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CHAPTER - V
CONTEMPORARY INDIAN THINKERS ON
VALUES AND ETHICS
The valuesand ethical trend in contemporary Indianphilosophy
may beseen inphilosophy ofM.K.Gandhi, Vivekananda, Aurobindo,
Ravindranath Tagore and Radhakrishnan. M.K. Gandhi and
RadhakrishnanfollowtheIndianbrandofhumanisticvaluesandethics
comingfromtheancientVedas,theUpaniads,andtheBhagavadGt.
Thiswill be further clear by theanalysis of theNeo-Vedanta trend in
contemporary Indian philosophy. While fundamentally, there is no
essentialdifferencebetweentheWesternandIndianvalues,thelateris
represented by the traditionalist group of Indian philosophers. There-
fore, it is their values which form the essential element of Indian
philosophy.206
The h ktiMovement:
TheexistenceofrelationshipbetweenGodanddevoteeisnotof
now it is theresince theVedic times i.e. about5000 years ago. This
relationshipisconsideredtobedevotional.Bhaktihasprovedattractive
over a period of two thousand years as the devotional path brought
together feelings and forms easily recognizable, generally acceptable
andnearlypleasurable.Dr.S.RadhakrishnansaysthattheBhaktiisthe
meanstoattainsalvation.
206
Battacharya., The Humanist Trend in Contemporary India, p. 27.
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Wehave had in our country from the timeoftheRig-Vedadowntoourowndaysalonglineof torch bearers who stress the primacy ofspiritualvalues,whopointoutthatevenasthehumanbeingisabovetheanimal, thespiritual
man is above the human. The exponents ofpureabstractspeculationfindtheirwayintotheminds of men through song and poetry. TheattainmentoflifeinGodisachievedmoreeasilyby Bhakti than by other means. The poets,singers and saints with their passionatedevotion to the ideals of beauty, harmony,freedom,andaspirationhavehadthestrongestimpactonsociety.207
TheBhakti Movement is remarkable of its kind for the religious
unityandfortheemancipationofpoverty.Theyhaveadvocatedequality
betweenmen andwomen. They have condemned idolworship. They
condemnedthesocialevilslikecasteismandSati.Theyhavepreached
theonenessofGod.
ThedoctrinethatallmenbothhighandlowareequalbeforeGod
has become the central idea that has rallied large sections of the
masses to fight against the priesthood and caste tyranny. This great
movementofthemiddleAgeshasnotonlyhelpedthedevelopmentofa
composite Indian culture embracing different linguistic and religious
communitiesbutalsopavedthewayforunitedstruggleagainstfeudal
oppression.208
TheBhakti movement has attainedvaryingdegreesof intensity
sweeping in different parts of the country. It appeared in a variety of
207Radhakrishnan, S., Foreword, The Spiritual Heritage of Tyagaraja, p. iii.208
Damodaran, K.,Indian Thought. A Critical Survey,p. 317.
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forms also. Yet, some basic principles underlie the movement as a
whole.
Ramananda 1400-1470 AD)
The movement which Ramanuja started in South India was
spread to the other parts of Northern India by his great disciple
Ramananda.HisconceptofGodisthatheisapersonwhocaresforall
menandrewardstheirdevotion.Ramanandabroughtaradicalreform.
He made no distinction between Brahmanas and members of the
degraded castes. He wanted to promote the ideal of inter-dining.
Another reformofRamanandawas the useof the vernaculars for the
propagationofthenewcreed.Hewasthefounderofanewschoolof
thought.Hetookpeople asdisciples fromall the castes including the
degradedcastes.209
ThemysticsareconsideredtobesaintswhobelievethatGodcan
berealizedinaprocessofself-culture.Godisconceivedasabeingwith
manyhumanattributes.TherelationofmanwithGodissimilartothatof
a master to his servant or a lover to the beloved.210 The prominent
feature of thesemystic saints was stated to be the spirit of religious
tolerance.ReligionisaquestionofindividualapproachtoGodwithout
thenecessityofanyoutsideinterference.BoththeMuslimsandHindus
areequalandtheyarethechildrenoftheonlytrueGod.Nevertheless
themysticswerefearlessinpointingoutthedefectsinthebeliefofboth
209Bhandarkar, R.P., Vaisnavism, Saivism and Minor Religious Systems, pp. 67.210
George Kotheran.,Ahimsa: Gautama to Gandhi, p. 118.
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HindusandMuslims.They foughtagainstcasteismand idolatryof the
Hindus.GeorgeKotturanwrites:
TherehadbeenaprocessofacculturationofHindu andMuslim in India since a long time.Islamic contactwith Indiamade people closerto the outside India which gave rise to newsocialandreligiousthinkingandopenedanewvistaofknowledge.Indianpeoplewerereadytowelcomenew ideasandassimilatenewways.TheHindusocietywokeuptoreformitself.211
The ideal of Islamic brotherhoodexerted profound influence on
Hindusocialthinking.Islamtreatsallmenequalwhichwasindisregard
tocasteinthenewdevelopmentofBhaktiphilosophy.Themysticsheld
thatinthesightofGodtherewasnodifferencebetweenahighcaste
Brahmin and an outcaste. The love of God is universal. The whole
universe is tied up in brotherhood. This practical ideology owes its
existence due to the synthesis of Hindu and Islamic teachings.
Ramananda started a religious renaissance: He ably guided the
spiritual life of the Indian people and introduced social and religious
reforms.Herecognizednodifferenceofcasteandcreed.Accordingto
himallmenandwomenareequal.212
He insisted upon correct moral conduct anda life dedicated to
virtueandcharity.HehadMuslimsandHindusashisfollowers.Inthe
matter of caste he was indifferent. He had Sudras the outcaste or
untouchablesashisdisciples.ThemagneticpersonalityofRamananda
attractedthousandsofpeopleasselflessdisciples.HesaidthatGodis
211Ibid, p. 119.212
George Kotheran.,Ahimsa: Gautama to Gandhi,p. 121.
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omnipresent. The divine energy envelops the whole universe. God
revealedtohimthatheisinhisheart.Godfilledtheentireuniversewith
hispresence.
Kabir 1440-1518 AD)
Kabir is a constructive reformer.He has founded a Panth or a
sect.ThefollowersofKabirsectaretobefoundprincipallyamonglower
castes.213 Freedom from egotism and self-seeking is of fundamental
importance.Ifthereisalittleinthewayofsocialphilosophy,therewould
be a repudiation of the arbitrary distinctions that India has kept man
fromman.214Kabirhasrefusedtoacknowledgeanycastedistinctions.
He claimed social equality for the low castedrs with the other
castes. In the Indian literature the unrealityof these castedistinctions
hasnotclearlybeenmentioned.InthewritingsofKabir,hesays:
Itisbutfollytoaskwhatthecasteofasaintmay be. The barber has sought God, thewasher-woman and the carpenter. EvenRavidas was a seeker after God. The iSwapachawasatannerbycaste.HindusandMuslims alike have achieved that End, whereremainsnomarkofdistinction.215
Kabirdenounceswhatisirrationalandinhumaninthedivisionof
societyintocastes.Hesays:
Ifyoureflectontheoriginofcastestheycameintobeingfromoneandthesame......Howisitthatoneisborn.Sudra,andremainsSudratillhisdeath....onemakesaBrahmaisthread
213
Bhandarkar, R.P., Vaisnavism, Saivism and Minor Religious Systems, p. 73.214John Mekenzie.,Hindu EthicsA Historical and Critical Essay, p. 174.
215Tagore, Ravindranath., One Hundred Poems of Kabir, p. II.
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oneselfandthenputs iton.Theworldisthusinconfusion. If thou art a Brahmin, born of aBrahmin, why art thou not born in a differentfashion....Ifyoumilkablackcowandwhitecowandthenmixtheirmilk,willyoubeableto
distinguishthemilkofonefromtheother.216
InanothercontextwefindKabirwatchingthewifeofagardener,
whogatheredflowerstoofferthemtoanidol.Hesaidtoher:
In thepetals of the flower, dwells thesoul ofvegetation,andtheidolstowhichyouaregoingto make your offering is lifeless. The vegetal
condition isbetter thanthemineralconditions.Theidoltowhichyouaregoingtoofferflowershasneitherfeelingnorlife.217
ThechiefaimoftheteachingofKabirwastofindanacceptable
meanstoreconcilethedifferencesbetweendiversecastesandreligious
communities.Hischerishedwishwastoabolishthecastesystemand
theantagonismofreligionbasedonblindsuperstitionorontheselfish
interest ofaminorgroupofpeople exploiting the ignoranceofothers.
Hisdesirewastoestablishpeaceinsocialandreligiousspheresamong
thepeopleandunitethemfor theywereseparatedonefromtheother
onthegroundsofreligion.
TheBhaktimovementhaspreachedhumanequalityandopenly
condemnedritualsandcasteprejudices.Itisradicallynewandbasically
different from the old established traditions and ideas of religious
authority. It seeks to refashion the collective life on the new lines
upholdingthevaluesofjusticeandequalityforallpeopleinthesociety.
216Yusuf Hussain., Glimpses of Medieval Indian Culture, pp. 23-24.217
Yusuf Hussain., Glimpses of Medieval Indian Culture, p. 16.
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Kabir holds very strongly the doctrine ofahis (non-violence) and
treatsitassinfuliflifeinanyformisinjuredortakenaway.218
Kabir preaches for the harmony, love, understanding ofHindus
and Muslims. He declares the equality of all men recognizing no
banners of caste or creed and peaceful co-existence. His concept of
non-violent(ahimsa)societyisindicativeofapeacefulcommunityliving
invirtueandgoodness.Hehassetbeforetheworldanideaofloveand
universalbrotherhood.AstheloveofGodprevailsintheworld,thelove
ofonesneighborshouldprevailamongstmen.Anoftenquotedsaying
ofKabiris:
That body in which love does not dwell is acrematorium;theheartwhichiswithoutloveislike a blacksmiths bellows, breathing butlifeless.219
Kabir demands themoral purity and does not restrict it to one
particularkindoflife.Obedience tothemaster tohiscommandsmust
notbeblind.Thebelieverhastorelyonhisreasonandfollowaccording
tothedetailsofhisconscience.220
Ravidasa 1450-1540 AD)
Ravidasa was a great Hindu saint and Philosopher during the
medieval times.Althoughhehailed froma lowcommunity,hedidnot
suffer from inferiority complex. He did not cherish ill-will or malice
againstanypeople.Hereturnedgoodtotheevil.Societyrecognizedhis
greatness. The poems of Ravidasa reflect his view on religion. He
218
Keavy, I. B. (Rev)., The Religious Life of India, p. 74.219George Kotheran.,Ahimsa: Gautama to Gandhi, p. 126.
220Barth, A., The Religions of India,p. 239.
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considersreligionasthebasicneedofman.Manhasreligiousinstinct
distinct from hunger and thirst. He says that if self-realization is the
dawn of the soul, self-negation is the dark night of the soul. He can
guidethosegroupingindarknesstotheirdestiny.
Ravidasa criticizes these teachings of religion which did not
appeal tothehumanreason.Hestandsagainstthe fallacyofthevain
religious action. Those religious actions that are contrary to human
naturearemistakes.Continence,yogiccontrol,andfastingarecontrary
to the human tendencies. He opposed them and termed them as
unhumanistic tendencies. Some religious books prescribe some
extremepathsofGodrealizationbutthesepathsarenotaccessibleto
everybody. As God is in all, the path way to him should also be
accessibletoall.Ifthepathwayissimple,everyonewouldbeableto
followit.Devotionalismleadstosuchdemocraticpath.TheVedasteach
theobservanceofindifferencestotheworld orcontrolover thesense
organs.Bothoftheseareverydifficulttoeveryonetofollow.Ravidasa
condemnsthesuperstitiouspracticesassociatedwithdevotion.Forhis
devotionwaschieflyintheformofservice.Accordingtohim:
ServicewithinthesphereofdevotionmeansservicetoGodandhiscreaturesbyservicetomankind isservice toGod.Hishospitalityandservice to thepoor andneedy isworthy to benoted.Lordresidesineverybodysheartsisnotknowable through rites or performances.Highest expression of religion in life is theserviceofman.221
221
Bhattacharya, Haridas., The Cultural Heritage of India, Vol. IV. p. 380.
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Ravidasaconsiders the humanexistence as rare,and obtained
duetotheresultofmeritoriousdeeds.Somanshouldnotwastehislife
in ignorance.Heshouldutilizehis life inachieving thehighesthuman
aspirationwhichbecomes possibleonly by followingamoral codeof
discipline.ManaccordingtoRavidasaisofdoublenature.Hisnatureis
attachedatfirsttothisworld.Heisunboundtoanyformofexistencein
thephysicalworld.Ravidasacomparesgoodnesswithknowledge.With
the acquisition of knowledge, senses are not killed but live their
prosperous life with the difference. Mans essence lies in his self
determinationintherealizationofhisfreedom:Manisfoundtobein
bondage due to his sheer ignorance. Total removal of it involves a
virtuous life.Wisdom isthegreatest valueand the trueperspectiveof
things. Selfless service has been given an utmost importance both
beforeandaftertherealizationofGod.222
Ravidasaexhortsthepeopletoraiseaboveevilsofpride,anger,
greed,attachment,jealousyandlust.Truefreedomcanberealizedonly
intheabsenceofdeterminism.Reason,faith,contemplationhavebeen
attachedmuch importance.Reason isdependable and indispensable.
The philosophy of Ravidasa is marked by the values of self
transcendingexistenceofabsolutefreedom.
Tulasidas 1532-1623 AD)
Tulasidas was composed the greatworkRmacarita m nas
usually known asRmyaa. According to him, the supreme fruit of
222
Sangam Lal Pandey.,Existence, Devotion and Freedom, p. 115.
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devotionisdeliverancefromsinandpurificationofheart.223Knowledge
and devotion are the two paths for attaining God. Those who follow
thesemethodswieldpowerinthisworld.Inthewholecreation,thereis
nothingincomparisontosuchabidingvalueassaintlinessofcharacter.
Asainthas thecharacteristicsofdeepwisdomandboundless love.A
wisemanseesunityindiversityandidentifieshimselfwiththewholeof
creation.Thedevoteeradiatespeacewhichisactiveandexaltedwhich
silently and gently communicates itself to others. It transforms many
lives and lightens the hearts that are heavy laden with sorrows and
givesthemrest.
Tulasidaswriting,Ramacaritamnasrelatingtothelifestoryof
Rama stood as a great force in preventing disintegration of the
Sanatana Dharma. His writing helped the people in reposing faith in
themselves and in their own culture which had been shaken by the
Muslimrule.Thisworkisprovedtobeimmediatesuccessandhasbeen
enshrined in the heartof the commonman.AsHaridasBhattacharya
observes:
Tulasidasa captured the imagination of the
people further by making that God-head liveandmoveonearth.Ingivingfromtheformless,he brought within the orbit of conceptual thatBrahmanwhichtheVedasdescribeasnot(notthis)....theveryideathatGodlivedtilloneofus and shared our joys and sorrows: bringspeaceandsolacetothehumanheart.224
223Bhandarkar, R.P., Vaisnavism, Saivism and Minor religious systems, p. 74.224
Bhattacharya, Haridas., The Cultural Heritage of India, p. 398.
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Tulasidassaysthatmanisresponsibleforhissorrowsandjoysin
life.Heattachesgreatimportancetothemanassociatingwiththegood
andholy.Thisissaidtobearecognizedwayprescribedfortheordinary
mortalstohelpthemselvestoprogressonGodwardpath.
Tukaram 1598-1649 AD)
Tukaramstoodagainstcasteism.HeassertsthataBrahminwho
does not care for the name of God is no Brahmin. An outcaste who
loves the name of God is indeed a Brahmin. He attaches utmost
importancetocharacterandvalues.Tukaramsaysthatdifferentcastes
havesprungfromthesamebeingandsaysthatthosealonearepure
wholoveGodwithlastingloveandfaith.Thosepeopleareprosperous
whoselovetranscendsthegreedformoney.Ifweservethepeopleour
servicereachesGod.Truthfulwordutteredisthebestserviceonecan
offertoothers.InTukaramsteachingswefindemphasisonthepointof
nocompromise for thosewho successively wish to follow the pathof
truth.Hesays:
Those who want to fulfill the wordly and thespiritual life together shall accomplish neither
oneneedstosurrenderhimselftoGod.225
Hesaysthathewhoistruthful inspeechthroughoutthiswordly
course is like lotus to which water does drench. The supreme spirit
dwells in thosewho serve and snow compassion on other creatures.
225
Savitribai Khanolar., Saints of Maharashtra, p. 157.
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Onesmeritliesinservingothersandsinisinjurydonetothem.Truthis
theonlytruereligionwhileobservancesarefalse.Tukaramsays:
Blessed in the world are the compassionate.Their true home isVaikuntha, but they havecome here to servemankind. They speak nofalseword:speaksays,sweetisthespeechontheirlips,thereisroomwithintheirhearts.226
Tukaramholdsthatmenoughttobehelpedintheirgooddeeds,
butnottodeterthem.Theirmeritliesinthat,hecallsthebenefactoras
onewhohasfinishedhisbenefactions.Hesaysthatheknowsnot the
differencebetweenhimselfandothers:
Take up the task you have found, to benefityourself; do not count your own toil. Look onthesoulsofothermenasyoulookonyourown,beheapofpurequalities.227
A man has to treat others as himself without any degree of
differencebetweenhimselfandothers.Hehastotreatothersasendsin
themselvesbutneverasmeanstohisownends.Totreatothersashis
means is to reduce the source of human value and dignity. In the
earliestofhumanattitudetowardsthisworldhesays:
Whenyouenter theworld, do this one thingWalkgraduallyinthepathofliberation.228
Heisoppressedtocasteism.Hestatesthatthesourceofvirtueis
in the inner parts; caste and family cannot ensure it. Standard of
goodnessismeasuredintermsofmeritsanddemeritsbutnotthebasis
226
Nelson Fraser, J. & K.B. Maratha., The Poems of Tukaram, p. 232.227Ibid, p. 234.
228Nelson Fraser, J. & K.B. Maratha, The Poems of Tukaram, p. 274.
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ofcaste. Tukaramdissuadesmen fromgiving uptheworld orretiring
fromtheworldandbecomereclusesinsteadheadvicesthemtorender
theservicetoGod.229
Raja Ram Mohan Roy 1772-1833 AD)
The Indian Renaissance of the nineteenth century lays more
stress essentially at revival of the Indian spirit, with the grandeur of
antiquity and purity profoundly affecting religion, society and culture.
National awakening has expressed itself as a reflection of religious
awakening.Intheinitialstages,religiousconsciousnessisfoundtobea
reflection of political consciousness. Social and political notions,
democratic and patriotic aspirations hope for a better life have been
expressedintheformofreligion.TheIndianRenaissanceinitiatedinthe
nineteenthcenturybythesocialreformersdoesnotaimatacomplete
breakwithreligion.Itisopposedtotheoutmodedreligiouscustomsand
practices on the one hand and reinterpretation and revitalization of
religiontosuitthenewconditionsontheother.Macicolsays:
RajaRamMohanRoyisthespiritualfatherofthisRenaissancewhoappearstobetheheraldofanewage.230
He is opposed to many customs and beliefs of the decadent
social system. Hehas totally rejected the dogmas prevalent inHindu
societyinregardtotheirnumerousGods,rituals,thedoctrineofrebirth;
avatars, theirpracticeof idolworship, animal sacrifices and aboveall
theevilpracticeofsatiprevalentinthosedayswhichinhumanlyforces
229Bhandarkar, R.P., Vaisnavism, Saivism and Minor Religious systems, p. 95.230
Macicol., The Making of Modern India, p. 172.
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widows to commit suicide by plunging into funeral pyres of their
husbands. He is the foremost opponentof thesebarbarous practices.
Hecontinuestofightagainstthisevilpracticeandcouldbesuccessfulin
arousing the public opinion through the wide spread campaign, it is
declared illegal in the regime of Lord William Bentinck.231 These
inhumanities have deeply inflicted the heart of RamMohan Roy and
longedtodeliverthecountryasanardentloverfromherdegradationsto
setherfeetonsafepathsforwhichhehasdevotedhiswholeenergies
withoutsparinganypains.232
In order to promote the human equality, the removal of the
disabilitiesofwomeninsociallifeisanotherimportantissue.Hestands
for the granting of equal property rights to men and women. He
campaignsinsupportofwidowremarriageandagainstchildmarriages.
He advocates thewomen education.He seeks to assimilate the new
values created byWestern science to blend themwith the traditional
valuesofIndiainordertomeetthechallengeofthenewage.Heholds
thatnonationcouldprosper if it justimitatesothernationsbutwhatis
neededisaglobalperspective.Thiswouldhelpinarousinganewspirit
ofenquiryandprogress.
Hinduism as he understands is rooted in a broad humanistic
outlook.ThereforehehassethimselfthetaskofpurifyingHinduismand
sweepingthecobwebsofsuperstitionswhichhaveaccumulatedthrough
231Damodaran, K.,Indian ThoughtA Critical Survey,p. 350.232
The Life and Letters of Raja Ram Mohan Roy, p. 78.
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the ages.He isof theopinion that the regeneration ofHinduismasa
trulynational religionwould suit to the newconditionsofsocial life.233
Hishumanismcanbetermedasuniversalhumanismforhisemphasis
on world fellowship with a liberal spirit, and for his laying stress on
cordialrelationshipamongthevariousnationsoftheworld.
He is the founder of Brahma Samaj. It opposes the social
discriminationwhichstandsagainstthehumanequalityanddignity.Itis
acreativeendeavourtofreethesocialconsciencefromthestiflinggrip
ofconservativethinkingand tomake thepeople respondtothecallof
thetime.ThetwocomplementaryconceptsofthephilosophyofBrahma
SamajarefaithinasingleGodheadandthebrotherhoodofman.The
conceptofbrotherhoodhelpsintheremovalofsocialevilsandsectarian
distinctions imposed by the Hindu orthodoxy. The concept of
monotheism reflects the urge for a synthesis of Hinduism, Islam and
Christianity. Thus the Brahma Samaj is not purely a religious reform
movement.Socialandpoliticalprogressislinkedwithreligiousreform.
Inthepopularizationofthe idealsof individualfreedom,national unity
and liberation of social institutions and social relations, the Brahma
Samajmovementhasundoubtedlyplayedagreatroleinquickeningthe
forcesofnationalregeneration.PlayingaglowingtributetoRamMohan
Roy,Vivekanandasays:
Raja RamMohan Roy had put India on themarchtowardsprogressandfreedom.234
233Damodaran, K.,Indian Thought. A Critical Survey, p. 350.234
The Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda, p. 317.
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Dayananda Saraswati 1824-1883 AD)
Dayananda Saraswati was one of the leaders of the Indian
renaissancewho has perhapswidely travelledandwell-informedman
asfarastheIndiansceneisconcerned.Heisanardentreformer.He
hasfearlesslydenouncedtheevilsofpost-vedicHinduismandrevolted
againstidolworship.Heholdsthatidolworshipisnotsanctionedbythe
Vedas.Neitheruntouchability,norchildmarriage,northesubjectionof
womentounequalstatuswithmenissanctioned.ThestudyofVedas
shouldbedeterminedinaccordancewithhismerits.235
Hisattackoncasteismismostnoteworthy.Themereaccidentof
birthcannotdeterminethesocialpositionofamanbutshouldberather
determined inaccordancewith hisqualification, accomplishments and
character. Even a cobblers son is competent to steady Vedas and
similarlyamanborninaBrhmaa,KatriyaoraVaiyafamilyshould
betreatedasaShudraifhisactionsresembledra,thelowcaste.His
appealtosticktotheVaravyavastha(divisionofcastesinaccordance
withsocialstatusandprogressions)hashadlittlepracticalresponse.It
has relaxed the rigidity of caste system, breaking the creed of
untouchabilityintopiecesinseveralquartersatseveralplaces.236
The sufferingwomenfolkwhose socialposition issimilar tothe
untouchables, whose lives are reduced to the sub-human level, also
235Theodre de Bary, U.M., Sources of Indian Tradition, p. 628.236
Yadav, K.C.,Autobiography of Dayananda Saraswati, p. 9.
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have drawn the attention of Dayananda. They are deprived of
education. The Paradah system, child marriage, polygamy, the evil
practiceofsati,forcedwidowhoodandseveralotherbadpracticesare
believedtobeinvogueonthesanctionofthe strs.Hehasopposed
all theseevilswith forceat his command andpleaded for theirdoing
awayatanycost.Hestandsfortheequalandjusttreatmentofwomen
inthehandsofmen.Heholdsthatimpartingofgoodeducationhelpsin
attendingtothehouseholdaffairs,andhomekeepingwhichcannever
besatisfactorilyconductedbytheuneducatedwomen.Theuneducated
cannot take part in the day to day affairs of the government in the
administration.Hisschemeenvisagesafreeandcompulsoryeducation
forall.Reactingreasonablytotheproblemofcurriculum,hesaysthatit
should bespread; representing all branchesof knowledge withequal
emphasisonlanguages,arts,scienceandtechnologyandintheschool
throughlessonsrelatingtosocialequalityshouldbetaught.
WefindDayanandagivingutmostimportancetoman.Hestrives
hard for thehappinessofman.Heexplorespossible humanways for
the radicalremovalofthehumansuffering.Hewantspeople tolivein
harmony and co-exist peacefully. He upholds human values and
emphasisestheneedfortheregenerationofmanandrestorationofthe
culturalvalues.His desire is to reform and redeem the individual and
society and create awarenessamong the people in the socio-political
context. He examines the elements that have contributed to the
degradationof the individualandworksout progressively todominate
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them.MahatmaGandhimakesasubstantialestimateofhischaracter.
Hesays:
Among the many rich legacies, that SwamiDayananda has left us his unequivocalpronouncement against untouchability isundoubtedlyone.237
Swami Vivekananda 1862-1902 AD)
Swami Vivekananda is one of the greatest thinkers of Indian
Renaissance. Vivekananda was moved with pity on seeing the
impoverishedstateofthemasses.Hesays:
Material civilization, may even luxuriesnecessarytocreateworkforthepoor.Bread,Ido not believe in aGodwho cannot give mebreadhere,givingmeeternalbliss inheaven.Pooh! India is to beraised thepoor are to befed, education is to spread, and the evil ofpriest craft removed.NoPriest craft,nosocial
tyranny: More bread, more opportunity foreverybody.238
AccordingtoSwamiVivekananda,social,economicandpolitical
reconstructionofthecountry isapre-requisite for thespiritualupliftof
themasses.Whenthepeopleaskforfood,toofferreligiontoastarving
peopleistoinsultthem.Toteachreligiousprinciplestoastarvingman
isanaffront tohis self-respect. He criticizes strongly the failingsand
weaknessesofthepeople,theevilpracticeofuntouchability,thefeeling
ofcastesuperiority,priestcraftandreligioustyranny.Hepreferstosee
thepeopleasconfirmedatheistsratherthanassuperstitiousfools,for
237Harabilas Sarada.,Dayananda Commemoration Volume, 1933.238
Selections from Swami Vivekananda, p. 862.
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the atheists may be of some use. But with regard to superstitions it
holds away, the brain is bread, the mind is frozen and decadence
engulfslife.Soitholdsgoodifthemankindbecomeatheistbyrelyingon
reasonratherthanblindlybelievingintwohundredmillionsofGodson
theauthorityofanybody.239
According to him freedom is the precondition for the human
growthbutfreedomdoesnotmeanabsenceofobstaclesinthewayof
social aggrendisement or economic exploitation. Commenting on the
meaningoffreedomhesays:
Ournaturalrighttobeallowedtouseyourownbody, intelligence andwealth according toourwill,withoutdoingany harmtoothers, andallthe members of a society ought to have thesame opportunity for obtaining wealth,educationorknowledge.240
Hehas expounded progressive ideasand vehemently opposed
escapist doctrines like mysticism. He maintains that occultism and
mysticismhavedestroyed thepeople.Theneedofthepresent isman
making religion.Any-thingthatweakenshas toberejectedaspoison.
He stands for reason. He says that no genuine inspiration ever
contradictsreasonwhensuchcontradictionisfound,itistoinspiration.
Vivekanandas outlook is essentially idealistic although it contains
elements of materialism. Mans objective is to identify with Brahman
throughself-purificationandserviceofthepeople.Manisthecentreof
239The Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda, Vol. II. p. 334.240
Selections from Swami Vivekananda, p. 561.
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religion conceived by him. He, who has set out in search of God,
ultimatelyrecognizesmanasthecentreofthisworld.Hecallsuponthe
peopletofindGodinman.241
Theonly hope for India he lays in the common people, for the
upper classes were exhausted physically and morally. He urges a
radicaltransformationofthesocialorderbecauseallthemembersofa
society ought to have the same opportunity for obtaining wealth,
education or knowledge and declares that these rules governing the
societywhichstandthewayoftheunfoldingofthefreedomareinjurious
and steps should be taken to destroy them speedily. To uplift the
massesspiritualandseculareducationisnecessary.Hesays:
Wehavetogivethemseculareducation.Wehave to follow the plan laid down by ourancestors that is to bringall the ideals slowly
down among the masses. Raise them slowlyup.Raisethemtoequality.Impart....Secularknowledgethroughreligion.242
In the whole idea of education, we find Swami Vivekananda
summing up as the manifestation of divinity in man. He realizes the
casteconsciousnessasabarriertoIndiasprogress.Casteismnarrows
restricts and separates the noble bond of humanity.For him the true
measure of man is worth but not birth. The ultimate end of Swami
Vivekanandaisthegoodofall.Headvocatestheideathatmanmust
striveforthisendeventothepointofsacrificinghimself.Themeansto
241Damodaran, K.,Indian ThoughtA Critical Survey,p. 359.242
Vivekananda Swami., On India and Her Problems, p. 71.
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beadopted for realizationof thisultimate endmustalsobeworthy of
thatend.243
Emancipation of women and uplift of the masses are the two
important items in Swami Vivekanandas programme of social
regeneration of India. He could notice the downfall of Indian Society
becauseofthecontinuedneglectofwomenandmasses.InIndiathere
aretwogreatevils:hewrites:
Uplift of the women, the awakening of themassesmustcomefirstandthenonlycananyrealgoodcomeaboutforthecountry.244
Thatcountryandthatnation,hesays,whichdonotrespectthe
womenhasneverbecomegreat,norwilleverbeinfuture.
Thestatewiththeassistanceofsocietycanfosterandpromote
thecommoninterestsofpeople,whichcanbringjustice,honesty,peace
etc.Thestatecannothaveintereststhantheinterestsoftheindividual
who form the society. The state is composed of individuals.Without
virtuousindividualsitisfutiletoexpectthestatebecomingprosperous.
Hestates:
The basis of all systems social or politicalrestsuponthegoodnessofman.Nonationisgreatorgoodbecauseparliamentenactsthisorthat, but because its men are great andgood.245
243
Arora, V.K., The Social and Political Philosophy of Swami Vivekananda, p. 55.244Majumdar, R.C., Swami Vivekananda, p. 400.
245The Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda,Vol. V. p. 192.
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Theconceptofnationalismvis--visinternationalismvisualizedby
him is dynamicandencourages people to bemingledwith the life of
otherindividualsandnationswhichholdsgoodofthem,theirownwell-
being, progress and prosperity. His love for mankind transcends the
geographicallimitations.HisinterestsarenotconfinedtoIndiaalonebut
areextendedtointernationallevel.Hepleadsfortheharmonyandgood
relationshipwiththemultinationals.
Thus in Indian tradition from Vedas upto the present century
certainvalueswerecherishedandpropagatedwhicharehumanisticin
contentandspirit.OfcourseIndianhumanismhasnotdevelopedasa
systematicphilosophywithasoundmetaphysicsandepistemologyasin
thecaseofwesterntradition.
Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi 1869-1948):
MohandasKaramchandGandhiwasoneofthevery fewpeople
who impressed an idea upon a historical epoch. That idea was non-
violence.Gandhiscreedofnon-violence insisted thatpeople struggle
for their rights should never violate their basic obligation to respect
life.246
ElementsofGandhisphilosophywererootedin the Indian religions of Jainism andBuddhism. Both of these advocate Ahims(non-violence),whichisabsenceofthedesiretokillorharm.247
InthewordsofJ.H.Holmes:
246The New Encyclopedia Britanica, 15 thed, p.109.247
Chapple, Christopher K..Non-violence to Animals, Earth, and Self in Asian Traditions, p.10.
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GandhiisthegreatestIndiansinceGautamaBuddha and the greatest man since JesusChrist.248
Gandhiwasbothreligiousandopen-minded,andsawallreligions
aspathstoreachthesamegoal.Hewasinspiredbytheteachingsof
Jesus, in particular the emphasis on love for everyone, even ones
enemies,andtheneedtostriveforjustice.HealsotookfromHinduism
theimportanceofactioninoneslife,withoutconcernforsuccess.The
Hindutext
Bhagavad-Gtsays:
Onactionalonebethyinterest,/Neveronits fruits / Abiding in discipline performactions, / Abandoning attachment / Beingindifferenttosuccessorfailure249
Gandhis Godwas an immanent and his general philosophy of
Hinduism becomes an ethic of political action. Gandhis approach to
reality is religious rather than philosophical. He approached reality
through non-violence.250 Non-violence is an integral part of every
religion.Hesaysthat:Non -violenceisinHinduism,itisinChristianity
as well as in Islam.251 If non-violence disappears, Hindu Dharma
disappears. Islam does not forbid its followers from following non-
violenceasapolicy.252
AfterhavingstudiedtheBhagavad-Gtagainstthebackgroundof
Indian culture and tradition, he has come to the conclusion that the
248
Holmes, J.H, Harrington, D.S., The Enduring Greatness of Gandhi, p.275.249Wolpert,Stanley.,India,p.71.250
Mahadevan, T.K,, Truth and Nonviolence, ed, p.14.251Gandhi, M.K,, Communal Unity, p.593.
252Gandhi, M.K, The story of My Experiments with Truth, p.608.
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centralteachingoftheGtistofollowtruthandnon-violence.253When
thereisnodesirefortruth,thereisnotemptationforuntruthofviolence
but itmaybefreely admittedthat theGtwasnotwritten toestablish
non-violence.ThecentralteachingoftheGt isnotviolencebutnon-
violence. Violence is impossible without anger, without attachment,
without hatred, and theGt strives to carry us to the state beyond
sattva,rajsandtamas,astatethatexcludesanger,hatred,etc.,toone
whoreadsthespiritofGt, it teaches the secret ofnon-violence, the
secretofrealizingtheselfthroughthephysicalbody.254
The is discovered the law of non-violence in the midst of
violence.Havingthemselvesknowntheuseofarms,theyrealizedtheir
uselessness and taught the weary world that its salvation laid not
throughviolencebutthroughnon-violence.Inthisway,thesuperiorityof
thelawofnon-violenceisestablishedoverthelawofviolence.Violence
isdeclaredasuselessandnon-violenceisthewayofsalvation.Gandhi
says:
The sage who realized Truth found non-violenceoutofviolenceragingallabouthimand violence is unreal; non-violence is
real.255 According to him non-violence is the Kingdomof Heaven.256It
promises peace and bliss, harmony and concord, sympathy and co-
253
Gandhi, M.K,,Hindu Dharma,p.163.
254Gandhi, M.K.,Hindu Dharma, p.155.
255Ibid., p.183.
256Gandhi, M.K.,Non-Violence in Peace and War, Vol-1, p.115.
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operation, inhumanaffairs. theseare its fruits.Astheaspirantseeks
the kingdom of heaven as the highest goal, so non-violence is the
Heaven,itisaperfectstate.Ourscripturestellusthatnon-violenceisall
conquering.257 It is also the supreme law. In his philosophic strain,
Gandhisaysthatatthecentreofnon-violenceisaforcewhichisself
acting.Thebeautyofnon-violencethereisthat itcarieswithinitsown
security.258
Gandhi as a Practical Idealist:
Gandhi was not a visionary but he claimed to be a practical
idealist. He was a man of action. It was the idealist that made him
functionasapracticalman.Hewasalsoanirrepressibleoptimist.259His
optimism was based on the belief that man is endowed with infinite
possibilities of development. His belief in the law as the ideal is
unquestionable. It matters whether individuals fall short of the ideal.
Thoughhewasawareofthereality,hisstrivingwasalwaystoreachthe
idea.Heelucidatesthepointthus:
Euclids straight line exists only in ourconception but we have to postulate it.Wehave always to strive to draw a true line
corresponding to Euclids imaginary line.Idealscanneverbecompletelyembodiedinpractice. And yet it is never to be forgottenthat ideals do exist; that if they be notapproximatedattoall,thewholemattergoestowreck.260
257
Gandhi, M.K.,Hindu Dharma, p.231.
258
Gandhi., M.K, Communal Unity, p.166.259Gandhi, M.K.,For Pacifists, p.60.
260Gandhi., M.K,Non-Violence in Peace and War,Vol-1, p.339.
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Itisameansoffocusinghisattentiontotheultimategoal.Hehas
totreadtherightpathwithoutdigression.Thisistheyardstickbywhich
mansprogressismeasured.Gandhisphilosophywasthedirectresult
ofhumanrelationsanditwasinthesphereofhumaninteractionthathis
plan of action took concrete shape. His approach was liberal and
human. The world is there for all practical purposes. It is the field of
greatest activity.No turning ones back to, or running away from, the
worldisGandhisattitude.Accordingtohim:
Theworldoffersproblemsofmanandheismade to solve them. This is what Gandhithinks about man and the world. Thus, theworldisanarenawheremanhastofighthisbattlefortheconquestoflife.Theworldisanactive field. Man cannot remain inactive orstaticinit.Hisactivitycanbeprogressiveashe is a progressive being pushed up byNaturewhichisneveratastand-still.261
Gandhihasfaithinthefalliblemanwhocanimprovehiscondition
by cultivating a perfectly innocent heart incapable of evil. Thus, the
fallible man, being a hindrance to his own self-development, can be
corrected to follow thepath of progress in the right spirit. It canonly
happenthroughlife-education.Gandhiobservesthat:Itisnotliteracyor
learningwhichmakesamanbuteducationforreallife.262
TheteachingofGandhiismoreexplicitandimpliedinthesense
thatman is expected to usehisdiscretion in thechoiceof conflicting
duties.Inthisway,manistrainedintheexerciseofrankingtheordero f
261
Gandhi., M.K,Non-violence in Peace and War, Vol, II, p. 331.262Ibid.,p. 209.
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hisduties,withoutneglectingor ignoringanyonesingleduty.It isthe
conscious effort on the part of man to finalize his preference in the
scaleofduties.Thisduty-consciousmanisthecreationofGandhi.
Itwasonlyanextensionofmysocialactivity.IcouldnotbeleadingareligiouslifeunlessIidentifiedmyselfwiththewholemankind,andthat I could not do unless I took part inpolitics.Thewholegamutofmansactivitiestoday constitutes an indivisible whole. Youcannot divide social, economic,political andpurely religious work into watertightcompartments. I do not know any religion
apartfromhumanactivity.Itprovidesamoralbasistoallotheractivitieswhichtheywouldotherwise lack, reducing life to a mass ofsoundandfurysignifyingnothing.263
This crux of Gandhis philosophy, which is nothing more and
nothing less thanaction,philosophized.The rangeofhisactivity isas
wide as mans activity in respect of his interests. There can be no
questionofevading itashumanprogressisevidentin thedirectionof
equating lifewith the principle ofmorality.The presentage ofman is
becomingmoreandmorehuman-conscious.
Gandhi never practiced violence andaboveall never permitted
violence. The only thing lawful in his estimation is non-violence.
Violencecanneverbe lawful, i.e.,notaccordingtoman-made lawbut
according tothe lawmadebyNature forman.Thoughviolence isnot
lawful, when it is offered in self-defence or for the defence of the
defenceless,itisanactofbraveryfarbetterthancowardlysubmission.
263
Gandhi., M.K,Non-Violence in Peace and War, Vol-1, pp, 170-171.
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There isanelementofbravery inviolentaction,but the soulof
Gandhi revoltsagainst the adoptionofviolenceasmeansofdefence.
Underviolence therearemanystagesandvarietiesof bravery;every
man must judge it for himself; no other person can or has the right.
Gandhischoicebetweenviolenceandnon-violencewasclear,buthe
had no hesitation in saying that it is better to be violent, if there is
violenceintheheartthantoputonthecloakofnon-violencetocover
the impotence.Thatviolence isanydaypreferable toimpotence,was
hisfirmconviction.Therefore,non-violenceisnocovetableweaponfor
theimpotentorthecoward.264
The ideaof sacrifice, in thephilosophyofGandhi is todie fora
noble cause, but to die in the act of killing is in essence to die
defeated.265Thus,mandiesinvainandhispurposeisdefeated.Itisa
sacrifice offered for no justifiable cause. Killing is an ignoble act for
whichnosacrificeisneeded.Peaceisacementing forceinthesense
that it promotes and encourages factors of human progress. Gandhi,
therefore,saysthatwayofpeaceinsuresinternalgrowthandstability.
266Gandhiscontributiontothehumancivilizationliesinhispresenting
truthandnon-violenceineverywalkoflifeforindividualsornations.267
Histreatmentofnon-violenceisdescribedasfollows:
I have been practicing with scientificprecisionno-violenceand itspossibilities foranunbrokenperiodofoverfiftyyears.Ihave
264
Gandhi, M.K.,Non-Violence in Peace and War, Vol-1, p.240.265
Gandhi, M.K.,For Pacifists,1949. p. 75.266Ibid., p. 47.
267Gandhi, M.K., Women and Social Justice, p.27.
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applied it in every walk of life, domestic,institutional,economicandpolitical.Iknowofnosinglecaseinwhichithasfailed.Whereithasseemedsometimestohavefailed,Ihaveascribed it to my imperfections. I claim no
perfectionformyself.268
Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan 1888-1975):
IncontemporaryIndianphilosophers,Radhakrishnanwasagreat
thinkerwhowas a professor in Eastern andWesternuniversitiesand
also as a Vice-Chancellor. As the head of the University Education
Commission he had an occasion to probe deep into the problems of
highereducationinIndia.Alongwithhiswideexperienceofthefieldof
education, Radhakrishnan had wide learning and deep insight into
Indian andWestern, ancient and contemporary philosophy. He was
undoubtedlyone of themost qualified persons tospeakabout Indian
philosophyofeducationwithauthority.Hisviewsarefoundscatteredin
his variousbookssuch asAnIdealistviewofLife,ThePhilosophyof
Rabindranath Tagore, The Brahma sutra, The Bhagavad-Gita, The
HinduViewofLife,EasternReligionandWesternThought.
Human nature an analysis
Radhakrishnans view
Radhakrishnan was an advocate of ancient Indian Vedanta
philosophy.Hewasanidealistphilosopher.Hedefinedphilosophyasa
combination of reflection and intuition. Radhakrishnans aim of
philosophyistosearchthatsynthesiswhichmayincludealltheaspects
ofcreation.Philosophy,accordingtohim:
268Gandhi, M.K.,Non-Violence in Peace and War, Vol-1, pp.281-282.
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Isanattemptofhumanbeingtoknowtheproblemsofcreationandthenatureofultimatereality?269
Radhakrishnanadmittedthevalueofreasonandfaith,logicand
experience and the value of perceptual, conceptual and intuitive
knowledge in education. According to him intuitive knowledge is the
highestknowledge it isan integral experiences. He explainedmystic
experienceasapartofintuitiveexperience.Totalexperienceisgained
bytotalselfanditismuchhigherthananyotherexperiencegainedby
totalselfand it ismuchhigher thananyotherexperienceandcreative
insighthasanimportantplaceintotalknowledge.Hisphilosophyhas
beenrightlyinterpretedasintegralexperience,andthisexperiencefinds
placeforeveryothertypeofexperienceinit.
According to Radhakrishnan, human personality is not
determinedbyeconomic orphysicalenvironment. So far asphysical
changes are concerned they may be generally determined by the
environmentbythehumanwillwhichis freetodecidetowinor loose.
The real human freedom is the freedom of will. In the tradition of
ancient Indian thinkers Radhakrishnan had admitted the principle of
Karma.Accordingtothisprincipleourpresentisdeterminedbyourpast
andfuturedependsuponthepresent.InthewordsofRadhakrishnan:
Karmaorrelationshipswiththepastdoesnotmeanthatmancannotdo
269
Radhakrishnan, S., The Philosophy of Rabindranath Tagore, p. 101
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anythingfreelybut freeactionis involvedinit.270ThelawofKarmais
notfatalism.Accordingtoit:
Anindividualwillgainaccordingtotheuseofhis energy. The world will respond to theindividual Jvtmas demand. The nature willreplytheinsistentcalloftheman.271
LikeKarlMarx,Radhakrishnanbelievedthatmancanchangethe
world.Onthebasisofhiswillhecanmakehisfuture.Theprinciplesof
Nature are the principles of justice. In nature and in human world,
everywhere,oneuniversal divine law functions. Therefore, the lawof
Karmaisnotanexternalbutaninternaldeterminantofhumanlife.In
thelineofevaluation,manisdistinguishedbyself-consciousnesswhich
isnotfoundeitherinplantsorinanimals.Thementalprocessescannot
beinterpretedintermsofphysicalchanges.Thephysicalmovements
donotexplaintotalbehavior.
Modern psychology takes a one-sided view of man while
presenting behaviouristic interpretation. Behaviorisms have only
historical value. Mans behavior cannot be explained by stimulus-
responseformula. Anorganismisnotmerelyasumtotalofpartsand
its parts are internally related. Consciousness does not come out of
matter, it is a new creation. Self-consciousness is not a biological
product.Therefore,psychologicalphenomenashouldnotbeexplained
270Radhakrishnan, S., The Hindu View of Life, p.256.271
Ibid.,
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in physiological or biological terms. With the evolution of self-
consciousness,Natureevolves toanew level ofexistence. The self-
consciousmanisrational,self-realizationistheaimoflifeandselfisthe
spirit.InthewordsofRadhakrishnan:
Spirit is life, not thing, power not status,real in itself and through itself and cannot becompared to any substance subjective orobjective.272
Humannatureisessentiallyspiritual,spiritualalsomeansnatural
becausenatureisasmuchanexpressionofspiritastheself. Human
lifeisnotonlynaturalbutalsodivinesinceitsessentialnatureisspirit.
The world is a gradual evolution towards spirit. The metaphysical
hypothesisisveryimportantinthephilosophyofeducation.Thechild
willdeveloponlythatwhichispotentialinit.Whatisnotimplicitcannot
beexplicit,however,everylevelofevolutionexpressesnewelements.
Thecharacteristicsofspiritareseenincreativity,change,systemand
progress.
Radhakrishnanphilosophyismysticismso faras theconceptof
spiritisconcerned.InhisbookAnIdealistViewofLife,Radhakrishnan
hascalledspirittotalBrahman,brahmanprecedescretion.Identifying
GodandcreatorRadhakrishnansaid:Theyarethedifferentformsof
seeing the same ultimate reality.273 Thus, like Sri Aurobindo,
272Murihead and Radhakrishnan (Ed.), Contemporary Indian Philosophy, 2ndEd., p. 492.273
Radhakrishnan, S., Recovery of Faith, pp. 89-99
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Radhakrishnan believes the world to be the expression of God, the
metaphysicalpropositionlaysdownthespiritualgoalofeducationand
certifies its possibility. Radhakrishnan has synthesized idealism,
realism,mysticismandpragmatisminhisphilosophyofeducation.He
welcomesallsortsofexperiencesofarriveatsomegeneralprinciples.
Ashesaid:
We should weave differentparts of experience
in a total pattern. We should keep our generalideas connected so that different experiencesmaybeexplained.274
AsDavidHumehasrightlypointedout,theprincipleofcausation
inthefieldofscienceisamereprobability.Sofarasphysicalincidents
areconcerned,theyaredeterminedbynaturallawsbutmanhasbeen
providedfreedomofchoiceinlife.Heisnotfreetochoosehiscardsbut
heisfreetoplay,winorlooseashelikes.Thisfreedomofwinningor
loosing is given to man. This victory or defeat is not a physical
happeningbutofthemind.Therealfreedomisthefreedomofthewill.
InspiteofbeingavotaryofscienceRadhakrishnanisnotadeterminist
orenvironmentalist.Thisfactisofcapitalimportanceinhisexplanation
ofhumannatureandinhisphilosophyofeducation.Scienceprovesthat
everyeffecthasacausebutisdoesnotdefinitelyprovethecauseof
everyeffect.
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