introduction antenna basics 11 -...

CONTENTS

Chapter 1

Chapter 2

Symbols, Prcnxes allll Abb rev iations ( Inside f ronl cover and racing insicle rronl cover)

Constants and Conversions (Facing inside back cover)

Gradient Di vergence and Curl in Rec tangular. Cylindrica l and Spherica l Coordinates

(lnside back covcr)

Preface, xv

Introduction

1-1 lntroe!uc ti on

A Short I-li story of Antennas

1-2 Dimens ion s and Units 3

1-3 Fu ndamenta l and Seconclary Unit s 3 1- 4 I-low ro Read the Symbol s a ne! Notation 4

1-5 Eguatíon and Problem Num bering 6

1-6 Dimens io nal Analys is 6

1- 7 The E lectromagnetic Spectrum ; Radio-Freguellcy Band s 9

Refere nces JO

Antenna Basics 11

2-1 lntroduc tion 1 J

2-2 Basic Antenna Parameters 12

2-3 Patte rns 14

2-4 Bea m Area (or Beam Solid Angle) Q A J9

2-5 Rad iat io n Intens ily 22

2-6 Bea m Effi c iency 22

2-7 Direc livi ly D and Gaio G 23

2-8 Direc ti vi ty and Resolu tion 26

2-9 Antenna Ape rtures 27

2-10 Effective He ight 30 2-11 The Radi o Commu nicali on Lin k 36

2-12 Fields fro m O scilla ling Di pole 37 2-13 Ante nna F ield Zones 39

2-14 Shape-Impedance Consideratío ns 40

2-15 Linear, EJl ipt ica l ane! Circular Po la ri za lion 44

2-16 Poynting Vecto r for EJliplically and Circularly Polarized Waves 47

2-17 The Polarizat ion E llipse and lhe Po inca ré Sphere 47

References 52

Problems 52

jjj

iv COl1lenrS

Chapter 3 The Antenna FamiJy 57

Chapter 4

Chapter 5

Chapter 5

3-1 Introdllction 57

3-2 Loops, Dipo les and Slots 57

3-3 Opened-Ollr Coaxial -Line Antennas 60

3-4 Opened-Out 2-Co ndllctor (Tw in-Line) Ante nn as 6 1

3-5 Opened-Ollt Wavegui de Antennas (Apertllre Types) 62

3-6 F lat-Sheet ReAecror Antennas 63

3-7 Parabo lic Di sh and Dielectric Lens Ante nnas 64

3-8 End-Fire Antennas 66

3-9 Broad Bandwidth Antenn as: T he Conical Spiral and the Log-Periodic 67

3-10 The Patch Anrenna, Patch Anay, and the Grid Array 67

References 70

Problems 70

Point Sources 72

4-1 lntroduclion. Po int Source Defined 72

4-2 Power Pattern s 73

4-3 A Power Theorem and lts App lica tion to an Iso tropic SOllrce 75

4-4 Radiat ion lntensity 75

4-5 Examples of Powe r Patterns 76

4-6 Field Patterns 81

4-7 Phase Patterns 86

Problems 88

Arrays of Point Sources, Part 1 90

5-1 Jntrod uct ion 90

5-2 Arrays of Two lsotropic Point Sources 90

5-3 NOlli sotropic but S imil ar Point SOllrces and the Princ ipi e 01' Pattern Mul tiplicat ion 98

5-4 Examp le of Pattern Synthesis by Pattern Multiplication 102

5-5 Noni sotropic and Di ssimilar Point Sources 106

5-6 Linea r Arrays of ti lsotropic Poiot Sources 01' Eqll al A ll1plitude and Spacing 109

5-7 Null Direc tion s fo r Arrays of /1 Iso tropic Point Sources 01' Eqllal Amp li tude

and Spacin g 11 6

Probl ems 120

Anays of Point Sources, Part II )26

5-8 Linear Broadside Arrays with Nonu niform All1p litllde DistributiollS. Genera l

Consideration s 126

5-9 Linear Arrays with onuniforrn Ampli tude Di striblltions. The Dolph-Tchebyscheff

Optimum Distribution 129

Chapter 6

Chapter 7

Con tenlS v

5-10 Examp le of Dolph-Tchebysche ff (D-T ) Di slri bu tion for an Arr~y of Eight SO LuTes 137

5-11 Compa ri son of Amplitude Distri butions for Eight-Source Arrays 139

5-12 Continuous Arrays 140

5-13 Huyge lls' Principie 144

5-14 Huygens ' Principie App lied to the Diffr¡¡ction of <1 Plane Wave 1nc ide nt on a Flat Sheet.

Physiea lOpti es 147

5-15 Recrangular-Areil Broadside A1Tays 150

5-16 Array s wirh Mi ss ing Sources and Random Array s 152

5-17 Broadside versus E lld-Fi re Arrays. Turns versus Dipol es and Three-Di me nsiona l

Arrays 154

5-18 Direetions of Maxima for Arrays of 11 lsotropic Po int Sourees of Eg ua l Ampli tude

and Spacing 159

Referenees 162

Prob lems 162

The Electric DipoJe and Thin Linear Antennas 165

6-1 The Short Elee tri e Dipole 165

6-2 T he Fields of a S hon Dipole 166

6-3 Rad iat ion Resistanee of Sho rt Eleetrie Dipole 175

6-4 The Thín Linear Antenna 177

6-5 Radiat ion Resistance of ),, / 2 Antenna 18 1

6-6 Rad iation Resis tanee il t a Point Whieh is not a Curren t

Maximu m 182

6-7 Two Half-Wave Dipol es: Broadside and End-Fire

(T11e W8JK Array) 183

6-8 Fields of a Thin Linear Antenna with a Uniform Traveling Wave 187

Referenees 193

Problems 193

The Loop Antenna 197

7-1 The Small Loop 197

7-2 Comparison of Far Fields uf Sma ll Loop ancl Shon Dipole 199

7-3 The Loop Antenna. Genera l Case 200

7-4 Far-Field Patterns of Circular Loop Antennas with Uniform Curre nt 202

7-5 The Slll all Loop as a Spee ial Case 205

7-6 Radiation Resis tanee of Loops 206

7-7 Direetivity ofCireular Loop Ante nna s with Unifonn CLIITent 209

7-8 TabJe of Loop Formulas 2 12

7-9 Sq uare Loops 212

7-10 Radiation Effkieney, Q, Bilndwidth and Signa l-to-Noise Ratio 2 14

Refe renees 220

Problems 220

· ' .!l.- _~

vi Contents

Chapter 8

Chapter 8

End-Fire Antennas: The Helical Beam Antenna and rhe Yagi-Uda Array, Part 1 222

8-1 The Heli u il Bea m Antenn3 Story by John Kraus 222

8-2 He lical Geollletry 227

8-3 Practica! Design Considerations for the Monofi la r A xial-Mode

Helica l Antenna 23 1

8-4 He lical Beam Ante nna wirh Loops Replacing rhe Ground Plane 242

8-5 Dipole Arrays w ith Parasi tic Ele ments 242

8-6 The Yagi-Uda Array Slory 246

Problems 249

The Helical Antenna: Axial and Other Modes, Part TI 250

8-7 [ntl'Ocluction 250

8-8 Axill l-M ocle Pattem., and the Phase Veloc ity of Wave Propagation o n Mo nnHlar

Hel ices (Krau s-4) 25 I

8-9 Monofilar Axial-Mode S ing le-Turn Pallerns of Sq uare Helix 258

8-10 Complete Axia l-Mode Patterns 01' rvlonofilar Helices 26 1

8-1 I Axial Ratio and Conditions for Circu lar Pola rizalion o fM onofil a r Axial -Mode He licll l

Antennas 263

8-12 Wi deba nd Charac te ri sti cs o f Monotila r Helical Antennas Radiating in the

Axial Mode 268

8-13 Tabl e of Pattern , Bea mwidlh, Gain, Impedance and Axilll Ratio Formulas 270

8-U Radiat ion frOI11 Linear Pe riodic Struc tures with Travelin g Waves with Particul ar Refcrence

to the He li x as a Periodic Struc ture Antenna 27 1

8-15 Array s of Monofilar Axial-Mode Helical Antennas 280

8-16 Th e Monofilar Ax ia l-Mode He li x as a Par'as itic Elelllent and Polari ze r

(see Fig, 8-57 ) 284

8-.17 The Monofilar Axia!-Mode Heli c::i1 Antenna as II Phase llnd

Frequency Shifter 285

8-18 Linear Polarizar io n wi th Monofil ar Ax ial -M ode Helica l Antennas 286

8-19 Mon oti lar Axia l-Mode Helica l Antennas as feeds 287

8-20 Tapered and Oth er fo rrns ofAxia l-Mode He lical Anlennas 289

8-21 Multifilar Axia l-Mode Heli ca l Antennas 29 !

8-22 Monofilar anel Mu!titil a r NOl'll1a!-Mode Heli ca l Antennas 292

8-23 Axial-Mode He lix Te rminati ons 297

8-24 Anlenn a Roration Ex periments 297

8-25 Bililar and Quadritilar Axia l-Moue Heli ces 299

8-26 Generic A! gori rhrn fi ve-Seglllen t Helix vers us Circ ular Hc li x 299

References 300

Additi ona l References on Helical Antel1llas 303

Problems 303

vii

Chapter 9 Slot, Patch and Horn Antennas 304

Chapter 10

Chapter 1 1

9-1 Slot Antennas 304

9-2 Patterns 01' S lot Anten nas in Flal Sheets. Edge Diffrac tion 307

9-3 Babinet's Principi e and Complementary Antennas 3 11

9-4 Thc:: Impedance of Complementary Screens 3 J 4

9-5 The Impedance 01' Slot Anlennas 317

9-6 Slotled Cylinder Anten nas 32t 9-7 Patch or Microst rip Ante nnas 322 9-8 Horn Anten nas 330

9-9 Th e Rectangular Hom Antenna 333

9-10 Bea lll width Comparison 338

9-11 Conical Horn An tennas 339

9- 12 Ridge Horns 339

9-13 SeplU ITI Horns 340

9- ]4 COlTugatecl Horns 341

9-]5 Aperture-Matched Horn 343

References 344

Problems 345

Flat Sheet, Comer and Parabolic Reflector Antennas 347

10-1 Introclucrioll 347

10-2 F lat Sheet Reflectors 349

]0-3 Comer Reflectors 352 10-4 Passive (Retro) Comer Reflector 364

1()-5 T he Parabo[a. Ge llera l Properlies 365 10-6 A Comparisoll between Parabolic alld Comer Reflecto rs 367

10-7 The Paraboloiclal Reflector 368 10-8 Parterns of Large Ci rcular Apertures with Uniform Illullli nation 372

References 375

Probl erns 375

Broadband and Frequency-Independent Antennas 378

11-1 Broadband Basics 378

11-2 Infinite and Finite Bi conica l Antennas 380

11 - 3 Direclional Biconicals , Conical s, Di sk Cones and Bow Ties 382 11-4 The Freq uency-Ind ependent Concept: RUlll sey's Principie 386

11-5a Tbe lllino is Slory 387

11-Sb The Frequency- Indepenclent Planar Log-Spiral An tenna 387 ] ]- 6 The Frequency-Tndepenclen t Co nica l-Spi ra l Antenna 39 J

11-7 The Log-Periodic Antenna 392

11 - 8 The Composite Yagi-Uda-Corner-Log-Perioclic (YUCOLP) Arrny 399

viii Contents

References 399

Problems 400

Chapter 12 Antenna Temperature, Remote Sensing and Radar Cross Section 401

12-1 At1tenna Temperature 401

12-2 System Tem perature 409 12-3 SNR (Signa l-to-Noise Ratio) 411

12-4 Pass ive Remote Sensing 414

12-5 Radar anu Rad ar Cross Section 417 References 427

Problems 427

Chapter 13 Self and Mutual Impedances 438

13-1 [ntroduction 438

13-2 Reciprocity Theorem for Antennas 439

13-3 The 73-Q Radiation Resistance of a }../2 Antenna 44 1

13-4 Radliltion Resistance at a Point Which is Not a Curre nt Maximum 444

13-5 Self-Impedance of a Thin LlIlear Antenna 446

[3-6 Mutual Impedance of Two Pamllel Linear Antennas 448

13-7 Mutual Impedance of Parallel Antennas Side-by-Side 450

13-8 Mutua.II mpedance of Parallel Collinea r Antennas 454 13-9 Mutual Impedance of Para llel Antennas in Eche lon 454

13-10 Mutual Impedance of Other Conf1gurations 455

13-11 Mutu al Impedance in Tenns of Directivity and Rad iat ion Resistance 457 References 459

Problems 459

Chapter 14 The Cylindrical Antenna and the Moment Method (MM) 461

14-1 In troduction 461

14-2 Outline of the Integral-Equa tion Method 462 14-3 Current Distributions 463 14-4 Input Impedance 465

14-5 Paneros 01' Cy lind rica l Antennas 470 14-6 Thc Thin CyJindrica l Antenna 471

14-7 Cylindrical An tennas with Conica l Inpu t Sections 472

14-8 Antennas of Other Sbapes. The Spheroidal Anten na 472 14-9 Currenl DiSlributions on Long Cylindri ca l Antennas 473

14-10 Integral Eq uations and the Moment Method (MM) in Electrostatics 477

14-11 The MOl1lent Method (MM) and Its Application to a Wire Antenna 482

14-12 Self-Impedance, Radar Cross Section and MutualIlllpedance of Short Dipoles by the Mechod of Moments by Edward H. Ne wmon 490

COlllelll S ix

Chapter 15

Chapter 16

References 499

Problems 500

The Fourier Transform Relation between Aperture Distribution and Far-Field Pattern 501

15-1 Continuous Aperture Di stributi oll 50 1

15-2 Fourier Transform Relat ions between lhe Far-Fi e ld Pattero alld the Aperlllre

Di stribution 503

15-3 Spatia \ Freqllency Response and Pattero Smoothing 506

15-4 T he Simple (Adding) Inte rferometer 509

15-5 Aperture Synthesis and MlIltiaperture Anays 518

15-6 Grating Lobes 520

15-7 Two-Dimensiona\ Aperture Synthesis 52\

15-8 Phase Closllre or Self-Calibration for "C lea ll" Maps 523

Rel'erences 526

Problems 526

Arrays of Dipoles and of Apertures 529

16-1 Int roduc ti on 529

16-2 Array of Two Driven >../2 Elements. Broadside Case 530

16-3 Array 01' 2 Driven >../2 Elements. End-Fire Case 539

16-4 Array of 2 Driven >../2 Elements. General Case with Eqllal Currents 01' Ally Phase

Relation 544

16-5 Close ly Spaced Elelllents, Radiating Efficiency and Q. The W8JK Array 548

16-6 Array of /'1 Driven E lements 553

16-7 Horizonta.l Antennas aboye aPiane Grollnd 555

16-8 Vertical Antennas aboye aPiane Ground 566

16-9 Yagi-Uda Modifica tion s 570

16-10 Phased Arrays 572

16-11 Freque ncy-Scanll ing Arrays 576

16-12 Re troarray s. The Van Atta Array 581

16-13 Adaptive Array s and Sman Antenna s 582

16-14 Microstrip Arrays 584

16-15 Low-Side-Lobe Arrays 585

16-16 Long-Wire Antennas 585

16-17 ClIrtain Arrays 591

16-18 Locatioll and Method of Feed ing Antennas 592

16-19 Folded Dipole Antennas 593

16-20 Mod ificatio ns of Folded Dipoles 596

16-21 Argu s Type AII -Sky Surveillance Antennas 597

References 599

Additional References on Adapti ve Arrays 601

Problems 602

x

Chapter 17

Chapter 18

Chapter 19

ContenlS

Lens Antennas 607

17-1 Introduction 607

17-2 Nonmetallic Dielectric Lens Antennas. Ferma l's Princi pie

(Equality of Path Length) 609

17-3 Artific ia l Die lectri c Lens Antenn3S 616

17-4 E -Plane Metal-Plate Lens Antennas 619

17-5 Tolerances on Len s Antennas 625 17-6 H -Plane Meta l-Plate Lens Antennas 627 17-7 Reflec tor-Lens Antenna 628

17-8 Polyrods 629

17-9 MlIltiple-Helix Lenses 631

17-10 LlInebllrg 3nd Einstein Lenses 632

References 634

Problems 635

Frequency-Selective Surfaces and Periodic Structures By Ben A. Munk 636

18-1 Introdllction. Definition of FSS 636

18-2 The Halfwave Dielectric Radome 638 18-3 Slotted Metal Radome 639

18-4 The Simple Hybrid Radome 641

18-5 The Ideal Stealth Radome 642

18-6 Tran smission and Reflection Properti es of Simple Periodic SlIrfaces of Wires 642

18-7 Complementary Surfaces and Babinet's Principi e 646

18-8 Obligue Angle of Incidence 646 18-9 On the Shape and Development of EJements 647

18-10 Contro lling Bandwidrh with Angle of lnc idence and Polarization 651 18-11 Other Applicalions 654

References 658 Problems 659

Practica] Design Considerations of Large Aperture Antennas 660

19-1 Aperture Distriblltions and Et"fi.ciencies 660 19-2 Surface Irregularities and Gain Loss 673

19-3 Off-A xis Operation 01' Parabolic Refl ectors 678

19-4 Cassegrain Feed, Shaped ReAectors . Spherica l ReAectors and Offset Feed 680 19-5 Low-Side-Lobe Cons iderations 684 References 687

Additional References fo r Further Reading 688

Problems 689

Contents xi

Chapter 20 Sorne Exarnples of Large or Unique Antennas 691

Bo nll 691

Arecibo 69 t

Bell Telephone Laboratories 694

Nobeyama 695

Ohio 696

Gorki 698

Five College Observatory 699

Na ncay 701

RATAN-600 70 1

Parkes 702

Manchester 702

VLA 702

Nauell 703

Gr"een Bank 705

References 707

Chapter 21 Antennas for Special Applications 708

21-1 Introduction 708

21-2 Electrically Small Anlennas 709

21-3 Phys ically S rnall Antennas 712

21-4 Antenna Siting and the Effect of Typica l (Irnperfect) Ground 7 13

21-5 Ground-Plane Anrennas 7 19

21-6 S leeve Antenn3s 721

21 - 7 Turns tile Antenna 722

21 - 8 Superlurnsti le Antenna 724

21-9 Othe¡" Omnid irectional Antennas 726

21-10 Circularly Polar ized Antennas 727

21-11 The High-Gain Orn ni 729

21-12 Submerged Antennas 729

21-13 S urface-Wave ancl Leaky-Wave Antennas 734

21- 14 Antenna Design Considerations for Satellite Communication 742

21- 15 Receiving vers us Transmitting Consideralions 746

21-16 Ba ndwidth Cons idera tion s 748

21-17 A rchitectura lly Acceptable Antennas 748

21-18 TLS (Tnstrurnent Landing System ) Antenllas 750

21-19 The "Sugar Scoop An tenna" and the 3K Cosrn ic Sky Background Story 755

21-20 LEO Sate llite Link Antennas 760

21-21 Aste roid Detection Antenna 769

21-22 Leaky Transrniss ioll Lines as Antennas 771

21-23 Arti sti c Antennas (F¡"actals ) 772

21-24 Cell-Tower trees 772

21-25 Antenna s for Terrestrial Mobile Comlllunications Systems by Pertl; Vainikainen 775

xii Contenl '

21-26 Antennas for Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR): Pul se Banclwid th 781 21-27 Embedded Antennas 784

21-28 Ultra-Wide-Ba nd (UWB) Antennas fOI" Digital App li cations 785 2"1-29 The Pl asma Antenna 788

References 789 Problems 792

Chapter 2 2 Terahertz Antennas 796

22-1 Introd uct ion 796

22-2a Pyramiclal Horn Cavity with Dipole 797 22-2b Corner ReAectol" Array 798

22-2c Bow-Tie Dipole 798 22-3 A 600-THz Anten na ') 798

22-4 Pl anar Antenna Structures on Dielectric Lenses 799 22-5 TH z. Waveg uide Structures 800 References 802

Chapter 23 Baluns, etc. By Ben A. Munk 803

23-1 Int roducti on 803 23-2 Balun Types 1, II and III and Choke Baluns 803 23-3 Bandwid th 806 23-4a Sleeve-Dipole Baluns 808 23-4b Modifications 808 23-5 Mast Balun 810 23-6 Printed Ba luns 810 23-7 The A/2 Bypass Balun 813 23-8 Balanced Transforlller 815 23-9 Cutaway Baluns 818 23-10 Natural Baluns 821 23-11 FoJded Dipole tO J-Match 822

23-12 Matching Stubs 823 23-13 Traps 823 23-14 Conclusio n 824 References 825 Adclitional References 825 Problellls 825

Chapter 24 Antenna Measurements. By Arto Lehto and Pertti Vainikainen 827

24-1 Introduction 827

24-2 Basic Concepts 828 24-3 Typical Sources of Error in Antenna Measurements 835

--_. . .. _--- ­

Comenls xiii

24-4 Measurernent Ranges 838

References 8R3

Problems 8R5

24-S Measurement of Di ffere III Antenna Parame ters 854

24-6 Mi sce ll aneous Topies 873

Appendix A Tables for References 888

A-l Tab le of Antena and Antenna System Relations 888

A-2 Formulas for Input Impedance of Tenninated Tran smission Lines 890

A-3 ReAeetion and Transrnission Coefllcients and VSWR 891

A-4 Charaete ri sti c Impedance of Coax ial , 2- Wire and Mic roS trip Transmission Lines 89 1

A-S Charaeteri stic Impedance of Transllli ss ion Lines in Terms of Di str ibllted Paral11eters 892

A-6 Material Const<lnts (Perm itt ivity, Conductivity and Dielectric Strength) 893

A-7 Pertnitt ivity Relations 894

A-S Maxwe ll's Equalions 894

Appendix B Books, Tapes and Articles 896

B-l Books 896

B-2 Video Tapes 899

B-3 Selectecl Anides for Funher Reading 900

Appendix e Computer Programs (Codes) 904

C-I Introcl llcti on 904

C-2 Software Modeling Phil osophy 905

C-3 Cocles Illustra ting Results in Anlennas 906 C-4 Expert MININEC for Stuclents 907

C-S Other Useful Codes 907

References 907

References for Further Reading on Antenna Cornputer Simlllatioll 908

Appendix D Absorbing Materials 909

References 913

Appendix E Measurement Error 914

Appendix F Answers to Starred Problems 915

Index 921

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