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INTERNATIONAL GCSEHistory (9-1)TOPIC BOOKLET:The changing nature of warfare and international confl ict, 1919-2011Pearson Edexcel International GCSE in History (4HI1)
For fi rst teaching September 2017
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Contents
Page 1: Overview
Page 3: Content guidance
Page 15: Student Timeline
Overview
This option is a Breadth Study and in five Key Topics students learn about:
1. The changing nature of warfare, 1919-39
2. Changing methods of warfare by land, sea and air, 1939-45
3. New forms of conflict – nuclear and guerrilla warfare versus conventional warfare,
1945-75
4. Conventional warfare and the development of ‘new’ wars, 1976-2000
5. Changing methods of warfare at the beginning of the 21st century, 2000-10
Breadth Studies focus on a substantial and coherent longer time span of around 100 years and require students to understand the
unfolding narrative of substantial developments and issues associated with the period. The content is divided into five key topics
outlined above, which provide a framework for teaching and understanding the option. Although these clearly run in chronological
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sequence, they should not be taken in isolation from each other – students should appreciate the narrative connections that run across
the key topics. Through these key topics students trace developments in five key themes across the chronology. These are:
1. Land warfare
2. Sea warfare
3. Air warfare
4. Weaponry, technology and communications
5. Guerrilla warfare.
Outline – why students will engage with this period in history
Students study a period of huge significance in world history by examining a topic which has affected all continents and has shaped and
continues to shape the world we inhabit today.
It is a study in which topic 1 begins after the end of the First World War and examines the nature of warfare at the beginning of this period
and ways in which warfare continued to change and develop for the following twenty years. Students will look at the impact of technological
developments and the tactics and strategies developed for future conflicts. Some of these tactics were employed in wars in Africa, Asia and
Europe in the years to 1939. The use of the bomber in the Spanish Civil War and Sino-Japanese War during this period clearly indicated
how civilians could be targeted in order to create panic and affect the morale of the non-combatants. Soviet military personnel also
developed guerrilla warfare methods in the Spanish Civil War which were then taken further by groups during the Second World War.
Students will analyse aspects of warfare during the Second World War and will build a picture of rapidly changing methods of warfare in a
global context.
It is a study that examines the land war in the west of Europe in 1940 and then considers changes in aerial warfare ranging from the
Battle of Britain to the use of V weapons at the end of the conflict. In addition, aspects of the naval war will be examined by studying the
Battle of the Atlantic which saw developments in submarine and anti-submarine warfare. Students study the importance of the aircraft
carrier for the Pacific War. The study encompasses analyses of combined operations e.g. D-Day and Arnhem.
Moreover, this part of the topic allows students to look at civilian resistance in occupied territories during wartime for example in France
and Yugoslavia.
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Students will learn about the use of the atomic bombs in 1945 and the subsequent arms race between the two superpowers. The race not
only covers the build-up of weaponry but also the development of the means of their delivery. Students will also study the proliferation of
nuclear weapons as well as the development of other means of mass destruction. There is also an examination of the attempts to limit
the number of nuclear weapons and the beginnings of attempts to reduce their number. It is a study that continues to analyse
conventional warfare e.g. Arab-Israeli wars and then moves to an examination of asymmetric wars e.g. Vietnam.
Students will again see the relevance of the study in the final two sections when warfare in the late twentieth and early twenty first
centuries is examined. The rapid changes from conventional war e.g. the first Gulf War to the so-called ‘Star Wars’ programme are
analysed, as are terrorism, ‘New Wars’ and technological developments such as ‘smart weapons’, drones and unmanned vehicles.
1.1 Assessment
Students answer one question (called B6) for this breadth study. It is divided into three question types:
● B6 (a): this focuses on in what ways things changed (or stayed the same). Students respond by offering two ways.
● B6 (b): this focuses on causation, in which students write an account that explains two causes of an event.
● B6 (c): students select one from a choice of two for extended writing. Each focuses on the extent of change, or the relative
responsibility of a factor for change. The question may select a factor and ask the student to discuss the relative significance of
that factor, or it may invite a discussion on the significance of a change within the period or how far something changed over an
extended period. The question may or may not cover the whole chronological period of the breadth study, but will normally
draw upon two or more topics across the selected chronology. Further guidance on assessment approaches is provided in
‘Getting Started’.
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Content guidance1
2.1 Summary of content
Although the first topic begins in 1919, background knowledge of developments in warfare during the First World War will help students
to understand the context of changes during the period to 1939. Examination questions will not, however, call on material prior to 1919.
The first topic analyses the changing nature of warfare and looks at how technological developments brought change to how war was to be
waged in the future on land, sea and in the air. This is exemplified by the military theorists such as Guderian. Moreover, conflicts such as
the Sino-Japanese War, the Spanish Civil War and the Italo-Abyssinian War indicated the increased importance of aircraft. Students should
learn about the role of the bomber in these wars and how it came to be seen as a weapon that could create chaos among the civilian
population. They should also be aware of guerrilla tactics and the challenge these posed for conventional armies.
The second topic covers the period of the Second World War and all aspects of warfare. Students analyse the initial phases of the war and
study the concept of Blitzkrieg in Poland, the Low Countries and France. Aerial warfare is examined with the use of the fighter in the Battle
of Britain and the bomber in the Blitz and raids on German cities in the later part of the conflict. In addition, students will consider
technological developments in aerial warfare e.g. radar, pilotless planes and rockets. Naval warfare will also be analysed, not only in the
Battle of the Atlantic but also in the Pacific theatre. This entails an analysis of submarine and anti-submarine warfare as well as the use of
aircraft carriers. The topic then moves to cover combined operations such as D-Day and Arnhem. In addition, students will examine a key
development of warfare during this time, namely resistance movements e.g. in France and Yugoslavia.
The third key topic looks at the development of warfare in the thirty years after the end of the Second World War. The topic begins with
the use of the atomic bomb and ends with the asymmetric conflict in Vietnam. In this topic, students should understand the arms race and
the superpowers’ acceptance of the MAD theory. At the same time, students must understand the proliferation of nuclear weapons. The
topic then analyses conventional warfare by looking at the various Arab-Israeli conflicts but also examines the asymmetric war in Vietnam,
a conflict that presages developments in warfare for the final thirty years of the study.
1 This section is written to support teachers’ planning and does not constitute additional specified material to be taught.
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When examining the fourth topic, students will be able to appreciate the many developments of all aspects of warfare. The topic looks at
conventional wars and students can see the impact of technology with the use of e.g. VTOL aircraft in the Falklands and laser weaponry in
the first Gulf War. Students will also look at a further example of an asymmetric war – Afghanistan – and also consider further developments
in nuclear warfare. The topic comes to a close when students examine the ‘Star Wars’ programme and how the nuclear arms race ended.
The fifth time period covers an age of terrorism and anti-terrorism. Students will consider terrorism and analyse 9/11 and how the approach
to warfare changed after this. The concept of the ‘New Wars’ is studied together with high-tech warfare and the importance of ‘surgical’ air
strikes in 21st-century wars in the Middle East. In addition, the rapid technological developments mean that students will analyse the use
of such weapons as drones and unmanned land vehicles.
Terms and first-order concepts: What sorts of terms and first-order concepts will students need to be familiar with for this option?
Students should understand the key substantive (first order) concepts intrinsic to this study: asymmetric warfare, Blitz, Blitzkrieg,
drones, laser, MAD theory, proliferation, resistance movements, smart weapons, strategy, tactics, technology.
They should also understand the key terms and second order concepts that will enable them to discuss change and consequence
as the questions require.
In order to discuss the extent and process of change, students should be familiar with continuity and change and therefore
consequence and significance (of specified events in relation to changes and unfolding developments). Students will need to
understand the terms impact, significance and consequence.
Impact: Impact means a powerful effect that something, especially some new change, has on a situation or person.
E.g. The use of the atom bomb had a tremendous effect on the superpowers – the Soviet Union began to develop its own atomic
weapons and as a result the arms race began.
Significance: Significance is the amount of influence or meaning that the impact of an event or change has. It can also be
regarded as the importance of that impact.
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E.g. The significance of 9/11 was that the West had to take the threat of terror attacks more seriously and change the approach to
dealing with Islamic fundamentalism.
Continuity and Change: This is what, in broad terms, stayed the same over a longer period and what changed.
Combined operations in war, as seen during D Day and Arnhem in 1944 were still used as key techniques as in the Falkland War
(1982) and the Gulf War (1990-91), despite the onset of asymmetric warfare as seen in Vietnam during the 1960s.
Consequence: A consequence means what happened because of an action, in other words, it is the result of an event or change.
E.g. A consequence of the development of the inter-continental ballistic missile (ICBM) was the acceleration in the build up of
nuclear weapons by the superpowers. Each superpower feared the other’s ability to deliver nuclear warheads and so raced to have
as many ICBMs as possible.
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2.2 Content exemplification and mapping
This section provides additional guidance on the specification content. It should be remembered that the official specification is the only
authoritative source of information and should always be referred to for definitive guidance. Any examples provided here do not
constitute additional specification content, and other relevant material illustrating aspects of change within periods can be used.
Key topic one: The
changing nature
of warfare, 1919-
39
Exemplification Thematic Links Resources
Changes in the
nature of warfare
British use of gas in the Bolshevik
Civil War and Mesopotamia.
Development of tank tactics by
strategists: Guderian, Liddell Hart,
Fuller. Use of tanks and aircraft in
the Spanish Civil War and the war
between Japan and the Soviet
Union in 1939.
Land, air warfare and
weaponry, technology
and communications
(Themes 1,3 and 4)
The Encyclopedia of Warfare: From
Earliest Times...to the Present Day
A. Gilbert
Submarines and
military aircraft
Continued development of the
submarine.
Development of monoplanes, role of
aircraft in Spanish Civil War:
bombing of Guernica and Barcelona.
Japanese bombing of Manchuria
(Shanghai).
Sea warfare and
air warfare (Themes 2
and 3)
The Encyclopedia of Warfare: From
Earliest Times...to the Present Day
A. Gilbert
Historylearningsite.co.uk
Amnesty.org.uk
Warhistoryonline.com
Guerrilla tactics in
the Spanish Civil
War
Soviet assistance to the
Republicans; development of a
partisan army against the
Guerrilla warfare
(Theme 5)
Behind Fascist Lines: A First hand
Account of Guerrilla Warfare During
8
Nationalist forces, techniques and
strategies.
the Spanish Revolution Paperback – January 3, 1995. A Starinov
Between Two Fires-Guerrilla war in the Spanish sierras D. Baird
Both are written for the more able.
Key topic two:
Changing
methods of
warfare by land,
sea and air,
1939-45
Exemplification Thematic Links Resources
The war in the
West
Technique of Blitzkrieg as used in
the Netherlands, Belgium and
France.
Land and air warfare
(Themes 1 and 3)
The World at War 1938-1945 S.
Waugh and J. Wright
The era of the Second World War J.
Brooman
The Second World War N DeMarco
The Encyclopedia of Warfare: From
Earliest Times...to the Present Day
A. Gilbert
Use of fighter aeroplanes and radar
in the Battle of Britain; the Blitz
(London and other key cities) and
the use of bombers against civilian
Air warfare and
Weaponry, technology
and communications
(Themes 3 and 4)
The Encyclopedia of Warfare: From
Earliest Times...to the Present Day
A. Gilbert
9
targets; advances in technology and
V weapons; Allied bombing of
German cities.
The era of the Second World War J.
Brooman
The World at War 1938-1945 S.
Waugh and J. Wright
Warfare in the
Atlantic
Use and tactics of German
wolfpacks. Anti-submarine warfare:
escort carriers, high frequency
direction finding, airborne radar and
searchlights, improved depth
charges, homing torpedoes.
Sea and air warfare,
weaponry and
technology
(Themes 2,3 and 4)
The Second World War N DeMarco
bbc.co.uk/history
The Battle of the Atlantic
J. Dimbleby
Combined
operations –
amphibious, and
paratrooper
actions
D Day, Arnhem. Use of gliders,
landing craft, commandos (special
forces).
US combined operations in 1945 –
Iwo Jima and Okinawa.
Land, sea and air
warfare
(Themes 1,2,3 and 4)
The World at War 1938-1945 S.
Waugh and J. Wright
The Second World War N DeMarco
history.com
iwm.org.uk
The Encyclopedia of Warfare: From
Earliest Times...to the Present Day
A. Gilbert
Resistance
Movements
In France: the methods of the
Resistance and the Maquis:
sabotage, assistance to the Allies,
active and passive resistance. Other
countries e.g. Yugoslavia.
Guerrilla warfare.
(Theme 5)
The Second World War N DeMarco
historylearningsite.co.uk
history.com
Aircraft carriers in
the Pacific,
1941-45
Role of the aircraft carrier at Pearl
Harbor, Coral Sea, Midway,
Philippine Sea and Leyte Gulf
Sea and air warfare.
Weaponry and
technology
The World at War 1938-1945 S.
Waugh and J. Wright
10
Technological developments of
aircraft for carrier use and of
carriers themselves.
(Themes 2,3 and 4) The Encyclopedia of Warfare: From
Earliest Times...to the Present Day
A. Gilbert
ushistory.org
Epic sea battles W Koenig
Key topic three: New forms of
conflict – nuclear
and guerrilla
warfare versus
conventional
warfare, 1945-75
Exemplification Thematic Links
Resources
The use of the
atomic bomb in
1945
US decision to use the atomic
bombs: military problems US had
faced, military-political debate over
the use.
Weaponry and
technology (Theme 4)
The World at War 1938-1945 S.
Waugh and J. Wright
The Second World War N. DeMarco
The Second World War and the
Americas 1933-45 J. Wright
The Second World War and the
Americas 1933-45 J Wright
Hiroshima: Why America dropped
the Atomic Bomb R. Takaki
The nuclear arms
race, 1945-75 and
nuclear
proliferation
Superpower development of the
atomic and hydrogen bombs; build-
up of stockpiles in the 1950s and
1960s, development of delivery
methods by means of aircraft,
Sea and air warfare.
Weaponry and
technology (Themes
2,3 and 4)
The Oxford History of Modern War
by Charles Townshend
11
submarines, rockets and missiles
Development of chemical,
radiological and biological weapons.
Soviet-American relations in the
Nuclear Age J. Fitzgerald
bbc.co.uk/bitesize
historylearningsite.co.uk
spartacus-educational.com
history.com
Nuclear
proliferation,
arms limitation
Spread of possession of nuclear
weaponry,
MAD theory, Test Ban treaties,
SALT 1.
Weaponry and
technology (Theme 4)
Soviet-American relations in the
Nuclear Age J. Fitzgerald
nobelprize.org
atomicarchive.com
Development of
conventional
warfare
Combined operations, mobile
warfare – especially Middle East –
use of aircraft, tanks, missiles.
Land and warfare
Weaponry and
technology
(Themes1,3 and 4)
War and Peace in the Middle East
M. Scott-Baumann
Superpowers and
asymmetric
guerrilla warfare
The US in Vietnam – conflict against
the Vietcong (VC). Tactics and
strategy employed by the VC.
Weaponry, technology
and communications
(Themes 1, 4 and 5)
Vietnam 1950-75 S. Waugh and J.
Wright
Vietnam 1960-75 S. May and R.
Bircher
historylearningsite.co.uk
spartacus-educational.com
The USA and Vietnam 1945-75 V.
Sanders (Written for AS/A2
students)
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Key topic four:
Conventional
warfare and the
development of
‘new’ wars, 1976-
2000
Exemplification Thematic Links
Resources
Conventional
warfare
Falklands War (1982), use of
carriers, V/STOL aircraft.
The Gulf War (1990-91) – aerial
(including helicopters), naval and
land operations. Stealth and smart
weaponry. Use of submarines and
tomahawk missiles.
Land, sea and air
warfare (Themes 1,2
and 3)
naval-
history.net/NAVAl1982falklands
youtube (for the Harrier)
foxnews.com
nytimes.com
historyofwar.com
pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/gulf/
weapons/tomahawk
Superpowers and
guerrilla warfare
The Soviet Union in Afghanistan,
tactics and strategy of the
Mujahideen. Soviet Union and the
guerrilla war in Chechnya.
Guerrilla warfare
(Theme 5)
Coldwar.org
Warfarehistorynetwork.com
For Chechnya – Aljazeera.com
Nuclear Warfare,
Star Wars, the end
of the nuclear
arms race
Continued development of weapons
delivery in the 1970s, the neutron
bomb, the ‘Star Wars’ (SDI)
programme. The collapse of the
Soviet Union and the end of the
Weaponry and
technology (Theme 4)
The Oxford History of Modern War
by Charles Townshend
International Relations: The Era of
the Cold War1943-1991 S. Waugh
and J. Wright
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arms race – CFE Treaty and START
Treaty.
Peace and War: International
Relations 1900-91 R. Bunce, L.
Gallagher, N. Kelly
Coldwar.org
Atomicarchive.com
Key topic 5:
Changing methods
of warfare at the
beginning of the
21st century, 2000-
10
Exemplification Thematic Links
Resources
The impact of
terrorism
Analysis of 9/11: aims of Al Qaeda,
methods, targets, results. The War
on Terror – aims, methods and
results. Madrid (2004) and London
(2005). World security measures.
Land and air warfare
Weaponry, technology
and communications
and guerrilla warfare.
(Themes 1,3, 4 and
5.)
Independent.co.uk
bbc.co.uk/history
mirror.co.uk/all-about/al-qaeda
globalpolicy.org/war-on-terrorism
globalissues.org
bbc.co.uk (Investigating Al Qaeda)
New Wars and
high-tech warfare
Definition of ‘new’ wars – war,
criminality, breakdown of
community, challenges to human
rights: e.g. Bosnia.
Land warfare.
Weaponry, technology
and communications
(Theme 4)
independent.co.uk
bbc.co.uk/programmes/p00546qy
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Use of laser and GPS-guided
bombs and missiles.
fas.org/man/dod-
101/sys/smart/lgb.htm
Drone and
unmanned
warfare
Use of drones (UAVs) role in
Afghanistan, Pakistan and Iraq.
Unmanned land vehicles (UGV) in
Iraq and Afghanistan.
Land and air warfare
Weaponry, technology
and communications.
(Themes 1,3 and 4)
dronewars.net/aboutdrone
economist.com/node/21524876
iar-gwu.org/node/144
www.channel4.com/news/us-
drones-tools-of-modern-warfare
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Student timeline
The timeline below could be given to students, and could be further edited and added to by
them. Inclusion of dates and events in this timeline should not be taken as an indication that
these are prescribed: the official specification and associated assessment guidance materials
are the only authoritative source of information and should always be referred to for
definitive guidance
1931
Japanese invasion of Manchuria
1935 Italian invasion of Abyssinia
1936 Beginning of the Spanish Civil War
1937 Bombing of Guernica
Bombing of Shanghai
1939 End of the Spanish Civil War
Beginning of World War Two
1940 Blitzkrieg technique used against the Low Countries and France
Battle of Britain
Beginning of the Blitz
1941 German invasion of the Soviet Union
1942 Battle of the Coral Sea
Battle of Midway
1943
Allied invasion of Italy
Battle of Philippine Sea
1944 D Day
Arnhem
Battle of Leyte Gulf
German use of V1 and V2 weapons
1945 US combined operations at Iwo Jima and Okinawa
Atom bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki
End of World War Two
1949 Soviet Union tested its first atom bomb
1950 Beginning of the Korean War
1952 USA tested its first hydrogen bomb
1953 Soviet Union tested its first hydrogen bomb
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1963 Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty
1964
1965 First US combat troops in Vietnam
1967 Outer Space Treaty
1971 Sea-bed Treaty
1972 Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (SALT 1)
Biological Warfare Convention
1973 US withdrawal from Vietnam
1975 Helsinki Agreements
1979 Soviet invasion of Afghanistan
Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (SALT 2 – never ratified)
1982 Falklands War
1983 USA announced the Strategic Defence Initiative (SDI)
1987 Intermediate Nuclear Forces Treaty (INF)
1989 Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan completed
1990 Iraq invaded Kuwait. First Gulf War
Conventional Armed Forces in Europe Treaty (CFE)
1991 End of First Gulf War
First use of Tomahawk cruise missiles
Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty
1992 Beginning of the war in Bosnia
1995 End of the war in Bosnia
2001 9/11 attacks in the USA
2003 Beginning of the Second Gulf War
2004 Madrid bombing
Beslan School hostage crisis
2005 London bombings
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