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How do we know what we know?Why do we believe?
How do we know what we know?Why do we believe?
Piaget to King & Kitchener
Piaget to King & Kitchener
Piaget’s stages of Development
Piaget’s stages of Development
Stage Major AccomplishmentsSensorimotor (0-2)
Object permanenceBeginning of capacity to use mental images and symbols
Preoperational (2-7)
Accelerated use of symbols and language
Concrete operations (7-12)
Understanding of conservationUnderstanding of identityUnderstanding of serial ordering
Formal operations (12-)
Abstract reasoningAbility to compare and classify ideas.
Assimilation is what you do when you fit new information into your present knowledge and beliefs (schemas)
Assimilation is what you do when you fit new information into your present knowledge and beliefs (schemas)
Accommodation is the modification of existing schema in response to new knowledge or experience..
Accommodation is the modification of existing schema in response to new knowledge or experience..
Equilibration - the term for the process of maintaining balance between our environment and the mental structures we use to represent that environment.
Equilibration - the term for the process of maintaining balance between our environment and the mental structures we use to represent that environment.
Criticisms of PiagetCriticisms of Piaget
1.The changes from one stage to another are neither as clear cut nor as sweeping as Piaget implied.
2.Children can understand far more than Piaget gave them credit for.
3.Preschoolers are not as egocentric as Piaget thought.
1.The changes from one stage to another are neither as clear cut nor as sweeping as Piaget implied.
2.Children can understand far more than Piaget gave them credit for.
3.Preschoolers are not as egocentric as Piaget thought.
• Piaget’s theory ends at 12+ years of age. • Piaget’s theory fails to address higher
order thinking skills.• King, K.M. and Kitchener, K.S. (1994) .
Developing Reflective Judgment: Understanding and Promoting Intellectual Growth and Critical Thinking in Adolescents and Adults
• Pre-Reflective Thinking
• Piaget’s theory ends at 12+ years of age. • Piaget’s theory fails to address higher
order thinking skills.• King, K.M. and Kitchener, K.S. (1994) .
Developing Reflective Judgment: Understanding and Promoting Intellectual Growth and Critical Thinking in Adolescents and Adults
• Pre-Reflective Thinking
Beyond PiagetBeyond Piaget
• Stage 1 Knowledge is assumed to exist absolutely and concretely; it is not understood as an abstraction. It can be obtained with certainty by direct observation.
• "I know what I have seen."
• Stage 2 Knowledge is assumed to be absolutely certain or certain but not immediately available. Knowledge can be obtained directly through the senses (as in direct observation) or via authority figures.
• "If it is on the news, it has to be true."
• Stage 3 Knowledge is assumed to be absolutely certain or temporarily uncertain. In areas of temporary uncertainty, only personal beliefs can be known until absolute knowledge is obtained. In areas of absolute certainty, knowledge is obtained from authorities.
• "When there is evidence that people can give to convince everybody one way or another, then it will be knowledge, until then, it's just a guess."
• Stage 1 Knowledge is assumed to exist absolutely and concretely; it is not understood as an abstraction. It can be obtained with certainty by direct observation.
• "I know what I have seen."
• Stage 2 Knowledge is assumed to be absolutely certain or certain but not immediately available. Knowledge can be obtained directly through the senses (as in direct observation) or via authority figures.
• "If it is on the news, it has to be true."
• Stage 3 Knowledge is assumed to be absolutely certain or temporarily uncertain. In areas of temporary uncertainty, only personal beliefs can be known until absolute knowledge is obtained. In areas of absolute certainty, knowledge is obtained from authorities.
• "When there is evidence that people can give to convince everybody one way or another, then it will be knowledge, until then, it's just a guess."
Stages of Pre-Reflective Thinking
Stages of Pre-Reflective Thinking
• Stage 4 Knowledge is uncertain and knowledge claims
are idiosyncratic to the individual since situational
variables (such as incorrect reporting of data, data lost
over time, or disparities in access to information)
dictate that knowing always involves an element of
ambiguity. • "I'd be more inclined to believe evolution if they had proof .It's just like the
pyramids: I don't think we'll ever know. Who are you going to ask? No one was there."
• Stage 5 Knowledge is contextual and subjective since it is filtered through a person's perceptions and criteria for judgment. Only interpretations of evidence, events, or issues may be known. • "People think differently and so they attack the problem differently.
Other theories could be as true as my own, but based on different evidence."
• Stage 4 Knowledge is uncertain and knowledge claims
are idiosyncratic to the individual since situational
variables (such as incorrect reporting of data, data lost
over time, or disparities in access to information)
dictate that knowing always involves an element of
ambiguity. • "I'd be more inclined to believe evolution if they had proof .It's just like the
pyramids: I don't think we'll ever know. Who are you going to ask? No one was there."
• Stage 5 Knowledge is contextual and subjective since it is filtered through a person's perceptions and criteria for judgment. Only interpretations of evidence, events, or issues may be known. • "People think differently and so they attack the problem differently.
Other theories could be as true as my own, but based on different evidence."
Quasi-Reflective Thinking
Quasi-Reflective Thinking
• Stage 6 Knowledge is constructed into individual conclusions about ill-structured problems on the basis of information from a variety of sources. Interpretations that are based on evaluations of evidence across contexts and on the evaluated opinions of reputable others can be known.• "It's very difficult in this life to be sure. There are degrees of sureness.
You come to a point at which you are sure enough for a personal stance on the issue."
• Stage 7 Knowledge is the outcome of a process of reasonable inquiry in which solutions to ill-structured problems are constructed. The adequacy of those solutions is evaluated in terms of what is most reasonable or probable according to the current evidence, and it is reevaluated when relevant new evidence, perspectives, or tools of inquiry become available. • "One can judge an argument by how well thought-out the positions are,
what kinds of reasoning and evidence are used to support it, and how consistent the way one argues on this topic is as compared with other topics."
• Stage 6 Knowledge is constructed into individual conclusions about ill-structured problems on the basis of information from a variety of sources. Interpretations that are based on evaluations of evidence across contexts and on the evaluated opinions of reputable others can be known.• "It's very difficult in this life to be sure. There are degrees of sureness.
You come to a point at which you are sure enough for a personal stance on the issue."
• Stage 7 Knowledge is the outcome of a process of reasonable inquiry in which solutions to ill-structured problems are constructed. The adequacy of those solutions is evaluated in terms of what is most reasonable or probable according to the current evidence, and it is reevaluated when relevant new evidence, perspectives, or tools of inquiry become available. • "One can judge an argument by how well thought-out the positions are,
what kinds of reasoning and evidence are used to support it, and how consistent the way one argues on this topic is as compared with other topics."
Reflexive ThinkingReflexive Thinking
• In order for either Piaget’s theory or King’s theory to apply there needs to be a level of self-efficacy.
•Sources of Self-Efficacy:1.Mastery Experiences2.Vicarious experiences3.Social Persuasion (the most difficlult
and least effective)
• In order for either Piaget’s theory or King’s theory to apply there needs to be a level of self-efficacy.
•Sources of Self-Efficacy:1.Mastery Experiences2.Vicarious experiences3.Social Persuasion (the most difficlult
and least effective)
Self-EfficacySelf-Efficacy
•There are four major psychological processes through which self-beliefs affect functioning.•Cognitive Processes - thought and
forethought.•Motivational Processes - attribution
theory• causal - attribution theory
• outcome expectancies - expectancy-value theory
• cognized goals - goal theory
•There are four major psychological processes through which self-beliefs affect functioning.•Cognitive Processes - thought and
forethought.•Motivational Processes - attribution
theory• causal - attribution theory
• outcome expectancies - expectancy-value theory
• cognized goals - goal theory
Efficacy-Activated Processes
Efficacy-Activated Processes
•Affective Processes - processes regulating emotional states and eliciting emotional reactions.
•Selection Processes - the types of activities we choose are influenced by our personal sense of efficacy.
•Affective Processes - processes regulating emotional states and eliciting emotional reactions.
•Selection Processes - the types of activities we choose are influenced by our personal sense of efficacy.
Efficacy-Activated Processes
Efficacy-Activated Processes
Attribution TheoryAttribution Theory
Stability Locus ControlThe causes of outcomes are stable (fixed across situations and over time) or unstable (variable over situations and over time)
The causes of outcomes are internal (due to the individual) or external (due to forces outside the individual)
The causes of outcomes are controllable (within the individual’s control) or uncontrollable (beyond the individual’s control)
Attributions - inferences we make about the causes of behavior.Attributions - inferences we make about the causes of behavior.
Attribution TheoryAttribution TheoryAssumptions:
1. Individuals are motivated by a goal of understanding and mastering the environment and themselves.
2. Individuals try to understand the causal determinants of their own behavior as well as the behavior of others.
Assumptions: 1. Individuals are motivated by a goal of understanding and
mastering the environment and themselves.2. Individuals try to understand the causal determinants of their own
behavior as well as the behavior of others.
Locus
Internal External
ControllableUncontrollable
Controllable
Uncontrollable
StableLong-Term Effort/Self-
handicappingAbility/Aptitude
Teacher bias/Favoritism
Difficulty of task, activity, or course
UnstableSkills/
Knowledge/Situational Effort
Health/Mood Receiving help Luck/Chance
Pages 193-195 GlassmanPages 193-195 Glassman
Typical AttributionsTypical AttributionsAptitude/ Ability
“I got a good grade because I’m smart.”“I failed because I’m dumb.”
stable, internal, uncontrollable
Long Term Effort
“I got a good grade because I always work hard.”“I failed because I never try.”
stable, internal, controllable
Situational Effort
“I got an A because I worked hard on the project.”“I failed because I didn’t try this time.”
unstable, internal, controllable
Luck“I got a good grade because I was lucky.”“I failed because I had bad luck.”
unstable, external, uncontrollable
Mood“I got a good grade because I felt great that day.”“I failed because I had a bad day.”
unstable, internal, uncontrollable
Task Difficulty
“I got a good grade because the exam was easy.”“I failed because it was hard.”
unstable, external, uncontrollable
Teacher bias
“I got a good grade because the teacher likes me.”“I failed because Mr. Young hates me.”
stable, external, controllable
Help from others
“I got a good grade because someone helped me.”“I failed because no one would help me.”
unstable, external, controllable
These are typical academic attributions.These are typical academic attributions.
Att
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Locu
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Attribution ErrorsAttribution Errors
AttributionStudent
PerspectiveTeacher
PerspectiveFundamental Attribution Error.Attributing the behavior of others to a trait.
Student perceives teacher behavior as function of disposition.“Mr. Young is always mean.”“Mr. Jones is prejudiced.”
Teacher perceives student behavior as function of disposition.“Petula is lazy. She never works.”“Susan has no aptitude for science..”
Self-serving biasAccepting personal responsibility for success; denying responsibility for failure.
Student perceives success is due to behavior; failure is due to other factors.“I am doing well in Math because I am good at it, I am failing English because Mrs. Whomever is impossible to understand.
Teacher perceives their success is due to their behavior but failure is other factors.“I worked hard and really put together a great unit on photosynthesis, but there’s just no way to motivate most of those kids.”
Studies by Miller 1984, Weisz et al. 1984 indicate there is a cultural difference it’s not a trait common to all.
Studies by Miller 1984, Weisz et al. 1984 indicate there is a cultural difference it’s not a trait common to all.
Expectancy-Value TheoryExpectancy-Value Theory
•Behavior is a function of the expectancies a person has the value of the goal one is working toward.
•When more than one behavior is possible the behavior chosen will be the one with the largest combination of expected success and value.
•Behavior is a function of the expectancies a person has the value of the goal one is working toward.
•When more than one behavior is possible the behavior chosen will be the one with the largest combination of expected success and value.
B = f(E V)B = f(E V)
Social behaviors, achievement motivation and work motivation.Social behaviors, achievement motivation and work motivation.
• Goal theory is an extension of attribution theory.
• Students pursue goals and those goals are associated with certain behaviors and beliefs.
• Mastery oriented students want to increase their knowledge and competence. They are intrinsically motivated.
• Performance motivated students believe ability is the cause of success. Intelligence is viewed as a fixed trait. They use fewer strategies and attribute success to uncontrollable factors.
• Goal theory is an extension of attribution theory.
• Students pursue goals and those goals are associated with certain behaviors and beliefs.
• Mastery oriented students want to increase their knowledge and competence. They are intrinsically motivated.
• Performance motivated students believe ability is the cause of success. Intelligence is viewed as a fixed trait. They use fewer strategies and attribute success to uncontrollable factors.
Goal TheoryGoal Theory
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