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Joint Land Certification and Intra-household Decision-making:
Towards Empowerment of Wives? By
Stein Holden and Sosina Bezu
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CEN
TER F
OR LA
ND
TEN
URE
www.umb.no
Background
Oromia and SNNP Regions, Southern Ethiopia:
Joint Certification of Husbands and Wives 2005-
– Low cost approach
– Gave land certificates to households with
names of both husband and wife (wives)
– Land laws emphasize equal ownership
rights
How has joint land certification
affected the land-related decision-
power of women in Southern
Ethiopia?
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Hypotheses
H1. Women’s land rights and decision-making power over
land has been significantly strengthened by the new land
laws and issuing of joint land certificates;
H2. A husband’s and wife’s attitudes towards women’s
land rights (wives’ preferences for and husbands’
preferences for the traditional position of women) affect
the degree of involvement of women in land-related
decisions;
H3. Women’s position and attitudes are positively related
to assets they brought into marriage and negatively
related to assets their husbands brought into marriage.
H4. Women’s position and attitudes are positively related
with degree of market integration and education of
family members (Henrich et al. 2001; 2010)
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Hypotheses, continued
H5. Women’s empowerment and position is weaker in
the plough-based farming systems than in the perennial
zone (Boserup 1970; Alesina et al. 2013).
H6. The positive impact of the reform on empowerment
is larger the more generous men are towards their wives
as generosity of men implies less resistance against
women’s land rights.
H7. Husbands behave more like hawks and women more
like doves in the hawk-dove games and the hawkishness
of husbands is positively related to their resistance
towards women’s land rights and negatively affects
women’s empowerment while more hawkish wives also
claim their land rights.
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CEN
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Women have a particularly weak position in relation to land in Southern Ethiopia
Holden and Tefera (2008). From Being Property of
Men to Becoming Equal Owners? Early Impacts of
Land Registration and Certification on Women in
Southern Ethiopia. UN-Habitat-report
– Evidence of weak position of women:
• Patri-lineal system, women move to husband’s
village/home upon marriage
• Arranged marriages where girls/brides had little
influcence, with bride prizes
• Kidnapping marriages quite common in the past
• Widows are required to marry the brother (or
other relative) of the late husband or they have
to leave the land
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Correspondence of stated marriage type by spouses
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Marriage type: females’
responses
Marriage type:
males’ responses Parental
arrange
ment
Parental
and bride
agree-
ment
Love
marri-
age
Wife
ex-
change
Kidnap-
ping
marri-
age
Total
Parental arrangement
60 7 11 1 4 83
Parental and bride
agreement 14 81 7 1 3 106
Love marriage 11 12 132 0 11 166
Wife exchange 0 1 2 5 0 8
Kidnapping marriage 1 1 2 0 18 22
Total 86 102 154 7 36 385
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Impacts of Joint Land Certification
Indicator of women’s empowerment:
– Extent of participation in a set of land-
related decisions, including crop choice and
land renting decisions, and whether wives’
participation in such decisions has led to a
change in the decisions
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Effects of land certification on household decision-making
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Husbands’
responses
Wives’
responses
Responses in 2012 Numb
er
% Numb
er
%
More discussion on land renting decision 115 21.6 103 20.5
More discussion on crop choice 212 39.8 236 47.0
More discussion on work division on each
plot
52 9.8 50 10.0
More discussion on investment decisions such
as tree planting
69 12.9 51 10.2
More discussion on construction of houses on
the land
55 10.3 49 9.8
More discussion on giving land to children 20 3.8 13 2.6
Total 533 100 502 100
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Wives’ stated preferences for strengthened women’s land rights
Generated from the response to three
questions:
– Wife can deny husband to rent out land = 1, = 0
otherwise;
– Wife expects joint land certificate = 1, = 0
otherwise;
– Wife expects equal sharing of land upon divorce =
1, = 0 otherwise;
Aggregate index of wives' attitude is the sum of
the above three variables
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Husbands' preference for traditional position of women: Index generated
Widow should not be allowed to marry outside the family
of the late husband = 1, = 0 otherwise;
Widow should marry brother of late husband =1, = 0
otherwise
Husband decides if disagreement between husband and
wife =1, = 0 otherwise
The index was created by summing the responses to
these three questions
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“Wives’ land rights attitudes”- index distribution by year
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Index score Stats 2007 2012 Total
0 Freq. 38 24 62 Percent 11.3 7.5 9.4
1 Freq. 43 7 50 Percent 12.8 2.2 7.6
2 Freq. 117 58 175 Percent 34.7 18.1 26.6
3 Freq. 139 232 371 Percent 41.3 72.3 56.4
Total Freq. 337 321 658
Note: Pearson chi2(3) = 71.9 , Pr = 0.000 for difference
in distribution from 2007 to 2012.
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“Husbands’ preference for traditional position of women- index in 2012
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Index score Freq. Percent Cum.
0 115 35.8 35.8
1 122 38.0 73.8
2 70 21.8 95.6
3 14 4.4 100
Total 321 100
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Factors affecting wives’ involvement in land-related decisons
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Results from ordered probit models OP1 OP2 OP3
Wives' land rights attitude index 0.292**** 0.333**** 0.332****
Husbands' land rights attitude index -0.231*** -0.235*** -0.234***
Age of household head -0.001 -0.001 -0.001
Household size 0.015 0.031 0.028
Average education level in hh. 0.006 0.024 0.034
Male work force 0.054 0.039 0.034
Female work force -0.082 -0.090 -0.085
Farm size, ha -0.203 -0.243** -0.261**
Tropical livestock units 0.054* 0.049* 0.052*
Wife's name on certificate, dummy 0.205 0.282 0.253
Religion dummies, baseline= Muslim
Protestant -0.673**
Orthodox -0.695**
District dummies, baseline= Sashemene
Arsi Negelle 0.125
Wondo Genet -0.478**
Wollaita -0.720****
Wondo Oromia 0.110
Village fixed effects No Yes Yes
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Social experiments were used to tease out the relationship between husbands and wives
We found evidence of mutual generosity
between spouses in dictator games
We also found evidence that many wives
were more ”hawkish” than their husbands
when they played Hawk-Dove games with
their spouses
– This indicates that many of them dear to
stand up and demand their rights
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Husband and wife waiting for the outcome of the coin toss
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Explaining the Hawk-Dove game to a Respondent
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Dictator game outcomes for husbands and wives
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020
40
60
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
Husbands Wives
Pe
rce
nt
How much money allocated, EB
Graphs by Gender of player
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Hawk-Dove game outcomes for husbands and wives
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.2.3
.4.5
Pro
ba
bili
ty o
f p
layi
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Ha
wk
1 2 3 4 5 6Game number
95% CI Wives' average prob(Hawk)
95% CI Husbands' average prob(Hawk)
Stata command: qfitci
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Hypotheses: Outcome of testing
H1. Women’s land rights and decision-making power over
land has been significantly strengthened by the new land
laws and issuing of joint land certificates; Not rejected
H2. A husband’s and wife’s attitudes towards women’s
land rights (wives’ preferences for and husbands’
preferences for the traditional position of women) affect
the degree of involvement of women in land-related
decisions; Not rejected
H3. Women’s position and attitudes are positively related
to assets they brought into marriage and negatively
related to assets their husbands brought into marriage;
Rejected
H4. Women’s position and attitudes are positively related
with degree of market integration and education of
family members; Not rejected
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Jo
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www.umb.no
Hypotheses, continued
H5. Women’s empowerment and position is weaker in
the plough-based farming systems than in the perennial
zone; Rejected
H6. The positive impact of the reform on empowerment
is larger the more generous men are towards their wives
as generosity of men implies less resistance against
women’s land rights; Not rejected
H7. Husbands behave more like hawks and women more
like doves in the hawk-dove games and the hawkishness
of husbands is positively related to their resistance
towards women’s land rights and negatively affects
women’s empowerment while more hawkish wives also
claim their land rights; Rejected
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Overall conclusion I
We have found strong evidence that the
Ethiopian land registration and certification
reform has been very successful also in
improving the conditions of women:
– Strenthened tenure security, income and
food security of Female-headed households
in Northern Ethiopia
– Strenthened land rights and empowerment of
wives in male-headed households where joint
land certification has been implemented in
Southern Ethiopia
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Overall conclusion II
The Ethiopian land registration and
certification has been successful for
several reasons:
– Low-cost approach
– Scalable with limited training
– Strong local participation (local
ownership)
– High local demand
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Conclusions III
We found substantial variation across
communities in the wives’ land rights attitude
index pointing in direction of substantial local
variation in the social processes that are likely to
influence women’s positions on these issues
This may imply that provision of women’s name
on the certificates needs to be accompanied with
further awareness raising about their right
according to the law in areas where women and
men still have weak awareness of the law
This may be an area where donor support also
could reduce the budgetary constraint that is
faced 23
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Thank you for your attention!
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Comments are welcome!
Those of you interested in more
details can find relevant papers in the
following web pages:
www.steinholden.com
www.umb.no/clts
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http://www.steinholden.com/http://www.umb.no/clts
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