how do people learn?
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Mennin Consulting, 2006
HOW DO PEOPLE LEARN?
•Contemporary Principles & Concepts Applied to Medical Education
The meaning of knowing has shifted from being able to
remember and repeat information to being able to
find and use it
Herbert Simon, 1966
Mennin Consulting, 2006
LEARNING: Past - Present - Future
•Early 20th century•3 Rs
•End of 20th century•Read critically•Clear self expression•Solve complex problems
•Early 21st century•Knowledge management•Sustainable learning
Mennin Consulting, 2006
OBJECTIVES
• Describe the basic paradigm of how people learn
• Match teaching-learning methods & techniques to your context & learning objectives
• Describe & apply 3-4 methods - techniques to activate learning
Mennin Consulting, 2006
CYC: HOW DO PEOPLE LEARN?
Mennin Consulting, 2006
“Nobody tells productions when to act; they wait until conditions are ripe and then activate themselves. By contrast, chefs in the other kitchens merely follow orders. Turing units are nominated by their predecessors, von Neurmann operations are all prescheduled, and LISP functions are invoked by other functions. Production system teamwork is more laissez-faire: each production acts on its own, when and where its private conditions are satisfied. There is no central control, and individual productions never directly interact. All communication and influence is via patterns in the common workspace – like anonymous “to whom it may concern” notices on a public bulletin boards”
(Haugeland, 1985 in Schmidt, 1993)
Mennin Consulting, 2006
Memorize this Text
A newspaper is better than a magazine. A seashore is a better place than the street. At first, it is better to run than to walk. You may have to try several times. It takes some skills but it’s easy to learn. Even young children can enjoy it. Once successful, complications are minimal. Birds seldom get too close. Rain, however, soaks very fast. Too many people doing the same thing can also cause problems. One needs lots of room. If there are no complications, it can be very peaceful. A rock will serve as an anchor. If things break loose from it, however, you will not get a second change.
Bransford & Johnson, 1972 in Schmidt, 1993.
Mennin Consulting, 2006
Knowledge is Decentralized & Linked to Stimulus & Context
• Dog Bike• Bird School• Chair Flower• Man House• Genoa ESME
Mennin Consulting, 2006
Context & Remembering Experiment
•Water - Land •Land - Water•Water - Water•Land - Land
Duncan Godden and Alan Baddeley (1975)
Mennin Consulting, 2006
Context & Remembering
Duncan Godden and Alan Baddeley (1975)
Mennin Consulting, 2006
LEARNING WITH UNDERSTANDING
1. Read & text + Lecture
2. Did not read text, actively compared data + lecture
3. 2x time working with data + no lecture
05
101520253035404550
Possible Predictions
%
1 2 3
Groups
Mennin Consulting, 2006
PRE-EXISTING KNOWLEDGE
FOCUS ON PROCESS OF KNOWING• History shapes receptivity to
information• New knowledge merges with pre-
existing knowledge in multiple networks
• Teachers need to know and activate students’ history (knowing)
Mennin Consulting, 2006
LESSONS FROM COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY
• Problem solving is context bound
• Data collection is influenced by questions being entertained
• Context influences understanding & remembering
• Timely feedback improves transfer of information
Mennin Consulting, 2006
LEARNING WITH UNDERSTANDING
•Expert problem solving requires rich body of knowledge
•Beyond memory•Usable•Connected•Organized around concepts
Mennin Consulting, 2006
LEARNING WITH UNDERSTANDING
• Takes time• Reorganize understanding with new
information• Test for understanding• Disconnected facts not sufficient
Mennin Consulting, 2006
Memory and Expertise
a
8
b
7
c
6
d
5
e
4
f
3
g
2
h
1
Possible Positiona
8
b
7
c
6
d
5
e
4
f
3
g
2
h
1
Bizarre Position
•Experts’ command of concepts shapes understanding of new information•Patterns, Relationships, Discrepancies•Extract meaning better than novices•Select and remember relevant information better
Mennin Consulting, 2006
ORGANIZATION OF KNOWLEDGE
• Core concepts and ideas• Experts – use principles• Novices – use surface features• Effortless recall of information
Mennin Consulting, 2006
A SIMPLE MODEL OF COMPETENCE
Miller GE. The assessment of clinical skills/competence/performance. Academic Medicine (Supplement) 1990; 65: S63-S7.
Knows
Shows how
Knows how
Does
Pro
fess
ion
al au
then
tici
tyPro
fess
ion
al au
then
tici
ty
Written, Oral orComputer based assessment
Performance or hands on assessment
Mennin Consulting, 2006
META ~ COGNITION(REFLECTION)
META•Changed in position or form•Altered -- Transposed•Going Beyond, higher•Substitutions in the 1,3 position in a benzene ring
COGNITION•The process of knowing in the broadest sense, including perception, memory, & judgment
Mennin Consulting, 2006
REFLECTION (METACOGNITION)(Adaptive Expertise)
•Monitor own understanding •Identify new information for understanding•Consistent with what is known?•Analogies to advance understanding•Metaphors
Mennin Consulting, 2006
IMPLICATIONS FOR TEACHERS
•Actively inquire into students’ thinking
•Create situations to reveal thinking
•Build on their understanding
Mennin Consulting, 2006
CHARACTERISTICS OF LEARNING AND TRANSFER
• All new learning involves connecting to previous learning
• Abstractions help – simile; metaphor• Learning is an active process
Mennin Consulting, 2006
CHARACTERISTICS OF LEARNING AND TRANSFER
• Time to learn• Deliberate practice
• Importance of feedback in learning• Contrasting cases- “what if…”
• Context• Active approaches to ‘transfer’ ‘level
jumping’
Mennin Consulting, 2006
IMPLICATIONS FOR TEACHING
• Promote reciprocal teaching• Explicate-Elaborate-Monitor
• Content expertise pedagogical expertise
Mennin Consulting, 2006
LEARNING FOR UNDERSTANDING
• Adequate time• Deliberate practice with
metacognition (reflection)• Feedback about understanding• Compare & contrast
• What if…
• Elaboration, Variable Iteration
Mennin Consulting, 2006
THREE TECHNIQUES
• Draw out and work with pre-existing understanding
• In-depth teaching, multiple examples• Reflection on and in action
(metacognition) in specific subject areas
Mennin Consulting, 2006
TEACHING TECHNIQUES(Making Understanding Visible)
• Consult your colleague• Reciprocal teaching• Polling the class• Frequent formative assessments
• Tap into understanding
• In-depth vs. superficial teaching• Prototypes
Mennin Consulting, 2006
TEACHING TECHNIQUES(Making Understanding Visible)
• Develop expertise in how students learn your subject
• Develop pedagogical expertise• In-depth assessment• Emphasize metacognition
(reflection)
Mennin Consulting, 2006
TEACHING TECHNIQUESFEEDBACK
• Timely• Constructive• Mutually agreed• Results in a plan• Supportive• “I” & “You” messages
Mennin Consulting, 2006
Knowledge is Decentralized & Linked to Stimulus & Context
•Dog•Bird•Chair•Man •Genoa
•Bike•School•Flower•House•ESME
Mennin Consulting, 2006
WHAT WILL YOU DO?NEXT STEPS
Mennin Consulting, 2006
PLUS DELTA
Key Concepts +
Role of pre-existing knowledge
Context & learning
Reflection Metacognition
Match methods your context
Teaching techniques
Mennin Consulting, 2006
OBJECTIVES
• Describe the basic paradigm of how people learn
• Match teaching-learning methods & techniques to your context & learning objectives
• Describe & apply 3-4 methods - techniques to activate learning
Mennin Consulting, 2006
Additional Resources
• http://hsc.unm.edu/som/TED• www.menninconsulting.com• How People Learn: Brain, Mind,
Experience and School (2000) http://www.nap.edu/books/0309070368/html/
• BEME bibliography http://www.bemecollaboration.org/bemebibl.htm
Mennin Consulting, 2006
Additional Resources
• Dent & Harden (eds) (2006). A Practical Guide for Medical Teachers. Edinburgh, Elsevier.
• L. Dee Fink (2000). Creating Significant Learning Experiences: an integrated approach to designing college courses. San Francisco, Jossey-Bass.
• Bransford & Johnson (1972) Journal of verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 11: 717-726
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