indigenous agricultural workers demographics©ncfh, 2018 2 • in the 1970s and 1980s, thousands of...

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INDIGENOUSAGRICULTURALWORKERS

KnowntohavejoinedtheU.S.agriculturalindustry’sworkforceintheearly1990s,indigenousfarmworkersareapopulationthatmostknowlittleabout.ManydonotknowthattheirprimarylanguageisnotSpanish,thattheirclothingandfoodhavestrongtraditionalculturalties,andthatmanyindigenouspersonshaveastrongaffiliationtowardscommunitynetworks,localorganizingandpoliticalactivities,andtraditionalformsofmedicine.BecauseresearchliteratureindicatesthattheoverwhelmingmajorityofindigenouspersonsemployedinU.S.agriculturearefromLatinAmericaandnottheU.S.,wefocusonLatinAmericanindigenousgroupsinthisresearchbrief.

DEMOGRAPHICS

• Approximately40millionpeopleinLatinAmericaself-identifyasethnicallyindigenous.1• LatinAmerica’sindigenouspopulationsarehighlydiverseinculture,language,food,and

religion.Anestimated550-700differentlanguagesinmorethan50differentlanguagefamiliesarespokeninLatinAmerica.ThemostcommonlyspokenindigenouslanguagesspokeninLatinAmericaincludeQuechua(SouthAmerica),Guaraní(Paraguay),Nahuatl(México),andKekchí(Guatemala).Manylanguagesareendangeredandwilllikelylosetheirlastsurvivingspeakersinthenextcentury.2

• TheIndigenousFarmworkersStudy(IFS)isthemostcomprehensivestudyofindigenousfarmworkersintheU.S.todate.TheIFSislimitedtofarmworkersresidinginCalifornia,butisthebestcurrentsourceofinformationaboutthedemographicsofindigenousfarmworkersintheU.S.TheIFSestimatedthat165,000indigenousfarmworkersfromMexicowereresidinginCalifornia,andthatthemajorityoriginatedfromthestatesofGuerreroandOaxacainMexico.3

• OftheindigenouslanguagesspokenbyparticipantsintheIFSstudy,Mixtecowasthemostcommon,asmorethanhalfofparticipantswereMixtecospeakers.OneinfourspokeZapotecoandoneintenspokeTriqui.AsmallnumberofparticipantsspokeNahuatlorChatino.3

HISTORY

• TheindigenouspeoplesofMexicoandCentralAmericahaveacomplexhistorythatdemonstratesanabilitytosurviveandthrivedespiteexperiencinghundredsofyearsofviolencefromSpaniardsandlaterfromtheirownnationalgovernments.3–5

• Inrecenthistory,povertyandsystemicviolencehavecausedindigenouspeoplesinLatinAmericatoleavetheirhometownsandmigratetolargerurbanareasintheirowncountry,aswasthecaseoftheMaya-speakingMexicansfromYucatan,ortoworkinagriculturalortheservicesectorintheU.S.6ThefirstdocumentedmovementsofindigenousMexicanstotheU.S.occurredduringthe1960swhentheBraceroprogramgaveworkauthorizationtoMexicanswillingtoworkintheU.S.agriculturalfields.6

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• Inthe1970sand1980s,thousandsofGuatemalanindigenouspersonsfledtoMexicoandlatertotheU.S.duringthebrutalcivilwarbecausethemilitaryconsideredindigenousMayansasthreatstothestateandexecutedsystematicactsofgenocideinindigenouscommunities.5

• LatinAmericanindigenouspeopleshavecreatedmultiplenotoriouspoliticalmovementstoadvocateforgreateraccesstohealthcare,education,economicopportunities,rightstoland,andrecognitionoftheirlanguagesandtraditions.7,8Oneofthemostwell-knownmovementsistheEjércitoZapatistadeLiberaciónNacional(EZLN),apoliticalgroupofindigenousresidentsofChiapas,Mexicothathaspushedforbilingualeducation,localautonomyandbasichumanrightsforindigenouspeoplesinMexico.9,10

HOMETOWNNETWORKS

• HometownnetworksareanimportantaspectofthecultureofindigenouspeoplelivingintheU.S.ManyindigenouspersonsfromMexicoandCentralAmericawerepartofclose-knitruralcommunitiesintheirhomecountry,andtheseclosetiesoftenfollowpeopleastheymigratetotheU.S.Hometownnetworksareessentiallygroupsofpeoplefromthesameregioninthesendingcountrywhoshareresources,advice,traditions,andotherformsofsupport.11

• TheIFSinCaliforniadocumentedninehometownnetworksofindigenousfarmworkersresidingintheU.S.Someofthehometownnetworkswerewell-established,asmalemembershadresidedintheU.S.fordecadesandhadbroughttheirwivesandchildrentoliveintheU.S.Newer,less-establishedhometownnetworksconsistedofyoungermaleswhomorerecentlyleftMexicoforworkintheU.S.11

WORKINGCONDITIONS

• WorkingconditionsforindigenousfarmworkersintheU.S.ispoorlydocumented,butthelittleresearchthatdoesexistindicatesthatindigenousfarmworkersfacethesameabusesandchallengesofotherfarmworkers,ifnotmoreso.Non-Spanishspeakingindigenouspersonsmaybemoreisolatedandfacegreaterbarrierstofilingcomplaintsaboutworkplacesafetyorlaborrightsabuses,andpersonswhophysicallyappearindigenousmayfacediscriminationfromnon-indigenousLatinosandfromAngloAmericans.1,12

• ThemedicalanthropologistDr.SethHolmesprovidesoneofthemostextensiveaccountspublishedabouttheworkingconditionsforindigenousfarmworkersintheU.S.InhisbookFreshFruit,BrokenBodies,hedescribesextremepoverty,extremelyphysicallydemandinglabor,andfrequentexposuretopesticidesandotheroccupationalhazardsforindigenousfarmworkers.13

• ResearchconductedwithindigenousfarmworkerwomeninOregonfoundthatsexualharassmentatworkwascommonplace,andwomenfrequentlydidnotreportit,eitherbecausetheydidnotknowhowtoreportoroutoffearofretaliation.14Singlemothersreportedlyexperiencedgreaterlevelsofsexualharassment,generallyfrommeninsupervisorypositions,astheyweremorevulnerableandcouldnotaffordtolosework.

DISCRIMINATION

• LatinAmericahastheworstincomeinequalityintheworld,andindigenouspopulationsaregenerallyconcentratedinthelowestsocialstratathroughoutLatinAmerica.Socialdiscriminationisstrong,butlittlepublicpolicyhasbeenproducedtoaddresswidespreaddiscriminationanddisparitiesexperiencedbyindigenousandBlackLatinAmericans.15

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• IndigenouspersonsexperiencediscriminationinboththeirhomecountriesandintheU.S.due

toskintone,language,culturalpractices,andbodytype.16,17

HEALTHINLATINAMERICA

• InLatinAmerica,ethnicity,skintone,socio-economicstatusanddiscriminationarealldeeplyinterwoven.Researchersinvestigatingtherelationshipsbetweenanindigenousethnicityandself-reportedhealthfoundthatpersonswhoidentifiedasindigenousreportedtheworsthealthstatusofallgroups,whichincludedbothnon-indigenousWhiteandBlackLatinos.1

• HealthinequitiesamongindigenouspeoplesthroughoutLatinAmericaarewell-documented.Maternalhealthoutcomesaregenerallysubstantiallyworseamongindigenouswomencomparedtonon-indigenouswomen,andbothinfantandmaternalmortalityratesaregreateramongindigenouswomen.InMexico,indigenouswomenarefivetimesmorelikelytodieinchildbirththannon-indigenouswomen.18Reasonsforthisarecomplex,andincludehighratesofpovertyandmalnutrition,ruralisolation,andlimitedaccesstohealthcarefacilities.19

• IndigenouschildreninMexicoandGuatemalahavebeenfoundtoexperiencemuchhigherratesofinfantandchildhoodmortalityandstunting&malnutrition.18,20InBrazil,indigenouschildrenwerefoundtohavehighratesofmalnutrition,diarrhealillnessesandrespiratoryinfections,bothcommoncausesofchildhoodmortality.21,22

HEALTHINTHEU.S.

• IndigenousimmigrantsintheU.S.facemultiplebarrierstoaccessinghigh-qualityhealthservices.Thisissueisparticularlyacuteforfemaleindigenousimmigrants,andlanguagebarriers,alackofhealthinsurance,anddifferentculturalperceptionsofhealthanddiseasemaymakeaccessinghealthcaredifficult.12,23

• EthnographicresearchfoundthattheperceptionsofU.S.medicalprofessionalswasofteninhibitivetotheprovisionofculturally-sensitiveandhigh-qualitymedicalcaretoindigenousfarmworkers,ratherthantheperceptionsofindigenouspatients.24

• TheIFSfoundthatonly9%ofindigenousfarmworkerparticipantshadhealthinsurancecoverage,substantiallylowerthanthe31%ofnon-indigenousLatinofarmworkerswhohavehealthinsurancecoverage.3

• Asurveyofnearly1,000indigenouspersonsinCaliforniafoundthatonly57%ofadultsreportedthattheyhadaccesstohealthcareservices,although90%ofparticipantsreportedthattheirchildrenhadaccesstohealthcareservices.18

• Morethanhalf(59%)ofindigenouspersonsinVenturaCounty,Californiareportedthattheirfamilydidnothaveenoughfood,and48%reporteddifficultiesingainingadequatehousing.25

• IntheU.S.,researchhasfoundthatindigenouspersons,especiallyindigenouswomen,experiencepoorermentalhealthandhigherstresslevelsthannon-indigenousLatinos.Higherstresslevelswerefoundtodeclinewithhighereducationlevels,betterliteracy,andincreasedtimeintheU.S.forindigenouspersons.26

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REFERENCES

1. Perreira,K.M.&Telles,E.E.TheColorofHealth:SkinColor,EthnoracialClassification,andDiscriminationintheHealthofLatinAmericans.Soc.Sci.Med.19820,241–250(2014).

2. AILLA:TheIndigenousLanguagesofLatinAmerica.Availableat:http://www.ailla.utexas.org/site/lg_about.html.(Accessed:7thMarch2017)

3. Mines,R.,Nichols,S.&Runsten,D.California’sindigenousfarmworkers.FinalRep.TofIndig.FarmworkerStudyCalifonriaEndow.(2010).

4. Muñoz,M.L.O.IndigenousMobilizationsandtheMexicanGovernmentduringthe20thCentury.(2016).doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780199366439.013.30

5. GuatemalanMigrationinTimesofCivilWarandPost-WarChallenges.migrationpolicy.org(2013).Availableat:http://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/guatemalan-migration-times-civil-war-and-post-war-challenges.(Accessed:9thMarch2017)

6. HiddeninPlainSight:IndigenousMigrants,TheirMovements,andTheirChallenges.migrationpolicy.org(2010).Availableat:http://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/hidden-plain-sight-indigenous-migrants-their-movements-and-their-challenges.(Accessed:9thMarch2017)

7. Langer,E.D.ContemporaryIndigenousMovementsinLatinAmerica.(Rowman&LittlefieldPublishers,2003).

8. Stavenhagen,R.inMulticulturalisminLatinAmerica(ed.Sieder,R.)24–44(PalgraveMacmillanUK,2002).doi:10.1057/9781403937827_2

9. Vergara-Camus,L.Globalización,tierra,resistenciayautonomía:elEZLNyelMST.Rev.Mex.Sociol.73,387–414(2011).

10. JUNG,C.ThePoliticsofIndigenousIdentity:Neoliberalism,CulturalRights,andtheMexicanZapatistas.Soc.Res.70,433–462(2003).

11. HometownNetworks.Availableat:http://www.indigenousfarmworkers.org/hometown_networks.shtml.(Accessed:9thMarch2017)

12. Lee,J.,Donlan,W.,Cardoso,E.E.O.&Paz,J.J.CulturalandSocialDeterminantsofHealthamongIndigenousMexicanMigrantsintheUnitedStates.Soc.WorkPublicHealth28,607–618(2013).

13. FreshFruit,BrokenBodies.

14. Murphy,J.,Samples,J.,Morales,M.&Shadbeh,N.‘Theytalklikethat,butwekeepworking’:SexualharassmentandsexualassaultexperiencesamongMexicanIndigenousfarmworkerwomeninOregon.J.Immigr.Minor.HealthCent.Minor.PublicHealth17,1834–1839(2015).

15. Telles,E.&Bailey,S.UnderstandingLatinAmericanBeliefsaboutRacialInequality.Am.J.Sociol.118,1559–1595(2013).

16. Villarreal,A.StratificationbySkinColorinContemporaryMexico.Am.Sociol.Rev.75,652–678(2010).

17. Chavez-Dueñas,N.Y.,Adames,H.Y.&Organista,K.C.Skin-ColorPrejudiceandWithin-GroupRacialDiscrimination:HistoricalandCurrentImpactonLatino/aPopulations.Hisp.J.Behav.Sci.36,3–26(2014).

18. Servan-Mori,E.,Torres-Pereda,P.,Orozco,E.&Sosa-Rubí,S.G.AnexplanatoryanalysisofeconomicandhealthinequalitychangesamongMexicanindigenouspeople,2000-2010.Int.J.EquityHealth13,21(2014).

19. Chopel,A.M.ReproductivehealthinindigenousChihuahua:givingbirth‘alonelikethegoat’.Ethn.Health19,270–296(2014).

20. Martínez-Fernández,A.,Lobos-Medina,I.,Díaz-Molina,C.A.,Chen-Cruz,M.F.&Prieto-Egido,I.TulaSalud:Anm-healthsystemformaternalandinfantmortalityreductioninGuatemala.J.Telemed.Telecare21,283–291(2015).

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21. Escobar,A.L.etal.DiarrheaandhealthinequityamongIndigenouschildreninBrazil:resultsfromtheFirstNationalSurveyofIndigenousPeople’sHealthandNutrition.BMCPublicHealth15,191(2015).

22. Horta,B.L.etal.Nutritionalstatusofindigenouschildren:findingsfromtheFirstNationalSurveyofIndigenousPeople’sHealthandNutritioninBrazil.Int.J.EquityHealth12,23(2013).

23. Lopez,R.A.UseofAlternativeFolkMedicinebyMexicanAmericanWomen.J.Immigr.Health7,23–31(2005).

24. Holmes,S.M.Theclinicalgazeinthepracticeofmigranthealth:MexicanmigrantsintheUnitedStates.Soc.Sci.Med.198274,873–881(2012).

25. Maxwell,A.E.etal.SocialdeterminantsofhealthintheMixtecandZapoteccommunityinVenturaCounty,California.Int.J.EquityHealth14,16(2015).

26. Donlan,W.&Lee,J.IndigenousandMestizoMexicanMigrantFarmworkers:AComparativeMentalHealthAnalysis.J.RuralCommunityPsychol.(2010).