy metal content (Pb,Cu, Zn and Cd ) of Amaranthus hybridus at the study sites
Co
ncen
trati
on
Mg
/Kg
Co
ncen
trati
on
Mg
/Kg
Cu in the leaf of Amaranthus hybridus, it could be that
the metal is within the root and stem, thus it has not been
translocated to the leaf. Despites the presence of Cu in
the other parts of Amaranthus hybridus, it was within the
recommended limit.
In site 1 there were no trace of Zn in the root and
stem but present in the leaf with low value, the absence
of Zn in the root and stem of Amaranthus hybridus in
site 1 may be that it has been volatilized or that it is not
essential for plant growth, the presence of Zn in the leaf
may be due to emissions from the environment. In site 2,
there were presence of Zn in the root, stem and leaf of
Amaranthus hybridus although the leaf had higher heavy
metal but they were all within recommended standard.
However, since the leaf of this vegetable is the edible
part, continuous intake of this vegetable from the dump
sites may be toxic and lethal to the health of the
consumers.
The ranges of Cd obtained from
Amaranthus hybridus in Site 1 are, root 0.02±0.01, stem,
0.43±0.01 and leaf was below detection limit. Cd in the
stem of Amaranthus hybridus in site 1 was higher when
compared to the ranges of Cd obtained from other
vegetables as reported by Maleki and Zarasvard (2008)
but lower than 0.667-0.933 as reported in other
vegetables (Abdullahi et al., 2009). However, the level
of Cd in the stem is within the recommended limit.
Comparing the two dump sites, stem had a higher
heavy metal, it could be that Amaranthus hybridus had
taken these metals up and stored mostly in the stem. The
BCF signifies the amount of heavy metals in the soil that
ended up in the vegetable crop. The BCF values were >2
for Pb and Cd at site 1 whereas in site 2 BCF values was
>2 for Pb, Cu, Zn and Cd. This implies that the degree of
transportability of these metals is site dependent and
could be due to different forms in which these metal ions
are available at these sites. These results enable us to
conclude that Amaranthus hybridus can tolerate and
sequester these metals from the soil and translocate it to
the shoots, thus making Amaranthus hybridus cultivated
814 Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(2): 809-817
Uka et al., 2013
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
Figure 4 Mean concentration of Pb,Cu,Zn and Cd in roots, stem and leaf of
Amaranthus hybridus from the two respective sites
Pb
Co
ncen
trati
on
in
ro
ot,
ste
m a
nd
leaf
Mg
/Kg
Cu
Co
ncen
trati
on
in
ro
ot,
ste
m a
nd
leaf
Mg
/Kg
Zn
Co
ncen
trati
on
in
ro
ot,
ste
m a
nd
leaf
Mg
/Kg
Cd
Co
ncen
trati
on
in
ro
ot,
ste
m a
nd
leaf
Mg
/Kg
on these waste dump sites unfit for human consumption.
The translocation factor can be used to estimate
plants potential for phytoremediation purposes. Metals
that are accumulated by plants and mostly stored in the
roots of plants are indicated by TLF values greater than
1. The translocation ability of Amaranthus hybridus for
these heavy metals were in these order Pb (83) >Cd
(21.50), while in site 2, Cd (10.60) >Zn (4.33) >Pb (3.20)
>Cu (1.63). This is an indication of efficient way of
transportation of these metals from root and its
accumulation in shoot. Baker (1981) and Zu et al.,
(2005) reported that TLFs higher than 1.0 were
determined in metal accumulator species, whereas TLFs
was typically lower than 1.0 in metal excluder species.
The TLFs higher than 1.0 indicated an efficient ability to
transport metal from root to leaf, most likely due to
efficient metal transporter system of plants (Zhao et al.,
2002), and probably sequestration of metals in leaf
vacuoles and apoplast (Lasat et al., 2002). The vacuole is
generally considered to be the main storage site for
metals in yeast and plant cells, and there is evidence that
phytochelatin-metal complexes are pumped into the
vacuole (Gratăo et al., 2005). It was reported that plants
also have the ability to hyperaccumulate various heavy
metals by the action of phytochelatins and
metallothioneins, forming complexes with heavy metals
and translocate them into vacuoles (Suresh and
Ravishankar, 2004).
The results obtained from this study have shown
that heavy metals in soils at the waste dump sites ended
up in the studied plant, Amaranthus hybridus, cultivated
on such land. The Four heavy metals Lead, Cadmium,
Copper and Zinc were present in the studied sites. The
concentration of lead and Cadmium that ended up in this
vegetable far exceeded the WHO/FAO dietary
allowance. Therefore farmers should be discouraged
from cultivating their crops on these waste dump sites.
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Biology
Treatment of digestive tract ailments in cattle with
herbal folk-medicines: A preliminary study in Ganjam District.
Keywords: Ethno-veterinary, folk medicine, Ganjam, traditional healers, traditional knowledge.
ABSTRACT:
Use of medicinal plants for the prevention and treatment of digestive tract ailments in cattle has originated long back in the history. An attempt was made to list out different successful preparations used by rural traditional healers and farmers to cure the common digestive tract ailments of the domestic cattle, mainly cows and buffaloes. Personal interviews with pre-structured questionnaire, observation of preparation of herbal medicines and their administration, results attained etc. were made to make a preliminary study of the traditional method of treatment. Collection of sample plant species and their identification, refinements of the methods adopted for preparation of these herbal medicines were done with the help of the local people especially the village heads and older persons. A total of 66 plant species of 40 families distributed in 61 genera was recorded. Efficacy of these preparations was examined in the subsequent visits. Problems identified by the farmers include: lack of support for validation of these herbal medicines and less availability of some medicinal plants due to their seasonal nature. Such traditional/folk medicines used against digestive tract ailments of domestic cattle, continuing with the rural folk of the study area, still remained unnoticed and undocumented.
818-827 | JRB | 2013 | Vol 3 | No 2
This article is governed by the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/
licenses/by/2.0), which gives permission for unrestricted use, non-commercial, distribution and reproduction in all medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
www.jresearchbiology.com
Journal of Research in Biology
An International Scientific
Research Journal
Authors:
Dibakar Mishra
Institution:
Department of Zoology,
Polasara Science College,
Polasara, District: Ganjam,
Odisha, 761 105 India.
Corresponding author:
Dibakar Mishra.
Email:
drdkm@hotmail.com
Tel:
(+91)9778098432
Web Address: http://jresearchbiology.com/
documents/RA0322.pdf.
Dates: Received: 11 Jan 2013 Accepted: 10 Feb 2013 Published: 07 Mar 2013
Article Citation: Dibakar Mishra. Treatment of digestive tract ailments in cattle with herbal folk-medicines: A preliminary study in Ganjam District. Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(2): 818-827
Journal of Research in Biology An International Scientific Research Journal
Original Research
Abbreviations :
g = Gram ; ml = milliliter ; Km = Kilometer ; sq = Square .
INTRODUCTION
India has a vast knowledge of herbal preparations
for treatment of different ailments both of human and of
animals. Major part of this art of healing has either been
vanished or been ignored. Still it is found with some
people living in the remote corners, who are either
farmers or animal owners. Their system of treatment
varies greatly either due to geographical gap or due to
climatic differences. It has also been observed that these
preparations show wonderful results, without any
side-effects in comparison to their modern counterparts,
the allopathic medicines. (Vijai et al., 2009).
This traditional science of healing is purely based
on trial and error by the aboriginal people and was
transmitted through words of mouth from generation to
generations. Further as plants are inseparable from
human life, their uses cannot be ignored. While plants
fulfill the basic requirements of human civilization like
food, shelter and clothing, it also is used for their better
health. India and Indian culture have exploited about
more than 2500 plants for medicinal purpose and this art
of treatment has become a part of folklore medicines.
Such medicines are at present practiced by a small
segment of our society who has a separate identity as
“Pasu vaidya” or the animal doctors or more commonly
the traditional healers. (Chendel et al., 1996; Sankar
Ganesh et al., 2007). Since no written records of such
drugs are available, it is possible that this invaluable
knowledge of our farmers would get lost in history.
The traditional folk-medicines that are
inseparable from the rural life of India are better known
as “Ethnoveterinary Medicines” (EVM) which can better
be defined as the result of a long term practice of herbal
treatment of animals which has been deeply integrated
with the custom and tradition of Indian life. (Mathius-
Mundy and McCorkle, 1989).
By this time steps are being taken to establish
this traditional heritage of folk medicinal science and
the present work is the first step in this regard in
the study area. Apart from different cattle ailments,
digestive disorders were observed frequently which
make the animals sick, thus affecting the economy of the
owners and thus it was selected for the present study.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The study area, Ganjam district extends between
19.4oN to 20.17oN latitude and 84.7oE to 85.12oE
longitude and occupies an area of 8070.6 Km2 with a
population density of 385/Km2. It has 22 blocks and 18
urban local bodies. There are 3212 villages constituting
475 gram panchayats. Forest area recorded is about
58136sq Kms. Agriculture and animal husbandry being
the most important economic sectors of the district and
the inhabitants chiefly live in rural and semi-urban areas.
(Dist. Stat. Handbook Ganjam, 2007). Diseases of the
domestic animals mostly affect the socio-economic
status of the inhabitants and usually depend upon their
own traditional method of herbal treatment.
During 2008 to 2011 the work was scheduled
with the aim to record all the available EVM in the
district. Extensive survey was conducted throughout the
district to identify the traditional healers or locally called
the pashu vaidya and persons with this knowledge.
Data collection was done by interviews, pre-
structured questions, group discussions with the local
people within the age group of thirty to seventy including
both the sexes. Livestock owners, traditional Healers
(THs), veterinarians, farmers, and housewives were
contacted for collection of data.
During subsequent visits data verification,
identification of plants used, methods of drug preparation
and modes of drug administration were recorded. Most
of the THs were illiterate and some were only able to
read and write while few attended primary schooling.
Sample specimens of each medicinal plant
species were collected during the field visits and allotted
collection numbers. The collected specimens were then
Mishra,2013
819 Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(2): 818-827
dried, identified through Flora of Orissa. (Saxena and
Brahmam, 1994-1996).
During the following seasons, preparations were
examined on-field to get concurrent result. Case history
of common digestive ailments of cattle, response of
the cattle owners to the disease, prescriptions of the THs
and farmers, dose and administration of the herbal
preparations, effectiveness of EVM were recorded.
Standardization of the quantity of herbal materials taken
by the THs was also done to get accurate results. The
specific and reliable information was cross checked with
at least 50% of the informants were incorporated. Out of
different cattle diseases only seven common intestinal
ailments were selected for the present study.
Details of medicinal plants used in this study are
presented with botanical name followed by family in
italics within parentheses.
RESULTS
During the course of the present work significant
information regarding treatment of some common
digestive tract ailments were observed and recorded. The
preparations those are frequently used with remarkable
results are described under.
Anorexia
1. 10 to 12 Leaves of Cymbopogon citratus D.C. Stapf.
(Poaceae), black salt-10 g ground together with rice
water to make a volume of 500 ml. The liquid is
drenched to the infected animal.
2. Apium graveolens L. (Apiaceae) 15 g,
Carum carvi L. (Apiaceae) 15 g, Myristica fragrans
Houtt. (Myristicaceae) 5 g, dry ginger 30 g,
Piper nigrum L. (Piperaceae) 25 to 30 pieces, and
fried Ferula assafoetida L. (Apiaceae) 10 g are dry
ground and mixed together. Half teaspoonful of this
powder mixed with 200 ml pre-boiled and cooled
Mishra, 2013
Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(2): 818-027 820
Figure 1. study Area-Ganjam district.
water to prepare the tonic. It is drenched to the
animal once a day for 7 days. (Mishra, 2010)
3. A. graveolens, C. carvi and dry ginger in a ratio of
1:1:2 are dry ground to make a powder. 1
teaspoonful of this powder is mixed with 1
teaspoonful of jaggery to prepare a paste which is
fed to the animal as such or rubbed with its tongue
once a day for seven days. (Mishra, 2010)
4. Dry ginger 25 g and common salt 1/2 teaspoonful
with a little water is ground to make a paste. It is fed
to the animal once daily.
5. 2-3 fruits of Citrus aurantifolia L. (Rutaceae) are
ground to paste and mixed with a bit of P. nigrum
powder and black salt. This is administered orally as
appetizer especially during fever.
6. Five to seven unseeded fruits of Terminalia chebula
Retz. (Combretaceae) powdered and mixed with a
little black salt and jaggery for oral administration as
a paste to increase digestive power.
7. Whole plant extract of Mormodica charantia L.
(Cucurbitaceae) is prepared in cold water and bottle-
fed to the animal to increase its appetite.
8. T. chebula, Terminalia bellerica Roxb.
(Combretaceae) and Embelica officinalis Gaertn.
(Euphorbiaceae) in equal amount are pulverized. 15
to 20 g. of this powder with cold water is drenched
to the cattle as an appetizer. Commonly this powder
is called as „Trifala‟.
9. Seedless T. belerica 25 g is ground with a little of
black salt and water, and fed to the ailing animals
twice daily for seven days.
10. 8-10 plants of Mentha spicata L. (Lamiaceae) are
crushed to extract juice. Juice is fed with salt in the
mornings and evenings.
Ascariasis
1. Black salt, C. carvi, Solanum nigrum L.
(Solanaceae) or Embelia tsjeriam-cottam (Roem. &
Schult.) DC. (Myesinaceae) in equal proportions are
ground together in water and administered orally
twice daily.
2. C. carvi 15 g. is ground with water and administered
orally for five to seven times daily yields a very
good result.
3. Fresh young leaf juice of Phoenix sylvestris Roxb.
(Arecaceae), Ananas sativus Schult. f.
(Bromeliaceae) and C. carvi seed with black salt are
ground together with water and drenched to the
animal.
4. C a t t l e l ea f s up p l em en t s con t a in in g
Azadirachta indica A. Juss. (Meliaceae) leaf
powder is the best worm killer.
5. Juglans cinerea L. (Juglandaceae) extracts in water
administered orally once daily for seven days
eliminates worms in intestine.
6. The root of Mucuna prurita Hook. (Fabaceae) is
administered orally with straw to kill and remove
intestinal worms of cattle.
7. 20 g of adventitious roots of Ficus benghalensis L.
(Moraceae) is crushed and mixed in 100 ml of water.
Mixture is fed to the animal twice in a day treat
worms. Animal is completely relieved in 2 days.
Coccidiosis
1. Freshly prepared rice with A. indica A. Juss. (neem)
leaves mixed with a little of P. nigrum L. (black
pepper) powder is fed to the animal.
2. Flowers of Musa paradisiaca L. are ground with
water mixed with leaf extracts of Feronia limonia L.
Sw. administered orally.
3. Young leaf extract of Sesbania sesban L. is given as
drink to the young calf.
4. Young leaf extract of M. charantia, C. citratus,
mixed with fresh Curcuma longa L. in equal
proportions are administered orally as a liquid food
gives best result.
5. Brassica campestris L. (mustard) seeds (100-150 g)
are ground with a little water to make a paste and are
Mishra,2013
821 Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(2): 818-827
given daily once for one week to control intestinal
parasites in cattle.
6. Leaves of Chenopodium ambrosioides L. are good
to expel worms in calves.
Coli-Bacilosis / Septisemic Coli-Bacilosis
1. Dry ginger (Sonth) 50 g, Cuminum cyminum L.
(cumin) seeds 25 g, salt as per requirement are
ground together and mixed with luke warm water
(about 100-150 ml.). It is given to the animal to
drink or given with the help of a pipe or bottle twice
or thrice as per the condition of the calf with an
interval of 4 - 6 hours.
2. C. ciratus leaves 10-12 g ground with rice-water and
salt are given to the infected calf thrice daily for 2 -
3 days.
3. 50 g C. longa (turmeric) powder 200 g jaggery,
100 g fresh soft C. dactylon are mixed together and
given to the animal as feed. If the calf is unable to
eat then the same may be ground in water and
administered orally twice daily.
4. Rice water, salt, and C. cyminum L. (cumin) seeds
25 g are ground finely and given to the calf as syrup
twice daily for 3-5 days.
5. Farmers use a powder crushed separately with few
leaves of Punica granatum L. (pomegranate) 50 g,
Pennisetum americanum (L.) Leeke (pearl millet)
50 g, fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum) seeds
50 g, Brassica campestris L. (mustard) 25 g, ajmoda
(Trachyspermum ammi) and 50g of black pepper
(Piper nigrum). It is mixed together and soaked in
one litre water for 12 hours. The water is boiled,
filtered and stored in a clean glass bottle. This
solution (100 ml) is given to the affected calf before
it is allowed to suck. Within two days the calves
excrete dead worms.
Constipation
1. 25 leaves of C. citratus, 100 g of ginger,
Zingiber officinale Rosc. and 25 g of common salt
are ground together with water to make a paste. This
is added to water to make a volume of 250 ml. The
mixture is drenched to the cattle twice daily for 3-4
days.
2. 20 leaves of C. citratus and one teaspoonful of black
salt is ground together with 200 ml. water and given
to the cattle twice daily.
3. Sonth 50 g, T. chebula 3-4 pieces and common salt
are ground together with water and administered
orally to the animal.
4. T. chebula 2-3 pieces, C. carvi 50 g, 10-15 dry
leaves of Cassia angustifolia Vahl., 20g of black
salt are ground together to powder. 10-15g of this
powder mixed with 50 g old jaggery mixed together
to make a bolus which is fed to the animal once
daily for 4-5 days.
5. Root juice of Ruta graveolens L. is given to the
animal once daily for 4 -5days.
6. Two teaspoonful of Triphala powder is given to the
animal with warm water (300 - 500ml) once daily
for 5 days.
7. Solanum viarum Dunal whole plant extract with a bit
of black salt is given to the animal for relief.
8. 75 g rhizome of Z. officinale, a little amount of
Aloe vera L., 400g of table salt, 200 g of molasses
made from Saccharum officinarum L. is mixed with
100 ml warm water, thoroughly mixed and fed to
cattle while still warm.
9. 400 ml coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) water is slightly
warmed and given to cattle.
10. 250 g whole plant of Boerhavia repens L. is crushed
thoroughly to extract juice and the juice fed with
table salt at eight hour intervals.
Diarrhoea
1. One flower of Musa paradisiaca L. ground to paste
with 10-15 black pepper (P. nigrum L.) is given to
the animal once daily for 4-5 days.
2. One flower each of M. paradisiaca and
Feronia limonia L. Sw. are ground together with
Mishra,2013
Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(2): 818-827 822
water and drenched to the animal once daily for 5
days.
3. One handful young leaves of Sesbania sesban L. is
fed to the animal twice daily for 3 days.
4. Leaf extract of M. charantia, fresh C. domestica,
C. citratus in equal proportions mixed with sonth
(Z. officinale) powder is drenched to the animal
twice daily for 5 days. In case of calves up to 2 years
the dose is reduced to half.
5. Root bark of Calotropis procera R.Br. 20 g ground
with 10 gms of C. carvi to make a paste. With
freshly prepared rice this paste is fed to the animal
twice daily for 5days.
6. Bark of Strychnos asper Lour. is boiled with water
to prepare a tincture. One tablespoon of Sonth
(Z. officinale) powder is mixed with one glass of the
tincture and drenched to the animal twice daily.
7. Leaf extract of Aegle marmelos (L.) Corr., F.
limonia, extract of Z. officinale Rosc., common salt
and sonth powder mixed together and drenched
twice or thrice daily for 3 days.
8. Pulp of 10 g of ripened Tamarindus indica L. is fed
to the animal for 2-3 days.
9. 50 ml sap of Psidium guajava L. leaves is fed twice
daily. (In case of goats this is much effective).
10. Roots of Mimosa pudica L., Achyranthes aspera L.,
Cassia occidentalis L., bark of Yucca gloriosa L. are
to be mixed and grounded. 100 pieces of P. nigrum
and 2 teaspoons of ghee are added to it. In case of
calf 40 pieces of black pepper are to be added. The
preparation is given 100g daily.
11. Leaf Juice of Ananas comosus (L.) Merr. is mixed
with water and drenched 100ml. once daily for 2-3
days.
12. Neem (A. indica A. Juss.) leaves and bark of
Coriandrum sativum L. are mixed and juice is
extracted from the mixture and then 100ml of it is
drenched everyday for 3-4days.
13. Six pieces of Bombax insigne L. seeds are
pulverized and mixed with 250 ml of buttermilk,
then filtrate of this is taken and mixed with goat
faeces and to be fed 3-4 times.
14. Leaves of Nymphaea nouchali Burm. f. are mixed
with soda and fed to the cattle 50 ml daily for 2-3
days. This is very effective in blood diarrhoea.
15. Sap of 250 ml M. paradisiaca leaves and 100 ml.
sap of Bambusa arundinacea (Retz.) Willd. are
mixed with 250 g of sugar and fed to the cattle for 2-
3 days.
16. Bark and fruit of T. bellerica are pulverised and
mixed with water and boiled. 50 ml of this
preparation is drenched everyday for 4 - 5 days.
17. 50 ml. sap of leaves of T. indica and Cassia fistula
L. are mixed with the powder of 30 pieces black
pepper (P. nigrum) and administered orally once a
day for 3-4 days.
18. 100 ml. extract of Holarrhena antidysenterica Wall.
ex A. DC. leaves are to be fed to the cattle for 2-3
days.
19. 50 ml. juice obtained from the bark of
Shorea robusta Gaertn.f. is drenched to the animal.
20. 50-60 ml of tincture of stem bark of A. catechu is
given to the animal twice daily for 2-3 days.
21. Barks and leaves of A. catechu (L. f.) Willd. are
crushed, boiled in water and the water fed to cows,
buffaloes or goats every morning and evening.
22. T. indica L. leaves 25 g are mixed with 15 g of
mustard (Brassica campestris L.) seeds and fed in
the morning for 3 days. Alternately, leaves are
boiled in water and fed to cattle.
Dysentery
1. 100-150 g of stems & leaves of Hemidesmus indicus
are ground and juice is extracted and mixed with
honey and is fed to the animal.
2. 3 pieces of black pepper (P. nigrum), 2 teaspoonful
ghee and 50 g smashed Glycyrrhiza glabra are
Mishra, 2013
823 Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(2): 818-827
mixed with 250 ml cold water and drenched to the
cattle.
3. 100 ml sap extracted from Centella asiatica,
Coleus aromaticus Benth. and Cyanodon dactylon
are drenched to the cattle for 2 - 3 days.
4. 50 ml extract of Tagetes erecta shoot mixed with 50
ml extract of Cyanodon dactylon are drenched to the
animal for 3 - 4 days.
5. 3 pieces of black pepper (P. nigrum) , 5 g C. carvi
and 5 g of Swertia angustifolia are grounded and fed
to the animal for 3 - 4 days.
6. 100 g bark of Bombax insigne is boiled in 500 ml of
water and then drenched to the animal.
7. Latex of Alstonia scholaris is mixed with black
pepper (P. nigrum) in the ratio of 3:2 and given to
the animal.
8. Bark of Butea monosperma is boiled with 250 ml of
water and filtered after cooling. The extract is
drenched to the cattle.
9. 200 g leaves of Andrographis paniculata and 100 g
leaves Centella asiatica are ground to paste and fed
to the animal.
10. 100 ml extract of Holarhena antidysenterica leaves
is drenched to the animal for 2-3 days.
11. Decoction of Acacia arabica root is mixed with
mustard Brassica campestris L. oil in the ratio of 1:3
and to be drenched to the animal.
12. 8-10 plants of Mentha spicata L. (Lamiaceae) are
crushed to extract juice. 25 ml of juice is fed with
salt in the mornings and evenings.
DISCUSSION
Traditional knowledge of rural communities of
Ganjam has high ethnoveterinary importance. They
utilize numerous plants and their various parts viz., roots,
leaves, stems, barks, flowers, fruits and rhizome etc for
various ethnoveterinary practices. In the present study
seven common digestive tract ailments of domestic cattle
are discussed in detail with the common herbal folk-
medicines. Plants used were described with their
botanical names followed by the common methods of
their preparations using different parts and ingredients,
dose and methods of their administration.
A total of 66 ethno-medicinal plant species
belonging to 40 families distributed in 61 genera have
been recorded. The most dominant families in this study
are Apiaceae (6), Poaceae (5), Caesalpiniaceae and
Rutaceae (4 each), Fabaceae and Mimosaceae (3 each),
Apocynaceae, Arecaceae, Combretaceae, Lamiaceae,
Meliaceae, Solanaceae and Zingiberaceae (2 each) and
the remaining families like Acanthaceae, Agavaceae,
Amaranthaceae, Asclepiadaceae, Asteraceae,
Bombacaceae, Brassicaceae, Bromeliaceae,
Chenopodiaceae, Cucurbitaceae, Dipterocarpaceae,
Euphorbiaceae, Gentianaceae, Juglandaceae,
Leguminosae, Liliaceae, Moraceae, Musaceae,
Myrsinaceae, Myristicaceae, Myrtaceae, Nyctaginaceae,
Nymphaeaceae, Periploaceae, Piperaceae, Punicaceae,
Strychnaceae were represented with one species each.
36 remedies use single plants and the rest 37 use
more than one plant. Local population of the district use
22 preparations for diarrhoea followed by 12 for
dysentery, 11 for constipation, 10 for Anorexia, 7 for
Ascariasis, 6 for Coccidiosis and 5 for Coli-baciliosis
Mishra,2013
Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(2): 818-827 824
Figure 2. No. of plants and preparations used.
which are plotted in figure-2. All these remedies are
prepared with ingredients like water, common salt, black
salt, rice water, butter milk, jaggery, and ghee.
Similarly the methods of preparation of the
above remedies fall into 9 categories such as solutions
(23), paste (20), decoctions (7), solid (5), juice (3), bolus
(1), powder (1) and tincture (1) as presented in figure-3 .
With regards to the prescriptions C. carvi is used
in 7 preparations for 6 diseases while P. nigrum in 9
preparations for 5 diseases. In the top of the list of plants
that are used in preparations and for different diseases
are Zingiber Officinale Rosc. 8 and 4, C citratus 6 and 5,
Brassica campestris L. var 4 and 4, respectively.
The THs and animal owners use different parts
of plants. Among these, leaves are most frequently used
(34) followed by seeds (28), whole plant (13), fruit and
rhizome (10 each), bark and root (8 each), flower (4),
latex and stem (2 each).(Figure-4)
During the course of study, the common
experience gained regarding the ethno-veterinary
practices in the district are that, the modern veterinary
medicines (MVM) are beyond the reach of the natives
due to their poor economic conditions. They frequently
adopt EVM as the most appropriate method of treatment
of many, if not all animal diseases. While for immediate
relief MVM is the best choice, but both EVM and MVM
can be used in an integrated way to get better results. The
traditional knowledge of medicine (folk-medicines)
needs to be properly documented and validated. To
achieve this necessary awareness regarding their
applications, effectiveness, farming, conservation are
absolutely required at the first hand.
CONCLUSION
Traditional herbal medicines are in use by most
of the communities worldwide mainly among people of
the developing countries because they are cheaper, more
sustainable, readily available, and reliable as they are in
use traditionally, and frequent alternatives to modern
veterinary medicines. The advantages of such medicines
are many and they are found to be time tested, socio-
economically related. Hence there is a growing need to
sum them up for any type of scientific validation.
(Varshneya, 2006)
Throughout the globe where traditional herbal
treatment is in use it is found that the traditional healers
have their own way of identification and classification of
animal diseases as well as medicinal herbs, drug
preparation, dose and administration. It has almost
become the first choice of the THs and animal owners
mostly due to their economic status and also easy
accessibility of the herbs.
Mishra,2013
825 Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(2): 818-827
Figure 3. Categories of Preparations Figure 4. Plant part used
Local knowledge is at the local level and
investments should be concentrated in improving a range
of practices that are appropriate and sustainable.
(Caleb A. Cudi, 2003) EVM is the first choice of the
common people in the developing countries as MVM is
beyond the reach of the rural folk. It plays an important
role in the day to day life of a common man which has
strong background of belief, religion, and ancestral time-
tested medicinal system. Plant preparations by the THs
and animal owners cost them much less than MVM and
they can prepare their own crude herbal medicines which
are safe and tested with the long trial and error based
examinations. In this context Charaka can rightly be
quoted here:
“Yogadapi visham tikshnamuttamam bheshajam bhavet,
Bheshajam chapi duryuktam tikshnam sampadhyte
visham.
Tasmannabhishaja yuktam yuktibahyen bheshajam,
Dhimta kinchidadeyam jivitarogyakankshina.”
(Charak Samhita, 1(1):127 & 128)
which says: “even venomous poison when
administered properly can be used as medicines but
when medicine is used improperly it becomes poison.
Thus it is important for those who love life and good
health not to take medicines from such vaidyas who are
not up to the mark in their medical profession.”
Taking the above points into consideration, there
is no doubt that among the large numbers of herbal
preparations used by the indigenous practitioners during
the past several centuries, there are many that deserve the
reputation they have proved to be effective. Such
preparations need to be investigated with modern
technologies for their successful implementation in the
practice of good health.
Although the information gathered from the local
traditional healers, in clinical terms, have tested the
medicinal value of these plant species for ages, yet their
confidence regarding the medicinal value of these plant
species was not sufficient to validate their claims.
Reports regarding the present ethnoveterinary
preparations require sufficient biochemical and
pharmacognosical validation to provide wide-spread
application providing much cheaper alternative
treatments to the economically poor farmers and animal
keepers. (Mishra, 2011)
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author is thankful to the informants and
traditional healers who shared their traditional
knowledge on medicinal uses in the field and Prof.
Bhaskar Padhy (Retd.), Berhampur University for his
guidance.
REFERENCES
Caleb A. Cudi. 2003. Ethno-Veterinary, complementary
and low cost treatment and management of working
animals, TAWS Workshop, Sisoe Research Institute,
UK. 1-10. http://www.taws.org.
Chandel, KPS, Shukla G and Neelam S. 1996.
Biodiversity in medicinal and aromatic plants in India.
Conservation and utilization. NBPGR, New Delhi. 1-
239.
District Statistical Handbook Ganjam. 2007.
Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Orissa,
Bhubaneswar.
Ganesh KS, Sundaramoorthy P, Chidambaram AA,
Baskaran L. 2007. Folklore Value of weeds grown in
the wastelands of Vedharanyam and Kodiakarai,
Nagapattinam District of Tamilnadu. Ad. Plant Sci., 20
(2):551-553.
Mathius-Mundy E and McCorkle CM. 1989.
Ethnoveterinary medicine: An annotated bibliography.
Bibliographies in Technology and Social Change, No. 6.
Technology and Social Change Program, Iowa State
University, Ames, Iowa, USA. 199.
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McCorkle CM and Green EC. 1998. Intersectoral
health care delivery. Agric. Hum., 15(2):105-114.
Mishra D. 2010. Ethno Veterinary practices among the
rural people of Ganjam District (Orissa) India: A Case
Study On some Common Veterinary Ailments,
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Mishra D. 2011. Identification of some ethnoveterinary
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Mishra,2013
827 Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(2): 818-827
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Biology
An assessment of Floristic Diversity of Daroji Sloth Bear Sanctuary,
Hospet, Bellary District, Karnataka, India
Keywords: Melursus ursinus, Flora, Cassia fistula, Daroji Sloth Bear Sanctuary, Deccan plateau.
ABSTRACT:
The plant resources of Daroji Sloth Bear Sanctuary of Bellary district was studied and analyzed to decipher the information on the diversity, which revealed a total of 98 species of plants belonging to 85 genera and 37 families. The data collected was analyzed to determine important value index (IVI), Shannon Weiner’s Index, Indices of species richness (R) and evenness (e). The objective of this work is to help foresters and ecologists by giving an account of floral status of the study area. The biodiversity of this area is threatened by cattle (livestock) grazing, water scarcity, mining and related problems. Hence, it is suggested to adopt strict control measures to protect and maintain the biodiversity in the Daroji Sloth Bear Sanctuary, which will help to sustain the wild herbivore at sanctuary.
828-839 | JRB | 2013 | Vol 3 | No 2
This article is governed by the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0), which gives permission for unrestricted use, non-commercial, distribution and reproduction in all medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
www.jresearchbiology.com
Journal of Research in Biology
An International Scientific
Research Journal
Authors:
Harisha MN and
Hosetti BB* .
Institution:
1. Department of Post
Graduate studies and
research in Wildlife
Management, Kuvempu
University, Jnana Sahyadri,
Shankaraghatta- 577451,
Shimoga, Karnataka.
*Department of Post
Graduate studies and
research in Applied Zoology,
Kuvempu University, Jnana
Sahyadri, Shankaraghatta-
577451, Shimoga,
Karnataka.
Corresponding author:
Hosetti BB.
Email:
hosetti57@gmail.com
Web Address: http://jresearchbiology.com/
documents/RA0330.pdf.
Dates: Received: 02 Feb 2013 Accepted: 09 Feb 2013 Published: 02 Apr 2013
Article Citation: Harisha MN and Hosetti BB. An assessment of Floristic Diversity of Daroji Sloth bear Sanctuary, Hospet, Bellary District, Karnataka, India. Journal of Research in Biology (2013)3(2): 828-839
Journal of Research in Biology An International Scientific Research Journal
Original Research
INTRODUCTION
The forest types in India ranged from thorny
scrubby jungle to moist evergreen forest along with
moist grasslands and characteristic shola vegetation. In
each of different types of forest, very diverse plants and
faunal species are found growing naturally. Identification
of species and their diversity is a mammoth task and is
virtually impossible to have a complete inventory of
Indian biodiversity (Harisha et al., 2008). Due to
geographical variation, deccan plateau region of India
possess great diversity in agricultural as well as wild
floral and faunal diversity (Khan, 2011). The Deccan
plateau region of Bellary in particular is highly over
exploited by several anthropogenic activities, including
different types of mining. The study site is naturally
spread with hillocks, boulders, undulated terrain with
sloppy lands covered with natural jungle scrub with
native herbs, shrubs, climbers and tree species. The main
aim of sanctuary is to conserve and maintain the
rich flora and fauna with reference to sloth bear,
Melursus ursinus and its food web present in Deccan
plateau region of Bellary.
Since the Deccan plateau region is rich in
biodiversity, highly exploited for the natural resources
resulting in threat to diversity and gene pool, nearly
600 tree species found in this region are facing threat of
extinction (Khan, 2011). Studies of plant and avifaunal
diversity can be used to interpret the well being of forest
ecosystem and also as an indicator of disturbance if any
in the system. Long term management plan of forest
ecosystem should incorporate the diversification of
vegetation by using diversity indices. In order to
understand the importance of a site it is necessary to
examine the significance in terms of the presence and
abundance of species (Bruford, 2002). The present study
attempts to understand the impact of changes in the
forest cover of Daroji Sloth Bear Sanctuary due to
human activities.
STUDY AREA
The unique Daroji Sloth Bear Sanctuary, Hospet,
in Bellary district is the only sanctuary located in North
Karnataka, situated between 15o 14' to 15o 17' N latitude
and 76o 31' to 76o 40' E longitude. It belongs to Deccan
Plateau scrub jungle with granite boulder outcrops.
Renowned world heritage centre - Hampi is situated only
15 kilometers away from this sanctuary. The
Government of Karnataka, in October 1994, declared
5,587.30 hectares of Bilikallu reserve forest as Daroji
Bear Sanctuary. Since it has a suitable habitat for the
Indian Sloth Bears due to the rock-strewn hillocks, and
characterized by vast stretches of undulating plains with
intermittent parallel chains of hills. The sanctuary lies at
an elevation of 647 m above mean sea level. The area
experienced high temperature with a maximum 43°C
during January to May.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Field data were collected in different seasons
during January 2009- December 2011 in the study area
stretching up to 4 km radius. The area is a long narrow
strip of hills with sandy and clay loams with rocky
mountain. The vegetation was analyzed by means of
10×10 m quadrates by random sampling to give most
representative composition of forestlands. Plant species
collected in each quadrates were identified by consulting
the Flora of Madras Presidency (Gamble, 1935).
DATA ANALYSIS
The data was analyzed for measuring the
Important Value Index (IVI), Shannon-Weiner Index
(H), Species richness Index (R), Species Evenness Index
(E) and the Index of Dominance (ID). The values of
relative density, relative frequency and relative
abundance were calculated following the methods of
Shukla and Chandel (1980). The Shannon-Wiener Index
was calculated according to Michael (1990) as follows.
Shannon Weiner’s Index
(H') = ∑Pi ln Pi
Harisha and Hosetti,2013
829 Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(2): 828-839
Harisha and Hosetti,2013
Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(2): 828-839 830
Sl.
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eae
4
1
12
0.3
3
0.0
8
884.0
0.4
5
1.3
9
1.8
4
19
Part
hen
ium
hys
tero
phoru
s L
. A
ster
acea
e 16
1
12
1.3
3
0.0
8
884.0
1.8
1
1.3
9
3.2
0
20
Tri
dax
pro
cum
ben
s L
. *
Ast
erac
eae
4
3
12
0.3
3
0.2
5
294.7
0.4
5
4.1
7
4.6
2
21
Cya
nth
illi
um
cin
ereu
m (
L.)
H. R
ob.
*
Ast
erac
eae
32
10
12
2.6
7
0.8
3
88.4
3.6
2
13.8
9
17.5
1
22
Cappari
s div
ari
cata
Lam
. C
appar
acea
e -
- -
- -
- -
- -
23
Cappari
s horr
id
Cap
par
acea
e -
- -
- -
- -
- -
24
Cappari
s ze
ylanic
a L
. *
Cap
par
acea
e 6
3
12
0.5
0
0.2
5
294.7
0.6
8
4.1
7
4.8
5
25
Opu
nti
a s
tric
ta (
Haw
.) H
aw.
Cac
tace
ae
1
1
12
0.0
8
0.0
8
884.0
0.1
1
1.3
9
1.5
0
26
Gym
nosp
ori
a m
onta
na
(R
oth
) B
em
th.
Cela
stra
ceae
1
1
12
0.0
8
0.0
8
884.0
0.1
1
1.3
9
1.5
0
27
Cass
ia t
ora
L.
*
Fabac
eae
5
1
12
0.4
2
0.0
8
884.0
0.5
7
1.3
9
1.9
5
28
Cass
ia a
bsu
s L
. F
abac
eae
- -
- -
- -
- -
-
Tab
le.1
. S
pec
ies
com
posi
tion
an
d I
mp
ort
an
ce V
alu
e in
Daro
ji S
loth
bea
r S
an
ctu
ary
.
Harisha and Hosetti,2013
831 Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(2): 828-839
29
Anogei
ssus
lati
foli
a (
Ro
xb.
ex D
C.)
Wall
. ex
Gu
ill.
& P
err.
Co
mbre
tace
ae
- -
- -
- -
- -
-
30
Com
mel
ina b
enghale
nsi
s L
. C
om
meli
nac
eae
10
3
12
0.8
3
0.2
5
294.7
1.1
3
4.1
7
5.3
0
31
Cya
noti
s tu
ber
osa
(R
oxb.)
Sch
ult
. &
Sch
ult
z.f.
C
om
meli
nac
eae
27
5
12
2.2
5
0.4
2
176.8
3.0
5
6.9
4
10.0
0
32
Ipom
oea
obsc
ura
(L
.) K
er G
awl.
C
onvo
lvu
lace
ae
2
2
12
0.1
7
0.1
7
442.0
0.2
3
2.7
8
3.0
0
33
Cusc
uta
ref
lexa
Ro
xb.
*
Co
nvo
lvu
lace
ae
1
1
12
0.0
8
0.0
8
884.0
0.1
1
1.3
9
1.5
0
34
Evo
lvulu
s als
inoid
es (
L.)
L.
*
Co
nvo
lvu
lace
ae
50
11
12
4.1
7
0.9
2
80.4
5.6
6
15.2
8
20.9
3
35
Mer
rem
ia t
riden
tata
(L
.) H
alli
er f
.)
Co
nvo
lvu
lace
ae
- -
- -
- -
- -
-
36
Tri
chosa
nth
es s
p.
Cucu
rbit
acea
e 1
1
12
0.0
8
0.0
8
884.0
0.1
1
1.3
9
1.5
0
37
Dio
spyr
os
panic
ula
ta D
alz
. E
benac
eae
-
- -
- -
- -
- -
38
Kir
ga
nel
ia r
etic
ula
ta (
Po
ir.)
Bai
ll.)
*
Phyll
anth
acea
e 2
2
12
0.1
7
0.1
7
442.0
0.2
3
2.7
8
3.0
0
39
Euphorb
ia t
iruca
lli
L.
*
Eupho
rbia
cea
e 11
3
12
0.9
2
0.2
5
294.7
1.2
4
4.1
7
5.4
1
40
Abru
s pre
cato
riu
s L
. *
Fabac
eae
- -
- -
- -
- -
-
41
Aca
cia c
ate
chu
(L
. f.
) W
illd
. *
Fabac
eae
49
10
12
4.0
8
0.8
3
88.4
5.5
4
13.8
9
19.4
3
42
Aca
cia l
euco
phlo
ea (
Ro
xb.)
Wil
ld.
Fabac
eae
9
2
12
0.7
5
0.1
7
442.0
1.0
2
2.7
8
3.8
0
43
Aca
cia n
iloti
ca (
L.)
Deli
le)
Fabac
eae
27
6
12
2.2
5
0.5
0
147.3
3.0
5
8.3
3
11.3
9
44
Aca
cia s
inuata
auct
.)
Fabac
eae
5
2
12
0.4
2
0.1
7
442.0
0.5
7
2.7
8
3.3
4
45
Alb
izia
am
ara
(R
oxb.)
Bo
ivin
, *
Fabac
eae
4
2
12
0.3
3
0.1
7
442.0
0.4
5
2.7
8
3.2
3
46
Alb
izia
odora
tiss
ima
(L
. f.
) B
enth
. F
abac
eae
6
2
12
0.5
0
0.1
7
442.0
0.6
8
2.7
8
3.4
6
47
Bauhin
ia r
ace
mosa
Lam
. F
abac
eae
4
2
12
0.3
3
0.1
7
442.0
0.4
5
2.7
8
3.2
3
48
Cass
ia a
uri
cula
ta L
. *
Fabac
eae
1
1
12
0.0
8
0.0
8
884.0
0.1
1
1.3
9
1.5
0
49
Cass
ia f
istu
la L
. *
Fabac
eae
1
1
12
0.0
8
0.0
8
884.0
0.1
1
1.3
9
1.5
0
50
Cro
tala
ria p
all
ida
Ait
on
Fabac
eae
1
1
12
0.0
8
0.0
8
884.0
0.1
1
1.3
9
1.5
0
51
Dalb
ergia
lance
ola
ria
L.
f.
Fabac
eae
12
3
12
1.0
0
0.2
5
294.7
1.3
6
4.1
7
5.5
2
52
Des
modiu
m t
rifl
oru
m (
L.)
DC
. F
abac
eae
17
6
12
1.4
2
0.5
0
147.3
1.9
2
8.3
3
10.2
6
53
Indig
ofe
ra t
inct
ori
a L
. F
abac
eae
19
5
12
1.5
8
0.4
2
176.8
2.1
5
6.9
4
9.0
9
54
Tep
hro
sia p
urp
ure
a (
L.)
Per
s. *
F
abac
eae
19
9
12
1.5
8
0.7
5
98.2
2.1
5
12.5
0
14.6
5
55
Mim
osa
pudic
a L
. *
Fabac
eae
2
2
12
0.1
7
0.1
7
442.0
0.2
3
2.7
8
3.0
0
56
Park
inso
nia
dig
itata
F
abac
eae
- -
- -
- -
- -
-
57
Pit
hec
ello
biu
m d
ulc
e (R
oxb.)
Ben
th.
Fabac
eae
- -
- -
- -
- -
-
58
Leu
cas
asp
era
(W
illd
.) L
ink
*
Lam
iace
ae
15
4
12
1.2
5
0.3
3
221.0
1.7
0
5.5
6
7.2
5
59
Leu
cas
stri
cta
Benth
. L
am
iace
ae
12
6
12
1.0
0
0.5
0
147.3
1.3
6
8.3
3
9.6
9
60
Hyp
tis
suave
ole
ns
(L.)
Po
it.
Lam
iace
ae
17
3
12
1.4
2
0.2
5
294.7
1.9
2
4.1
7
6.0
9
61
Oci
mum
am
eric
anum
L.
*
Lam
iace
ae
52
2
12
4.3
3
0.1
7
442.0
5.8
8
2.7
8
8.6
6
62
Abuti
lon i
ndic
um
(L
.) S
wee
t M
alv
acea
e 3
2
12
0.2
5
0.1
7
442.0
0.3
4
2.7
8
3.1
2
63
Gre
wia
hir
suta
Vahl,
T
ilia
ceae
64
10
12
5.3
3
0.8
3
88.4
7.2
4
13.8
9
21.1
3
64
Gre
wia
dam
ine
Gae
rtn.
Til
iace
ae
60
9
12
5.0
0
0.7
5
98.2
6.7
9
12.5
0
19.2
9
65
Gre
wia
til
iifo
lia V
ahl.
Til
iace
ae
10
2
12
0.8
3
0.1
7
442.0
1.1
3
2.7
8
3.9
1
Harisha and Hosetti,2013
Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(2): 828-839 832
66
Hib
iscu
s lo
batu
s (M
urr
ay)
Ku
ntz
e M
alv
acea
e 1
1
12
0.0
8
0.0
8
884.0
0.1
1
1.3
9
1.5
0
67
Sid
a c
ord
ata
(B
urm
. f.
) B
ors
s. W
aalk
. M
alv
acea
e 2
1
12
0.1
7
0.0
8
884.0
0.2
3
1.3
9
1.6
2
68
Sid
a c
ord
ifoli
a L
. *
Malv
acea
e 4
2
12
0.3
3
0.1
7
442.0
0.4
5
2.7
8
3.2
3
69
Guazu
ma u
lmif
oli
a L
am
. M
alv
acea
e 15
6
12
1.2
5
0.5
0
147.3
1.7
0
8.3
3
10.0
3
70
Cen
tell
a a
siati
ca (
L.)
Urb
. *
Ap
iacea
e 1
1
12
0.0
8
0.0
8
884.0
0.1
1
1.3
9
1.5
0
71
Cocc
ulu
s hir
sutu
s (L
.) D
iels
*
Menis
per
mac
eae
14
6
12
1.1
7
0.5
0
147.3
1.5
8
8.3
3
9.9
2
72
Ste
phania
japonic
a (
Thunb.)
Mie
rs *
M
enis
per
mac
eae
7
4
12
0.5
8
0.3
3
221.0
0.7
9
5.5
6
6.3
5
73
Mel
ia d
ubia
*
Meli
ace
ae
2
1
12
0.1
7
0.0
8
884.0
0.2
3
1.3
9
1.6
2
74
Fic
us
arn
ott
iana
(M
iq.)
Miq
. M
ora
ceae
-
- -
- -
- -
- -
75
Fic
us
ben
ghale
nsi
s L
. *
Mo
race
ae
- -
- -
- -
- -
-
76
Fic
us
race
mosa
L.
*
Mo
race
ae
- -
- -
- -
- -
-
77
Fic
us
tom
ento
sa R
oxb.
Mo
race
ae
- -
- -
- -
- -
-
78
Syz
ygiu
m c
um
ini
(L.)
Skee
ls *
M
yrt
acea
e 1
1
12
0.0
8
0.0
8
884.0
0.1
1
1.3
9
1.5
0
79
Boer
havi
a d
iffu
sa L
. *
Nyct
agin
ace
ae
5
3
12
0.4
2
0.2
5
294.7
0.5
7
4.1
7
4.7
3
80
Xim
enia
sp.
Ola
cac
eae
- -
- -
- -
- -
-
81
Phyl
lanth
us
am
aru
s S
chu
mac
h.
*
Phyll
anth
acea
e 20
1
12
1.6
7
0.0
8
884.0
2.2
6
1.3
9
3.6
5
82
Ziz
iphus
juju
ba
Mil
l. *
R
ham
nac
eae
- -
- -
- -
- -
-
83
Borr
eria
his
pid
a (
Lin
n.)
K.
Sch
um
. R
ubia
ceae
28
4
12
2.3
3
0.3
3
221.0
3.1
7
5.5
6
8.7
2
84
Borr
eria
str
icta
(L
. f.
) G
. M
ey.
*
Rubia
ceae
42
8
12
3.5
0
0.6
7
110.5
4.7
5
11.1
1
15.8
6
85
Canth
ium
parv
iflo
rum
Lam
. *
Rubia
ceae
11
3
12
0.9
2
0.2
5
294.7
1.2
4
4.1
7
5.4
1
86
Old
enla
ndia
cory
mbosa
L.
Rubia
ceae
20
2
12
1.6
7
0.1
7
442.0
2.2
6
2.7
8
5.0
4
87
Mori
nda t
inct
ori
a R
oxb.
maddi,
ET
*
Rubia
ceae
22
5
12
1.8
3
0.4
2
176.8
2.4
9
6.9
4
9.4
3
88
Mori
nda t
om
ento
sa B
.Heyne
ex R
oth
R
ubia
ceae
-
- -
- -
- -
- -
89
Pave
tta i
ndic
a L
. R
ubia
ceae
-
- -
- -
- -
- -
90
Randia
uli
gin
osa
(R
etz.
) P
oir
. R
ubia
ceae
-
- -
- -
- -
- -
91
Ixora
bra
chia
ta R
oxb.
ex D
C
Rubia
ceae
92
Ziz
iphus
mauri
tiana
Lam
. *
Rham
nac
eae
13
4
12
1.0
8
0.3
3
221.0
1.4
7
5.5
6
7.0
3
93
Ziz
iphus
oen
opli
a (
L.)
Mil
l.
Rham
nac
eae
5
3
12
0.4
2
0.2
5
294.7
0.5
7
4.1
7
4.7
3
94
Card
iosp
erm
um
hali
caca
bum
L.
*
Sap
indac
eae
-
- -
- -
- -
- -
95
Sapin
dus
trif
oli
atu
s L
. *
Sap
indac
eae
1
1
12
0.0
8
0.0
8
884.0
0.1
1
1.3
9
1.5
0
96
Wit
hania
som
nif
era
(L
.) D
unal
*
So
lanac
eae
1
1
12
0.0
8
0.0
8
884.0
0.1
1
1.3
9
1.5
0
97
Holo
pte
lea i
nte
gri
foli
a (
Ro
xb.)
Pla
nch.
*
Ulm
aceae
-
- -
- -
- -
- -
98
Tri
bulu
s te
rrest
ris
L.
*
Zygo
phyll
ace
ae
3
2
12
0.2
5
0.1
7
442.0
0.3
4
2.7
8
3.1
2
884
*=
Med
icin
al p
lants
, N
-no
of
ind
ivid
uals
, T
O-t
ranse
ct o
ccurr
ed, T
T=
Tota
l tr
anse
ct, D
=D
ensi
ty,
F=
Fre
quen
cy,
A=
Abu
ndance,
RD
=R
ela
tive
densi
ty
RF
=R
ela
tive
freq
uency,
IVI=
Impo
rtan
t valu
e in
dex;
-tv =
outs
ide
the
quad
rate
s .
Where, Pi = No. of individuals of one species/total no of
individuals in the sample.
The indices of Species Richness (R) and Species
Evenness (E) were estimated using the following
formulae.
R = (S-1)/log N
E = (H')/ log S
Where,
S = Total no. of species,
N =Total no. of individuals of all the species,
(H')= Shannon Weiner’s index.
RESULTS
Floristic Structure: Species richness and Density
The census of individuals in the study area
resulted in 98 identified plant species which include 85
genera and 37 families. Based on their density in the
quadrate, species were grouped into following five
categories:
Predominant species (species with ≥ 50 individuals)
Four species, Grewia hirsute (64 individuals) and
Grewia sp. (60 individuals), Ocimum americanum (52)
and Evolvulus alsinoides (50 individuals) belonged to
this category representing 4% of the plot’s species and
26% of the plot’s density (242 individuals) (Table 1).
Dominant species (species with 25 to 49 individuals)
Seven species, Acacia catechu (49 individuals),
Borreria stricta (42 individuals), Aerva lanata
(37 individuals), Vernonia cinerea (32 individuals),
Borreria hispida (28 individuals), Acacia nilotica and
Cyanotis tuberose (27 individuals each) together
accounting for 7% of the plot’s species and 25% of the
stand density (226 individuals) represented this group.
Fairly Common species (species with 5 to 24
individuals)
Thirty species, Morinda tinctoria (22),
Oldenlandia corymbosa, Phyllanthus amarus (20 each),
Indigofera tinctoria, Tephrosia purpurea (19 each),
Desmodium trifoliate, Hyptis suaveolens (17 each),
Parthenium hysterophorus (16), Leucas aspera,
Guazuma obscura (15 each), Cocculus hirsutus (14),
Ziziphus maurtiana (13), Dalbergia lanceolaria,
Leucas stricta (12 each), Achyranthes aspera,
Euphorbia tirucalli, Canthium parviflorum (11 each),
Commelina sinensis, Grewia tiliifolia (10 each),
Carissa carandas, Acacia leucophloea (9 each),
Wrightia tinctoria (8), Stephania japonica (7),
Albizia odoratissima, Hemidesmus indicus,
Capparis zeylanica (6 each), Cassia tora,
Acacia sinuate, Ziziphus oenoplia, and Boerhavia diffusa
(5 each), accounting for 30% of total species richness
and 39% of stand density represented this group and
collectively they had 355 stems.
Common species (species with 1 to 4 individuals)
Thirty-one species, Ageratum conyzoides,
Tridax procumbens, Albizzia amara, Bauhinia racemosa,
Harisha and Hosetti, 2013
833 Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(2): 828-839
An overview of Sanctuary Sanctuary during summer
Harisha and Hosetti,2013
Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(2): 828-839 834
Table.2. Family composition and Family Importance Value in Daroji Sloth bear Sanctuary.
Sl. No Family No. of species No. of trees Relative Density Relative Diversity FIV
1 Acanthaceae 2 3 0.3 2.0 2.4
2 Alangiaceae 1 1 0.1 1.0 1.1
3 Amaranthaceae 4 49 5.4 4.0 9.4
4 Aristolochiaceae 1 2 0.2 1.0 1.2
5 Apocynaceae 5 25 2.8 5.1 7.8
6 Asclepiadaceae 4 7 0.8 4.0 4.8
7 Asparagaceae 1 1 0.1 1.0 1.1
8 Asteraceae 4 56 6.2 4.0 10.2
9 Capparaceae 3 8 0.9 3.0 3.9
10 Cactaceae 1 1 0.1 1.0 1.1
11 Celastraceae 1 1 0.1 1.0 1.1
12 Cesalpinaceae 2 6 0.7 2.0 2.7
13 Combretaceae 1 1 0.1 1.0 1.1
14 Convolvulaceae 4 53 5.8 4.0 9.9
15 Commelinaceae 2 37 4.1 2.0 6.1
16 Cucurbitaceae 1 1 0.1 1.0 1.1
17 Ebenaceae 1 1 0.1 1.0 1.1
18 Euphorbiaceae 2 13 1.4 2.0 3.5
19 Fabaceae 17 178 19.6 17.2 36.8
20 Lamiaceae 4 96 10.6 4.0 14.6
21 Malvaceae 9 160 17.6 9.1 26.7
22 Mackinlayaceae 1 1 0.1 1.0 1.1
23 Menispermaceae 2 21 2.3 2.0 4.3
24 Meliaceae 1 2 0.2 1.0 1.2
25 Moraceae 4 4 0.4 4.0 4.5
26 Myrtaceae 1 1 0.1 1.0 1.1
27 Leguminosae 1 1 0.1 1.0 1.1
28 Nyctaginaceae 1 5 0.6 1.0 1.6
29 Olacaceae 1 1 0.1 1.0 1.1
30 Phyllanthaceae 1 20 2.2 1.0 3.2
31 Rhamnaceae 1 1 0.1 1.0 1.1
32 Rubiaceae 8 126 13.9 8.1 21.9
33 Rhamnaceae 2 18 2.0 2.0 4.0
34 Sapindaceae 2 2 0.2 2.0 2.2
35 Solanaceae 1 1 0.1 1.0 1.1
36 Ulmaceae 1 2 0.2 1.0 1.2
37 Zygophyllaceae 1 3 0.3 1.0 1.3
99 909 100.0 100.0 200.0
Sida cordifolia (4 each), Abutilon indicum,
Leptadenia reticulata, Tribulus terrestris (3each),
Barleria sp., Aristolochia indica, Calotropis gigantea,
Daemia extensa, Kirganelia reticulata, Mimosa pudica,
Melia dubia, Ipomoea obscura, Sida cordata (2 each),
Cassia auriculata, Cassia fistula, Crotalaria pallida,
Hibiscus lobatus, Centella asiatica, Syzygium cumini,
Sapindus trifoliatus, Withania somnif era,
Amaranthes viridis, Tylophora indica, Opuntia stricta,
Gymnosporia montana, Cuscuta reflexa and
Trichosanthes sp. (1 each), accounting for 32% of total
species richness and 7% of stand density represented this
group and collectively they had 61 stems.
Rare species (species with ≤1)
Twenty-seven species making up 27% of the
total plot’s species and 3% of stand density formed this
group. Anogeissus latifolia, Merremia tridentate,
Diospyros paniculata, Abrus precatorius,
Parkinsonia digitata, Grewia damine, Ficus arnottiana,
Ficus benghalensis, Ficus racemosa, Ficus tomentosa
individuals.
Based on Species Importance Value,
Grewia hirsute figured on the top of top ten SIV
hierarchy (21.13), followed by the Evolvulus alsinoides
(20. 93), Acacia catechu (19.43), Grewia sp. (19.29),
Vernonia cinerea (17.51), Borreria stricta (15.86),
Tephrosia purpurea (14.65), Aerva lantana (12.52),
Acacia nilotica (11.39) and Desmodium trifoliate
(10.26).
Family Composition
Of the 37 families recorded (three unidentified),
Fabaceae is the dominant based on the species richness
with 17 species, followed by the Malvaceae, Rubiaceae
with nine species each, Apocynaceae with five,
Amaranthaceae, Asclepiadaceae, Asteraceae,
Convolvulaceae, Lamiaceae and Moraceae with four
species each, following by Capparidaceae with three
species, Acanthaceae, Cesalpinaceae, Commelinaceae,
Euphorbiaceae, Menispermaceae, Rhamnaceae and
Sapindaceae with two species each, Alangiaceae,
Ar isto lochiaceae, Asparagaceae, Cactaceae,
Celastraceae, Combretaceae, Cucurbitaceae, Ebenaceae,
Mackinlayaceae, Myrtaceae, Nyctaginaceae, Olacaceae,
Phyllanthaceae, Rhamnaceae, Solanaceae, Ulmaceae,
Zygophyllaceae and Meliaceae with one species each
were recorded.
Based on density, the top order of families were
Fabaceae (178 individuals), Malvaceae (160 individuals),
Rubiaceae (126 individuals), Lamiaceae (96 individuals),
Asteraceae (56 individuals), Convolvulaceae (53
individuals), Amaranthaceae (49 individuals),
Commelinaceae (37 individuals), UK (26 individuals),
Apocynaceae (25 individuals), Menispermaceae (21
individuals), Phyllanthaceae (20 individuals),
Rhamnaceae (18 individuals), Euphorbiaceae (13
individuals), Capparidaceae (8 individuals),
Asclepiadaceae (7 individuals), Nyctaginaceae (5
individuals) and Moraceae (4 individuals), Two families
were represented by three species such as Acanthaceae
and Zygophyllaceae, four families were represented by
two species such as Meliaceae, Aristolochiaceae,
Sapindaceae and Ulmaceae, thirteen families were
represented by only one species, such as Asparagaceae,
Cactaceae, Celastraceae, Combretaceae, Alangiaceae,
Cucur b it ace ae , E be nace ae , Legu mino sae ,
Mackinlayaceae, Myrtaceae, Olacaceae, Solanaceae and
Rhamnaceae were recorded.
Harisha and Hosetti ,2013
835 Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(2): 828-839
Sloth bear at Sanctuary
Based on FIV, Fabaceae (36.8) ranked highest
among families followed by Malvaceae (26.7),
Rubiaceae (21.9) and Lamiaceae (14.6) (Table 2).
Diversity Indices
The Shannon-Weiner’s diversity index was found be
3.909 for the entire study area, and the Species Richness
index and Species Evenness index were found to be
26.26, 2.03, respectively.
DISCUSSION
The study on the floristic diversity is one of the
important factor to be analyzed to assess the diversity of
a particular area as well as the diversity of the nation.
The assessment of diversity is also important during this
period where the lot of plants and animals are in threats
due to the fragmentation of habitats and decline in
habitat quality (Kumar et al., 2000). The decline of
quality of habitat and fragmentation are mainly due to
the anthropogenic activities including the conversion of
forest into agriculture land, developmental activities,
mining etc. which affects on the landscapes and species
composition (Jerath et al., 2007).
Assessment of biodiversity will help in
understanding the inter-linkages between biological
resources and human being and which help in taking the
best decisions in conservation of natural resource and
development through sustainable utilization (Jerath et al.,
2007). This could be achieved only when the
quantification of existing resource is known and the
requirements estimated. This is also true in case of wild
animals where the availability of food source is
dependent on the population of those animals in the
forest. The existence of the diversity in particular area
also depicts the wild animals to be found in that
particular forest area. In view of the above, the present
study was investigated to know the floral diversity of the
Daroji Sloth bear sanctuary.
Previous studies conducted in this sanctuary by
Neginhal et al. (2003) and Madhav Gadgil et al. (2011)
64 plant species were enumerated, but in present study
98 plant species have been recorded. The study revealed
that the species composition and diversity of this
sanctuary can be compared with that of many other dry
forests such as Bhadra Wildlife Sanctuary
(Krishnamurthy et al., 2010), Savanadurga State Forest,
Karnataka (Murali et al., 2003). Species richness of the
present study (99 species for individuals ≥ 1 cm) is
closer to the species richness of the dry forests in Puerto
Rico (50 species, Murphy and Lugo, 1986), but far less
to the 133 species of Savanadurga State Forests of
Karnataka (Murali et al., 2003).
The Importance Value Index revealed that this
forest is dominated by relatively few species. The seven
species listed in top ten SIV hierarchy (Table 1)
comprise about 33 % of the importance values, which
was 62 % in Bhadra Wildlife sanctuary followed by the
dry forests in Puerto Rico (Murphy and Lugo, 1986) and
St. Lucia (Gonzalez and Zak, 1996) also recorded the
same observation with the seven most common species
dominating the forests by comprising about 55% and
67% of the total importance values, respectively.
The Shannon-Weiner’s diversity index for the
area as a whole was found to be 3.909, the Species
Richness index and Species Evenness index was found to
be 26.26, 2.03, respectively. Rahlan et al. (1982) stated
that higher the value of diversity, greater will be the plant
community. So it can be stated that the vegetation in
Daroji Sloth Bear Sanctuary is stable accordingly to the
figures obtained after the data analysis (Table 1).
The species rarity of the present study is 27%,
which is very close to tree diversity of Little Andaman
Island with 34% (Rasingam and Parathasarathy, 2009),
also close to the forests of Kuzhanthaikuppam of
Coromandel Coast (31%, Parthasarathy and Karthikeyan,
1997), Malaysia (38%, Poore, 1968) and Barro Colorado
island of Panama (40%, Thorington et al., 1982); but less
than those of tropical dry deciduous forests of Bhadra
Wildlife Sanctuary (54.3%, Krishnamurthy et al., 2010).
Harisha and Hosetti, 2013
Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(2): 828-839 836
In tropical forests, the abundance and species richness
depend mostly on the soil type, moisture and distribution
of rainfall (Durigon and Waechter, 2011). The present
study also revealed that the soil type and rainfall pattern
of the study area promotes the rich floral diversity
indices (Shanon, 3.90). The plants enumerated during the
study also revealed that the diversity present in this area
greatly supports the food habitat of sloth bears and the
vegetation pattern and geographical location also helps
the sloth bears to live comfortably in this forest region.
The plant species like Grewia hirsute, Grewia hirsuta,
Grewia damine, Ziziphus mauritiana, Grewia tiliifolia,
Syzygium cumini, Cassia fistula, Carissa carandas,
Ziziphus oenoplia showed the density of 5.33., 5.00.,
1.08., 0.83., 0.08., 0.08., 0.75 and 0.42 respectively.
Some Ficus sp. also serves as the food for sloth bears.
The Shannon diversity indices of Western Ghats
(at different altitudes) according to Pascal is measured to
be in the range of 3.6-4.3 and the index is measured
about 2.01-3.7 in the wet evergreen forest of Coorg
district (Swamy et al., 2010). In the present study, the
Shannon diversity index is calculated to be 3.90, which
indicated that even though the forest type falls under the
dry deciduous forest, the diversity index can be largely
compared to that of the evergreen forest. The present
study signifies the long term monitoring of the
vegetation as well as the population of sloth bears in
accordance with the availability of food source and good
habitat. This type of studies greatly impact on the
ecological balance between the vegetation pattern and
the animal populations.
The floral diversity of the present study area also
comprises as many as 65 species of medicinal plants
(Table.1). There is an urgent need to protect these
medicinal plants from grazing animals (sheep, goat),
which are being forcibly invaded into the sanctuary by
the surrounding villagers. The vegetation and the wealth
of this sanctuary need to be protected also from the
mining (quarrying) which are being run nearby hillock
regions, or otherwise this may leads to the habitat
fragmentation and destruction.
Based on the present study there is a need to
undertake some special ecological developmental
projects in the area which include water harvesting
through assured tanks so that water would be available to
wildlife during hot summer. Construction of boundary
wall or fence around the protected area will reduce
poaching of wildlife, entry of domestic cattle for grazing
and deforestation in the area.
CONCLUSION
The study on the floral diversity of Daroji Sloth
Bear Sanctuary of Bellary district concludes that the
richness and diversity in the area is mainly due to the
climatological conditions prevailing there. The hard dry
condition and scarce rainfall have favored mainly thorny
and shrubby plants to adopt and grow in such harsh
terrain conditions and trees resulting in stunted growth.
The fruits, seeds and leaves are consumed by a variety of
birds and animals and thus are easily dispersed. The
present study will provide the basic information on the
present status and composition of tree species in a
limited area.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Authors are thankful to Kiran, M.N, ACF,
Ravindranath, I.R, RFO and forest watchers of Daroji
Sloth Bear Sanctuary, Karnataka and all those who have
shared their information on the study area during the
study period. M.N, Harisha is thankful to UGC, New
Delhi for sanctioning fellowship (RGNF), to all
researchers from Panchavati Research Academy for
Nature (PRANA) Trust, Linganamakki, Sagara (TQ),
Shivamogga and also to Kuvempu University for support
and facilities.
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Biology
Butterfly fauna of Daroji Sloth Bear Sanctuary, Hospet, Bellary District,
Karnataka, India
Keywords: Deccan Plateau, Hypolimnas misippus, Pachliopta hector, Lampides boeticus, Indian Wildlife Protection Act 1972, Daroji Sloth Bear Sanctuary.
ABSTRACT:
Butterflies were enumerated during February 2010 to January 2012 using pollard walk method to assess the species diversity in the tropical thorn dry deciduous (Deccan Plateau) scrub jungle with granite boulder outcrop habitats of Daroji Sloth Bear Sanctuary, Bellary District, Karnataka. This area, a total of 5,587.30 hectares is being proposed for the conservation of threatened species of Indian subcontinent the Sloth bear, Melursus ursinus and announded as a Sanctuary. A total of 41 butterfly species belonging to Hesperiidae, Papilionidae, Pieridae, Lycaenidae and Nymphalidae families were recorded. Two species of butterflies recorded from this region have a protected status under the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. Habitat destruction in terms of mining activity can be a potential threat to this area and is suggested to be the reason for the reduction of species richness and abundance of butterflies in impacted areas of the study site. This study provides support for long-term conservation of these fragmented scrub forest to ensure biodiversity protection.
840-846 | JRB | 2013 | Vol 3 | No 2
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licenses/by/2.0), which gives permission for unrestricted use, non-commercial, distribution and reproduction in all medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
www.jresearchbiology.com
Journal of Research in Biology
An International Scientific
Research Journal
Authors:
Harisha MN and
Hosetti BB*.
Institution:
1. Department of Post
Graduate studies and research in Wildlife
Management, Kuvempu
University, Jnana Sahyadri,
Shankaraghatta- 577451,
Shimoga, Karnataka.
* Department of Post
Graduate studies and
research in Applied Zoology,
Kuvempu University, Jnana
Sahyadri, Shankaraghatta- 577451, Shimoga,
Karnataka.
Corresponding author:
Hosetti BB.
Email:
hosetti57@gmail.com
Web Address: http://jresearchbiology.com/documents/RA0331.pdf.
Dates: Received: 02 Feb 2013 Accepted: 09 Feb 2013 Published: 02 Apr 2013
Article Citation: Harisha MN and Hosetti BB. Butterfly fauna of Daroji Sloth Bear Sanctuary, Hospet, Bellary District, Karnataka, India. Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(2): 840-846
Journal of Research in Biology An International Scientific Research Journal
Original Research
INTRODUCTION
More than half of earth’s diversity comprises the
insects. Butterflies (Lepidoptera: Rhopalocera) plays an
important role in both ecological and economical
benefits to human beings. They increase aesthetic value
and actively involved in pollination thus help in seed
setting of plants. Butterflies enhance earth’s beauty due
to their diverse colors on their wings (May, 1992). Due
to their beauty and ecological significance butterflies are
the well studied group throughout the world (Ghazoul,
2002). The habitat of butterflies is very specific and their
occurrence is seasonal (Kunte, 1997). They are also
considered as the good indicators of habitat quality
including anthropogenic disturbances (Kocher and
Williams, 2000). Butterflies always attracted the
attention of researchers, ecologists and conservationist
by their community assemblage and the influencing
factors.
Butterflies are broadly considered as potent
ecological indicators (Erhardt, 1985; Brown, 1991;
Kremen, 1992) and are sensitive to the temperature,
humidity, and light levels and also to the habitat
disturbance (Balmer and Erhardt, 2000). The relationship
between plants and butterflies is highly complex and
co-evolved (Ehrlich and Raven, 1964), since the
butterflies depend on plants for the food and completion
of their life cycle, contrary to this many of the
economically important plant species are pollinated by
butterflies (Borges et al., 2003). In view of the above,
there is a need to conserve butterflies. Even though the
tropic is abund with diverse fauna including insects, the
data on the diversity of insects both in natural and man
made habitats still lacking. This situation prompted us to
document the butterfly diversity in Daroji Sloth Bear
Sanctuary India.
STUDY AREA
Daroji Sloth Bear Sanctuary (5,587.30 hectares)
is unique sanctuary in Karnataka, and is the only
sanctuary for sloth bear situated in North Karnataka.
The sanctuary located between 15°14' to 15°17' N
latitude and 76°31' to 76°40' E longitude at an elevation
of 647 m above mean sea level with the temperature
ranged between 20°-43°C. The sanctuary is close to the
Hampi a renowned world heritage site in Bellary district.
Sanctuary area belongs to Deccan Plateau scrub jungle
characterized by vast stretches of undulating plains with
intermittent parallel chains of hills, mostly bare and
stony, granite boulder outcrops. This habitat makes the
sloth bears to live comfortably in unique geographical
location.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
A study of butterfly diversity was conducted
from February 2010 to January 2012 to compare with
earlier reports and to record their status and abundance.
The survey was conducted to once in a month for a
period of two years from February 2010 to January 2012.
Butterflies were recorded by direct visual observation
and identified by using various field guides (Gay et al.,
1992; Antram, 2002; Wynter-Blynth, 1957, Kunte, 2000;
Sharma et al., 2005).
The line transect method developed by the
Institution of Terrestrial Ecology (Pollard, 1979) was
followed to monitor the diversity. The butterflies were
encountered along a fixed transect route of 2 km and
recorded regularly at an interval of every 15 day per
month in the study period. Based on the visual
observation i.e., presence-absence scoring method
made during the entire study period. On the basis of
percentage of occurrence the status of butterflies was
determined and categorized into three groups such 1-6%
as rare (R), 7-18% as Common (C) and >18% as very
common (VC).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The study revealed the presence of 41 species of
butterflies, belonging to five families. The family
Papilionidae is represented by 6 species; Lycaenidae 7
Harisha and Hosetti., 2013
841 Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(2): 840-846
species; Nymphalidae 15 species; Pieridae 12 species;
and Hesperidae by single species. The checklists of all
the species observed with their status are given in
Table 1. Out of 41 species recorded during the present
investigation, 28 species have already been reported by
Neginhal et al., (2003); Madhav Gadgil et al., (2011) and
found during present study period. It is likely that many
more species could be added to the list on further
exploration of this area. Analysis on the status of
butterflies shows that 15 were rare, 12 were common and
14 were very common, similar pattern was reported in
the Tiger-Lion Safari, Thyavarekoppa of Shimoga,
Karnatka (Pramod et al., 2007).
Butterflies are sensitive to changes in the habitat
and climate, which influence their distribution and
abundance (Wynter-Blyth, 1957). Two specie viz,-
Pachliopta hector L and Hypolimnas misippus L
recorded in this region have a protected status under the
schedule I part IV of Indian Wildlife Protection Act,
1972 (Arora, 2003) and Lampides boeticus under
Schedule IV (Gupta et al., 2005). Similar pattern
has been reported from Melghat region of Maharashtra
and Ankua Reserve Forest of Jharkhand
(Mamata Chandraker et al., 2007) and Jogimatti state
forest of Chitradurga (Harish et al., 2009).
The conservation activities such as the
monitoring and mapping of biodiversity played a key
role in determining the status of the diversity
(Margules and Pressey, 2000). The habitat
fragmentation, grazing pressure and change in land use
pattern are mainly responsible for diversity loss of both
butterflies and plants. Along with the above, mining
activity can also be treated as potential threat to
biodiversity loss in this area. Lycaenidae family
members are largely affected both in terms of abundance
and diversity since they feed on grasses, which is lost
due to grazing.
Apart from butterflies, other threatened
wildlife recorded in the study area during the present
survey were, Sloth Bear, Melursus ursinus
(Vulnerable; Garshelis et al., 2008), Indian Python,
Python molurus molurus and Jackal, Canis aureus and
Yellow-throated Bulbul, Pycnonotus xantholaemus a
globally threatened species and restricted to the southern
Deccan plateau (BirdLife International, 2001), Leopard
Panthera pardus listed as a "Near Threatened" species
on the IUCN Red List (Henschel et al., 2008). Indian
Harisha and Hosetti., 2013
Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(2): 840-846 842
Common Silverline Butterfly Lemon Pansy Butterfly
Peacock Pansy, Butterfly
Harisha and Hosetti., 2013
843 Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(2): 840-846
Sl.No Common name Scientific name
Status
Family: Papilionidae
1 Common Blue Bottle Graphium sarpedon (Linnaeus) R
2 Crimson Rose* Pachliopta hector (Linnaeus) VC
3 Common Rose Pachliopta aristolochiae (Fabricius) R
4 Tailed Jay Graphium Agamemnon (Linnaeus) C
5 Blue Mormon** Papilio polymnestor (Cramer) R
6 Common Mormon Papilio polytes (Linnaeus) C
Family: Lycaenidae
7 Common Silverline Spindasis vulcanus (Fabricius) R
8 Common Pierrot Castalius rosimon (Fabricius) VC
9 Common Cerulean Jamides celeno (Cramer) VC
10 Dark Cerulean Jamides bochus (Stoll) C
11 Dark Grass Blue Zizeeria karsandra (Moore) VC
12 Pea Blue Lampides boeticus (Linnaeus) C
13 Grass Jewel Freyeria trochylus (Kollar) C
Family: Nymphalidae
14 Common Castor Ariadne merione (Cramer) R
15 Tawny Coaster Acraea violae (Fabricius) VC
16 Blue Tiger Tirumala linniace (Cramer) VC
17 Plain Tiger Danaus chrysippus (Linnaeus) R
18 Striped Tiger Danaus genutia (Cramer) C
19 Indian Common Crow Euploea core (Cramer) VC
20 Danaid Eggfly** Hypolimnas misippus (Linnaeus) C
21 Lemon Pansy Junonia lemonias (Linnaeus) VC
22 Peacock Pansy Junonia almana (Linnaeus) C
23 Yellow Pansy Junonia hierta (Fabricius) C
24 Chocolate Pansy Junonia iphita (Cramer) C
25 Grey Pansy Junonia atlites (Linnaeus) R
26 Common Evening Brown Melanitis leda (Linnaeus) VC
27 Common Sailor Neptis hylas (Moore) VC
28 Common Leopard Phalanta phalantha (Drury) VC
29 Common Four Ring Ypthima baldus (Fabricius) VC
Family: Pieridae
30 Indian Cabbage White Pieris canidia (Linnaeus) C
31 Crimson Tip Colotis danae (Linnaeus) R
32 Pioneer Anaphaeis aurota (Fabricius) VC
33 Common Emigrant Catopsilia Pomona (Fabricius) C
34 Common Jezebel** Delias eucharis (Drury) R
35 Common Grass Yellow Eurema hecabe (Linnaeus) VC
36 Great Orange Tip Hebomoia glaucippe (Linnaeus) R
37 White Orange Tip Ixias Marianne (Cramer) R
38 Yellow Orange Tip Ixias pyrene (Linnaeus) R
39 Large Salmon Arab Colotis fausta (Olivier) R
40 Small Salmon Arab Colotis amata (Fabricius) R
41 Common Wanderer Pareronia valeria (Joicey & Talbot) C
Family: Hesperiidae
42 Indian Skipper Spialia galba (Fabricius) R
Table 1. List of butterflies along with their status in the Daroji Sloth Bear Sanctuary, Bellary.
VC-Very common; C-Common; R-Rare, *-Endemic to Western Ghats; **-Endemic to Peninsular India and Sri Lanka
Chameleon, Chamaeleo zeylanicus is listed in Schedule
II of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972.
CONCLUSION
The presence of all these species indicates that
this forest is rich and unique habitat that hold animal
diversity that is typical of ‘undisturbed tropical dry
deciduous scrub forests’. Disturbances in the form of
anthropogenic activities such as open cast mining,
construction of roads, movement of heavy vehicles,
firewood collection, etc. can result in habitat
fragmentation, population loss and cause local
extinctions that would seriously affect the distribution of
forest butterflies. Based on the results of this study, it is
recommended that long-term conservation of these
fragmenting tropical Deccan scrub forest habitats in
Bellary Forest Division is to protect the biodiversity
which can be achieved through ‘good mining practices’
and strict vigilance.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We are grateful to ACF and RFO of Daroji Sloth
Bear Sanctuary, Bellary Forest Division who have
encouraged and directed this work from the beginning.
I also thank the two forest watchers Putteshi and
Anjinappa for their support and assistance in the field.
MNH is thankful to UGC, New Delhi for sanctioning
(RGNF) Fellowship, to research team of Panchavati
Research Academy for Nature (PRANA) Trust,
Linganamakki, Sagar (Tq), Shivamogga for support and
also to Kuvempu University for facilities.
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Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(2): 840-846 846
Jou
rn
al of R
esearch
in
Biology
Toxicity of copper to tropical freshwater snail (Pila ovata)
Keywords: Copper toxicity, freshwater snail, median lethal concentration, median lethal time.
ABSTRACT:
The potential toxicity of copper to freshwater snail (Pila ovata) was investigated in a static renewal bioassay for 96 hours. Chemically pure salts of copper sulphate (CuSO4. 5H2O) dissolved in distilled water was used as toxicant. Five copper ion concentrations with a control group were prepared. The LC50 at 24 h, 48 h, 72 h and 96 h was 4.67, 2.12, 1.64 and 0.59 mg/l respectively. The LT50 of copper concentrations of 0.05 mg/l, 0.1 mg/l, 0.5 mg/l, 1.0 mg/l and 2.0 mg/l were 123.86 h, 97.20 h, 83.33 h, 75.32 h and 60.04 h respectively. No death was recorded in the controls. Survival time decreased with increasing concentrations of copper ion. The results showed that copper is toxic to Pila ovata and could pose serious threat to their survival in natural environment.
847-851 | JRB | 2013 | Vol 3 | No 2
This article is governed by the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/
licenses/by/2.0), which gives permission for unrestricted use, non-commercial, distribution and reproduction in all medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
www.jresearchbiology.com
Journal of Research in Biology
An International
Scientific Research Journal
Authors:
Ariole CN1 and
Anokwuru B2.
Institution:
1. Department of
Microbiology, University of
Port Harcourt, P.M.B 5323,
Port Harcourt, Nigeria.
2. School of Science
Laboratory Technology,
University of Port Harcourt,
P.M.B 5323, Port Harcourt,
Nigeria.
Corresponding author:
Ariole CN.
Email:
cnariole@yahoo.com
Web Address: http://jresearchbiology.com/documents/RA0334.pdf.
Dates: Received: 07 Feb 2013 Accepted: 13 Feb 2013 Published: 03 Apr 2013
Article Citation: Ariole CN and Anokwuru B. Toxicity of copper to tropical freshwater snail (Pila ovata) Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(2): 847-851
Journal of Research in Biology An International Scientific Research Journal
Original Research
INTRODUCTION
Freshwater molluscs play an important role in
aquatic ecosystems, providing food for many fish species
and vertebrates (Maltchik, et al., 2010). Pila ovata, a
tropical freshwater snail, is among the molluscan
seafoods that are widely distributed in streams, lakes
and rivers across the southern rain forests in Nigeria
(Ariole and Ezevununwo, 2013). It serves as a major
source of protein as well as generating income to the
people.
The contamination of freshwater with a wide
range of pollutants has become a matter of concern over
the last few decades (Vutukuru, 2005). Chemicals
derived from agricultural operations (pesticides and
herbicides) and industrial effluents, such as metals,
ultimately find their way into a variety of different water
bodies and can produce a range of toxic effects in aquatic
organisms (Al-Kahtani, 2009).
Copper salts (copper hydroxide, copper
carbonate and copper sulphate) are widely used in
agriculture as fungicide, algaecide and nutritional
supplement in fertilizers. They are also used in veterinary
practices and industrial applications. Copper sulphate is
released to water as a result of natural weathering of soil
and discharge from industries, sewage treatment plants
and agricultural runoff. Copper sulphate is also
intensively introduced in water reservoirs to kill algae.
Thus, excessive amount of copper accumulates in water
bodies and cause toxicity of aquatic fauna and flora
(Kaoud, 2013). Copper is essential for the normal growth
and metabolism of nearly all organisms including
mollusc. However, when biological requirements are
exceeded, this metal can become harmful to aquatic biota
(Hall et al., 1997).
Acute toxicity bioassay are widely used to assess
the effects of pollutants on one or more organisms
usually based on the determination of acute lethal
toxicity and sub-lethal toxicity test using sensitive
species or organisms based on their economic and
ecological importance, availability and ease of handling
(Fuller et al., 2004). Although the tests are laboratory
based, simple, of single variable and do not necessarily
simulate the field situations, they nonetheless provide
useful information on the potential of the pollutant to
harm the biota (Akbari et al., 2004).
The toxicity of copper to aquatic organisms such
as tropical freshwater prawn (Kaoud, 2013) and fish
(Olaifa et al., 2004; Abou El-Naga et al., 2005;
Stasiūnaitė, 2005; Mickėniėnė et al., 2007) have been
reported. There is dearth of information on the toxicity of
copper to mollusc, Pila ovata.
Therefore, the present study aimed to evaluate
the potential toxicity of copper to freshwater snail
(Pila ovata) so as to ascertain its level of tolerance and
its suitability as bio-indicator in freshwater environment.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Pila ovata was collected from Okpuhur Creek in
Ahoada, Rivers State, Nigeria. The snails were
handpicked and placed in a plastic bucket containing
habitat water. On reaching the laboratory, active snails
were selected for acclimatization for 10days at room
temperature (APHA, 1998) in a vessel containing habitat
water.
Chemically pure copper sulphate (CuSO4 . 5H2O)
dissolved in distilled water was used as a stock solution.
The required concentration was calculated according
to the amount of copper ions. Five concentrations
(0.0 mg/l), 0.05 mg/l, 0.1 mg/l, 0.5 mg/l, 1.0 mg/l and
2.0 mg/l) were prepared using water from the habitat of
the snail as diluent. The control was dilution water
without toxicant. A preliminary range finding test
(Rahman et al., 2002) was first performed to determine
the concentrations used in the definitive tests. The 96 h
acute toxicity bioassay was carried out using the
procedure of APHA (1998). Triplicate sets of glass tanks
(29 x 29 x 30 cm) for each copper concentration were
employed. Ten snails of fairly equal sizes were
Ariole and Anokwuru., 2013
848 Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(2): 847-851
handpicked and carefully transferred into each test tanks.
Mortality was recorded at 24, 48, 72 and 96 hours of
exposure time as described by Odiete (1999). Dead snails
were removed at each observation and the test solution in
each tank was renewed every 24 h. The test was
terminated after 96 h and repeated three times to confirm
the data.
Data analysis
Probit analysis (Sprague, 1973) was used to
transform each test concentration and the corresponding
percentage mortality. The method described by Finney
(1971) was used to determine the median lethal
concentration (LC50) and median lethal time (LT50). The
number of survivors in different concentrations of copper
was tested for significant differences using one way
analysis of variance (ANOVA).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The probit mortality rate increased with
increasing copper ion concentrations as shown in Figure
1. No mortality occurred in the control group. The
relationships between copper concentrations and probit
mortality were analysed. The results in basic correlation
analysis illustrated a positive linear relationship
(Figure 1). The 24, 48, 72 and 96 h LC50 of copper to
Pila ovata were 4.67, 2.12, 1.64 and 0.59 respectively
(Table 1). The result showed that the LC50 value of
copper ion to Pila ovata decreased as the exposure time
increased. The LT50 for freshwater snail in different
copper ion concentrations are shown in Table 2 and
Figure 2. There is negative correlation between the LT50
values and copper ion concentrations; when the copper
ion concentrations levels decrease, LT50 values increased
(Table 2 and Figure 2). The survival percentages were
found to be significantly different from each other as
shown in Table 3.
The LC50 of copper vary considerably when
previous reports on fish species are compared and also
with LC50 values obtained in this study. The 96 hr LC50
values of copper ions for rainbow trout (Gϋndoğdu,
2008), Mugil seheli (Abou El-Naga, 2005) and
Macrobrachium rosenbergii (Kaoud, 2013) were
0.094 mg/l, 1.64 mg/l and 0.35 mg/l respectively. The
variation in the LC50 values for the same metal may be
due to species type, chemical structure of metal
compound, the conditions of the experiment (water
temperature, salinity, oxygen content and pH) and
geographical regions. That is why the data obtained in
different countries can hardly be extrapolated to local
conditions. Therefore, experimental work is needed to
obtain the data corresponding to the conditions of the
given region.
The results of this study indicated that mortality
and time were influenced by the concentration levels of
copper and that copper is toxic to Pila ovata. It has been
reported that Pila ovata is capable of bioaccumulating
Ariole and Anokwuru., 2013
Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(2): 847-851 849
Figure 1: Median Lethal Concentration (LC50) of
Copper to Pila ovata
Figure 2: Median Lethal Time (LT50) of
Copper to Pila ovata
trace metals (Ezemonye et al., 2006). This poses health
issue when consumed by human. Therefore, caution
should be exercised against water source contamination
and exposure to fertilizer and industrial pollution which
could pose serious threat to their survival in natural
environment.
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Ariole and Anokwuru., 2013
850 Journal of Research in Biology (2013) 3(2): 847-851
Time (hr) LC50 (mg/l)
24
48
72
96
4.67
2.12
1.64
0.59
Table 1: Median lethal concentration (LC50) of
copper to Pila ovata
Concentration (mg/l) Time (hr)
0.05
0.1
0.5
1.0
2.0
123.86
97.20
83.33
75.32
60.04
Table 2: Median lethal time (LT50) of
copper to Pila ovata
Figure 3: Minimum lethal concentration and
minimum lethal time of copper to Pila ovata
Concentration (mg/l) Survival (%) (Mean ±S.D)
Control (0)
0.05
0.1
0.5
1.0 2.0
100a ± 0.00
60b ± 0.67
46.67c ± 0.67
36.67d± 0.67
30e ± 0.67 23.33f ± 0.67
Table 3: Survivors of Pila ovata exposed to different
concentrations of copper
Mean values which do not have the same superscript
letter are significantly different (p<0.05)
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Kaufman PD, Cseke LJ, Warber S, Duke JA and Brielman HL. Natural Products from plants. CRC press, Bocaralon, Florida.
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