grammar notebook part one

Grammar Notebook Part One

Verbs

Verb Facts: The Most Important Words in Any Sentence

• What is a verb?– Denotes an action or a state of being– Essential to the sentence because it’s what is

happening!

Examples:

Types of Verbs

• Helping Verbs: – In English, helping verbs tell when a verb is

happening ( was, is, had,have et al.)– Latin never uses helping verbs; we use endings to

show when a verb happens• Example

– Rex was laughing. Rex ridebat.– Rex will laugh. Rex ridebit.

Types of Verbs

• Linking verbs: show a state of being and link two ideas– Acts like a chain or an equals mark (=)– The most common linking verb is sum ,esse, fui,

futurus in all its lovely forms– Example• Rex is a boy. (Rex = boy) Rex est puer

Types of Verbs

• Transitive verb: action verb which takes a direct object ( a noun that answers who or what after the verb)– The action transfers to another word– Example

• Rex hits Claudius. Rex Claudium pulsat.

• Intransitive verb: action verb that cannot take an object– The action stops at the verb and does not cross over to a

noun.– Example

• Rex is sleeping. Rex dormit.

Agreement

• A singular verb must have a singular subject; a plural verb must have a plural subject.– Compound subjects are usually treated as plural

subjects– Examples• The girl is running. Puella currit• The girls are running. Puellae currunt.

Principal Parts• Most verb have four principal parts, always listed in a

specific order. These parts are used to make all the other verb forms.

• Notice the patterns– 1st principal part ends with “o”

• Used for present tense– 2nd ends with “re”

• Present infinitive; used for present, imperfect, future– 3rd end with “I”

• Perfect active; used for perfect, pluperfect, future perfect active– 4th ends with “um” or “us”

• Perfect participle; used for perfect, pluperfect, future perfect passive

Conjugations

• The conjugation of a verb is determined by the second principal part (infinitive)– ARE = 1st

– *ERE = 2nd (1st pp. will end with “eo”)– ERE = 3rd

– IO, ERE = 3rd IO– IRE = 4th

Qualities of a Verb

• Number– Singular or plural

• Person– 1st = I, we– 2nd = you– 3rd = he,she, it, they

Qualities of a verb

• Voice: active or passive– Refers to relationship between subject and verb– Active voice : subject performs the verb

• Aurelia sells the slave. Aurelia vendit servum– Passive Voice: The subject does not perform the verb

but the verb happens to the subject• The slave is sold by Aurelia. Servus venditur ab Aurelia• The person or thing doing the verb goes into the ablative.

– No preposition for things (means), “a, ab” for people (personal agent)– Miles vulneratur gladio.– Miles vulneratur ab amico.

Qualities of a Verb

• Mood– Indicative = states a fact or asks a question– Imperative = makes a command– Subjunctive = special clauses

• Tense– Shows when the verb happens– Present, imperfect, future, perfect, pluperfect,

future perfect

Tense Continuum

• Pluperfect: in the past before something else in the past (August 24)

• Perfect : completed in the past (august 25)• Present : now (august 26)• Future perfect: before something else in the

future (august 27)• Future : in the future (august 28)• Imperfect: in the past over a span of time ( august

24 and August 25)

Tense Continuum

• Pluperfect : He had taken a shower before he ate breakfast

• Perfect: He ate breakfast• Present: He is walking to the car.• Future Perfect: He will have driven twenty miles

before he returns home.• Future: He will return home• Imperfect: He was driving to school behind a very

slow bus.

Verb Bases• Present Tense : Use infinitive– Exception : 1st sing passive use 1st pp.– Are = remove the “re”

• Exception : 1st person singular remove the “are” active

– *ere = remove the “re”– Ere = remove “ere” , add “I”

• Exception : 3rd person pl add “u” instead of “I”– Io, -ere = remove “ere” , add “I”

• Exception: 3rd person pl add “iu”– Ire = remove “re”

• Exception: 3rd person pl. remove “re” , add “u”

Verb bases

• Imperfect : use infinitive– Are = remove “re”– *ere = remove “re”– Ere = remove “re”– Io, ere = remove “ere” add “ie”– Ire = remove “re” add “e”

Verb bases

• Future: Use infinitive– Are = remove “re”– *ere = remove “re”– Ere = remove “ere”– Io, ere = remove “ere”, add “I”• Exception : 2nd person singular don’t add “i”• Ire = remove “re”

Perfect, pluperfect, future perfect active

• 3rd principal part minus “I”– Usually leaves one of the following before the

ending– U– V– S– X

Perfect, pluperfect, future perfect passive

• 4th principal part minus “us” or “um”

Present active Indicative

• Endings– o = I 1st sing– s = you 2nd sing– t = he, she, it 3rd sing– mus = we 1st pl– tis = you pl. 2nd pl– nt = they 3rd pl

• Translations– Verb __________, is, am, are ____ing, do, does ____

Present passive indicative

• Endings– R = I am _____ed– Ris = you are ______ed– Tur = he, she, it is _______ed– Mur = we are _______ed– Mini = you pl. are ______ed– Ntur = they are _______ed

• Translations– Is, am, are ______ed, – Is, am, are being _______ed

Imperfect active Indicative

• Endings– Bam = I– Bas = you– Bat = he, she,, it– Bamus = we– Batis = you pl.– Bant = they– Translations must show action over a period of time in

the past, habitual or continuous• Was/were, used to, kept on, began to, past tense

Imperfect passive indicative

• Endings– Bar = I– Baris = you– Batur = he, she, it– Bamur = we– Bamini = you pl– Bantur = they– Translations:

• Was/were being ______ed, kept on being _______ed, used to be _______ed, began to be ______ed

Future Active Indicative for –are, *ere (1st and 2nd conjugations

• Endings– Bo I will– Bis you will– Bit he, she, it will– Bimus we will– Bitis you pl. will– Bunt they will

• Translations: will, shall• Must show action to occur in the future

Future Passive Indicative for –are, -*ere

• Endings– Bor I will be -----ed– Beris you will be ----ed– Bitur he, she, it will be-----ed– Bimur we will be-----ed– Biminiyou pl. will be ----ed– Buntur they will be-----ed

• Translations: will be -----ed, shall be ----ed

Future Active Indicative for ere, ire (3rd, 3rd io, 4th)

• Endings– am I will– es* you will– et* he, she, it will– emus* we will– etis* you pl. will– ent they will

• Translation : will, shall

Future Passive Indicative for –ere, -ire(3rd, 3rd io, 4th)

• Endings– ar I will be ----ed– eris you will be ----ed– etur he, she, it will be ----ed– emur we will be -----ed– emini you pl will be -----ed– entur they will be -----ed

– Translations: will be _____ed, shall be ____ed

Perfect Active Indicative

• Endings– i i– isti` you– it he, she, it– imus we– istis you pl– erunt they

• Usually preceded by u,v,s,x from the 3rd pp.

• Translations: ----ed, past tense, has/have ---ed, did –– Must show action completed in the past

Perfect Passive Indicative

• 4th principal part minus “us”– Singular• -us,-a,-um sum I was _____ed, have been ___ed• -us, -a, -um es you were ____ed, have been __ed• -us,-a, -um est he, she, it was ___ed, has been

__ed• Plural• -i, -ae, -a sumus we were –ed, have been –ed• i, -ae, -a estis you were ---ed, have been –ed• i, -ae, -a sunt they were –ed, have been --ed

• The 4th principal part must be adjusted so that it agrees with the subject in gender, number, and case.– Marcus was wounded– Marcus vulneratus est.– Silvia was wounded.– Silvia vulnerata est.– The men were wounded.– Viri vulnerati sunt

Pluperfect Active Indicative• Endings

– eram I– eras you– erat he, she, it– eramus we– eratis you pl.– erant they

• Translation: had ----ed• Must show action completed in the past before another action• The endings must be attached to the 3rd pp minus “I”; cannot be by

itself or it’s the imperfect of sum– Ambulaveram in silva. I had walked in the woods.– Eram in silva. I was in the woods.

Pluperfect passive Indicative

• 4th principal part minus “us” or “um”• Singular– -us, a, um eram I– -us,-a, -um eras you– -us,-a, -um erat he, she, it

• Plural– -i,-ae, -a eramus we– -i, -ae, -a eratis you pl.– -i, -ae, -a erant they

• Translation: had been -----ed

• Fourth pp. must be adjusted to agree with subject in gender, number, and case– Marcus had been seen.– Marcus visus erat.– Cornelia had been seen.– Cornelia visa erat.

Future Perfect Indicative• Endings

– ero I will have– eris you will have– erit he,she, it will have– erimus we will have– eritis you pl will have– erint they will have

• Translations: will have ----ed, shall have ----ed• Must show action that occurs in the future before something else

in the future• Frequently used in conditional (if) clauses

Future perfect passive• Endings 4th principal part minus “us” plus

– Singular– -us,-a, -um ero I– -us,-a, -um eris you– -us, -a, -um erit he,she, it– Plural– -i, -ae,-a erimus we– -i. –ae, -a eritis you pl.– -i, -ae, -a erunt they

• Translations: will have been ---ed, shall have been –ed• 4th pp. must be adjusted to agree with subject in gender, number, and

case

Pronoun Subjects for Active

• O/M/I = I• S/ISTI = you• T = he,she, it• MUS = we• TIS = you pl• NT = they

Tense signs and translations for active

• BA = was,were,usedto, kept on, began to• BO, BI, BU, A, E = will, shall• U,S,V,X, followed by I, ERU = past tense, have,

has, did• ERA = had• ERO,ERI = will have, shall have• A,E,I,U = is, am, are, do, does

Pronoun subjects for passive

• R = I• RIS = you• TUR = he, she, it• MUR = we• MINI = you pl• NTUR = they

Tense sign and translation for passive

• BA = was/were being ---ed, kept on being ---ed, used to be –ed, began to be ---ed (imperfect)

• BI, BE, BU (are, *ere) or A, E (ere, ire) = will be ---ed (future)

• A, I, E, U = are,is, am ----ed (present)

Passive Person

Part One• Us = masc sing• A = fem sing• Um = neuter sing

• I = masc. Pl.• Ae = fem pl• A = neut pl

Passive Tense Sign for Two Part Verbs: Part Two

• Su or e– Was/were -----ed– Has/have been -----ed

• Era– Had been ---ed

• Eri– Will have been ----ed

• Part three• m/o = I• S = you• T = he,she, it

• Mus = we• Tis = you pl• Nt = they

Irregular verbs

• Use the personal endings (o/m,s,t,mus, tis, nt or r,ris,tur,mur,mini, ntur)– Base is the irregular part

• Mainly irregular in the present tense:– Sometimes irregular in future and imperfect– No irregular verbs in perfect, pluperfect, future

perfect

Irregular Verbs

• Very commonly used verbs– Sum, esse, fui, futurus• To be: linking verb

– Possum, posse, potui• Be able, can• Always used with an infinitive

– Volo, velle, volui• To wish

– Fero, ferre, tuli, latum• To bring, to carry

– Malo, malle, malui• To prefer

– Nolo, nolle, nolui• Don’t want

– Eo, ire, ivi, itus• go

Irregular verbs: Sum, esse, fui, futurus

• Most common verb in Latin• Linking verb• Irregular in the present indicative and

subjunctive, imperfect indicative, future indicative, and in its principal parts

• Regular in perfect, pluperfect, future perfect both indicative and subjunctive– Base = fu

Irregular verbs: Sum, esse, fui, futurus

• Present indicative Present subjunctive– sum sumus sim simus– es estis sis sitis– est sunt sit sint

• Imperfect Indicative– Eram eramus– Eras eratis– Erat erant

• Future indicative– Ero erimus– Eris eritis– Erit erunt

Irregular Verbs: Possum, posse, potui

• Definition: Be able, can– Always used with a complementary infinitive

• Irregular in the present indicative and subjunctive, imperfect indicative, and future indicative; usually like sum just with pot in front

• Regular in all other tenses

Irregular Verbs : possum• Present Indicative Present Subjunctive

– Possum possumus possim possimus– Potes potestis possis possitis– Potestpossunt possit possint

• Imperfect Indicative– Poteram poteramus– Poteras poteratis– Poterat poterant

• Future Indicative– Potero poterimus– Poteris poteritis– Poterit poterunt

Irregular verbs: volo, nolo, malo

• Present tense indicative active• Volo nolo malo• Vis non vis mavis• Vult non vult mavult• Volumus nolumus malumus• Vultis non vultis mavultis• Volunt nolunt malunt

Volo, nolo, malo

• Imperfect bases:– Vole– Nole– male

• Future Tense bases: treat like 3rd conjugation(ere)– Vol– Nol– Mal

Volo, nolo, malo

• Present active subjunctive• Velim nolim malim• Velis nolis malis• Velit nolit malit• Velimus nolimus malimus• Velitis nolitis malitis• Velint nolint malint

Irregular Verbs: Fero, ferre, tuli, latum

• Present Active Indicative– Fero ferimus– Fers fertis– Fert ferunt

• Imperfect base: fere• Future base: fer– Use 3rd conjugation

• Present subjunctive: treat like 3rd conjugation

Irregular verbs: eo, ire, ivi, itus

• Present Indicative Active– Eo imus– Is it is– It eunt

– Imperfect base: i– Future base: i• Use bo, bis, bit, bimus, bitis, bunt

Imperatives

• States a command– Can be negative or positive– Always treated like a second person verb

• Can be singular or plural– Frequently used with vocative nouns

• Formation– Singular: Remove “re” from infinitive

• Exceptions– Dicere = dic– Ducere = duc– Facere = fac– Ferre = fer

Imperative

• Examples– Vocare = Voca!– Sedere* = Sede!– Recumbere = recumbe!– Venire = veni!– Stare = sta!

Imperative Plurals

• Remove “re” from the infinitive and add “te”– Exception

• 3rd conjugation (ere)• Remove “ere” add “ite”

– Examples• Dare = date!• Sedere* = sedete!• Ducere = ducite• Facere = facite• Audire = audite

Negative imperatives

• Singular– Noli with the infinitive• Noli dicere! Don’t talk!

• Plural– Nolite with the infinitive• Nolite dicere! Don’t talk!

Deponent Verbs• Deponent verbs are special verbs that have only passive

forms but active translations.– Example locutus sum I was talking

• They only have three principal parts and follow the –r, -i, - us/um sum pattern.– Example loquor, loqui, locutus sum speak

• Follow the same rules for bases and endings as for normal verbs, just don’t ever make an active form.– For 3rd conjugation you have to remake the present active

infinitive. Take the “i” off the 2nd pp. and add “ere”; then just follow the normal rules.

Deponent verbs

What are they? How do they function? What do you need to

know about them?

What is a Deponent Verb?• Special verbs with passive forms but active meanings

Secutus est He followed.Recognize by having only three forms in the vocabulary

listing----r, ---i,----us sum

conor, conari, conatus sum try deponenttempto, temptare, temptavi, temptatus try

not deponent

Deponent Imperatives

• For most deponent verbs, take the second principal part:– Remove the “I”– Add “e”– Will look like an infinitive but translate like a

command• Conor, conari, conatus sum Conare! Try!

Deponent imperatives for 3rd conjugation

• For third conjugation deponents:– Recognize by not having “r” before the “i” on the

second principal part– Remove the “I” – Add “ere”– Example• Sequor, sequi,secutus sum = sequere Follow!

Active forms for deponents• Future infinitive– Secuturum esse to be about to follow

• Present participle– Sequens, sequentis following

• Future Participle– Secuturus, -a, -um about to follow

• Gerund– Sequendum following

• Perfect Participle– Secutus, -a, -um having followed

First Conjugation Vocabulary list for deponents

Hortor, hortari, hortatus sum urge, encourage• Arbitror, -ari, -atus sum think• Conor, -ari, -atus sum try• Miror, -ari, -atus sum wonder• Moror, -ari, -atus sum delay• Recordor, -ari, -atus sum recall• Vagor,-ari, -atus sum wander• Osculor, -ari, -atus sum kiss

Second conjugation

• Fateor, fateri, fassus sum confess• Confiteor, confiteri, confessus sum confess• Polliceor, polliceri, pollicitus sum promise• Vereor, vereri, veritus sum fear

Third conjugation

• Loquor, loqui, locutus sum speak• Nanciscor, nancisci, nactus sum find, obtain• Nascor, nasci, natus sum be born• Proficiscor, profisci, profectus sum set out• Sequor, sequi, secutus sum follow• Utor, uti, usus sum use

Third conjugation

• Collabor, collabi, collapsus sum collapse• Consequor, consequi, consecutus sum catch

up to, overtake

3rd io conjugation

• Gradior, gradi, gressus sum walk• Egredior, egredi, egressus sum go out, leave• Morior, mori, mortuus sum die• Patior, pati, passus sum endure, suffer• Ingredior, ingredi, ingressus sum go in, enter• Regredior, regredi, regressus sum go back, return

Fourth conjugation

• Experior, experiri, expertus sum test, try• Orior, oriri, ortus sum rise• Potior, potiri, potitus sum get

possession of

Deponent verbs

• You will usually translate it correctly because it won’t make sense otherwise.

• Will not be used with ablative of personal agent (a,ab plus ablative)– Ingredior villam a via. I am entering the house

from the street.• I am being entered the house by the street. makes no

sense.

Semi-Deponent Verbs

A small group of verbs which are deponent only the the perfect, pluperfect, and future perfect tenses

Three principal parts -o, -e, -us sum

Most commonly used semi-deponents areaudeo, audere*, ausus sum daregaudeo, gaudere*, gavisus sum rejoicesoleo, solere*, solitus sum be accustomed

Deponents 2

• They have a perfect active participle which is really useful. Normal verbs don’t have this.– i.e. Caesar, ausus negare senatum, fiat dictator• Caesar, having dared to deny the senate, became

dictator.• Ausus because it is semi-deponent is translated actively

(having dared) when a regular verb would only have a perfect passive participle (having been dared) which completely changes your sentence

Special verbs in special clauses

Subjunctives

Present Active Subjunctive Endings

• Singular• M = I• S = you• T = he, she, it

• Plural• MUS = we• Tis = you pl• Nt = they

Present Passive Subjunctives

• Singular• R = I• Ris = you• Tur = he,she, it

• Plural• Mur = we• Mini = you pl.• Ntur = they

Bases for present subjunctives

• 1st conjugation (are) – Remove ARE and add E

• Amare = amem

• 2nd conjugation (ēre)– Remove RE add A

• Debēre = debeam

• 3rd conjugation (ere)– Remover ERE add A

• Ducere – ducam

• .

• 3rd io (io, -ere)• Remove ERE, add IA• Capio, capere = capiam

• 4th conjugation (ire)– Remove “RE” add “A”• Audire = audiam

She wears a diamond tiara

sum possum• Sim I• Sis you• Sit he, she, it• Simus we• Sitis you pl• Sint they

• possim I• possis you• possit he, she, it• possimus we• possitis you pl• possint they

The Irregular Present Subjunctive for sum and possum

IMPERFECT ACTIVE SUBJUNCTIVE

• Endings– M = I was…ing, …..ed– S= you were …ing, ….ed– T = he, she it was …ing, …ed– MUS = we were …ing, …ed– TIS = you plural were …ing, …ed– NT = they were ….ing, …ed• Translate to show that the action happened at the

same time or after the main verb

Imperfect active subjunctive

• BASE– Use the whole infinitive; don’t add or subtract any

letters• Just connect the subjunctive ending

– Amarem– Amares– Amaret– Amaremus– Amaretis– Amarent

Imperfect active subjunctive

• Recognition– Most imperfect subjunctives will have RE before the

personal ending because most infinitives end with RE– Some very common verbs have irregular infinitives.

Memorize these so that you can recognize their imperfect subjunctive• Sum, esse, fui• Possum, posse, potui• Volo, velle, volui• Nolo, nolle, nolui• Malo, malle, malui

IMPERFECT PASSIVE SUBJUNCTIVE

• ENDINGS– r I– ris You– tur He, she, it– mur We– mini You pl– ntur They

imperfect passive subjunctive

• Base = whole infinitive• Translation should show the action occurs at the

same time or after the verb and is not performed by the subject.

• Example– amarer I was loved– amareris you were loved– amaretur he, she, it was loved– amaremur we were loved– amaremini you pl were loved– amarentur they were loved

Perfect Active Subjunctive for all verbs

• Base = 3rd principal part minus “I”• Endings• singular• Erim I• Eris you• Erit he, she, it• Plural• Erimus we• Eritis you pl• Erint they

Perfect Passive Subjunctive:Uses the two part verb system

– first part is the 4th principal part functioning as an adjective and agreeing in gender, number, and case with the subject• us,-a, -um singular• i, -ae,- a plural

– second part is the present subjunctive of sum• Sim• Sis• Sit• Simus• Sitis• sint

• Example• Amatus sis– You ( male) were loved

• amatus, -a, - um sim I was loved• amatus, -a, -um sis you were loved• amatus, -a, -um sit he, she, it was loved

• amati, -ae, -a simus we were loved• amati, -ae, -a sitis you pl were loved• amati, -ae, -a sint they were loved

PLUPERFECT ACTIVE SUBJUNCTIVE

• ENDINGS– ISSEM I HAD– ISSES YOU HAD– ISSET HE, SHE, IT HAD– ISSEMUS WE HAD– ISSETIS YOU PLURAL HAD– ISSENT THEY HAD

PLUPERFECT ACTIVE SUBUNCTIVE• BASE– 3rd principal part minus I

• There are no irregulars• Example amo, amare, amavi, amatus

– Amavissem– Amavisses– Amavisset– Amavissemus– Amavissetis– Amavissent

• Translate to show the action took place before the main verb; HAD is usually safe but there are other options.

PLUPERFECT PASSIVE SUBJUNCTIVE:uses the two part verb system

– first part is the 4th principal part functioning as an adjective and agreeing in gender, number, and case with the subject• us,-a, -um singular• i, -ae,- a plural

– second part is the imperfect subjunctive of sum• essem• esses• esset• essemus• essetis• essent

sample pluperfect passive

• amatus, -a, - um essem I had been loved• amatus, -a, -um esses you had been loved• amatus, -a, -um esset he, she, it had been

loved

• amati, -ae, -a essemus we had been loved• amati, -ae, -a essetis you pl had been loved• amat-, -ae, -a essent they had been loved

• POSITIVE PURPOSE ( POSITIVE MEANS IT HAPPENS)– INTRODUCED BY UT– SHOWS THE PURPOSE OF AN ACTION

• EXAMPLE

–Plinius scripsit ut laudaret suam uxorem.–Pliny wrote so that he might praise his

wife.

PURPOSE CLAUSES

• NEGATIVE PURPOSE ( WON’T HAPPEN)– INTRODUCED BY NE– SHOWS THE PURPOSE OF NOT DOING AN ACTION– EXAMPLE• Cicero comprehendit Catilinae manum ne patriam

vastarent.• Cicero arrested Catilina’s band of men so that they

would not destroy the country.

PURPOSE CLAUSES

• INTRODUCED BY UBI• SHOWS WHY THE SUBJECT OF THE SENTENCE

AS DONE SOMETHING• EXAMPLE

• Cicero tempus exspectabat ubi Catilinam verbis oppugnaret.• Cicero was awaiting a time when he might attack

Catilina with words.

ADVERBIAL PURPOSE

• Introduced by a form of qui, quae, quod• Gives the purpose more closely connected with a

noun or pronoun than a verb• Example– Cicero accepit epistulam quae explicaret Catilinae

coniurationem.– Cicero received a letter to explain Catilina’s conspiracy – Cicero received a letter which explained Catilina’s

conspiracy.

Relative clause of purpose

Primary tenses (present, future, future perfect)

If the main verb is a primary tense, use the following subjunctives to show proper relationship to the main verb:

same time/after: present subjunctive

before: perfect subjunctive

• If the main verb is a secondary tense, use the following subjunctives to show proper relationship to the main verb:– same time/after:

imperfect subjunctive– Before: pluperfect

Sequence of tensesSecondary Tenses (imperfect, perfect, pluperfect)

• Caesar wrote the Gallic Commentaries so that people would not forget him.

• Sallust wrote so that he might explain the Catiline conspiracy.

• Brutus was awaiting a time when he might betray Caesar with a knife

Sequence of tenses

• Shows the result of the main verb– Madge was so angry that she threw a platter at Herb.

• Introduced by ut for something that did, will, or could happen

• Introduced by ut plus a negative (ne, non, nullus, et al.) for something that did not, will not, could not happen

• The main clause will usually contain a word that means “so” such as tam, sic, talis, tantus, tot, adeo;

• These words should act as signals that a result clause is coming.– Pompeuis Iuliam tam amavit ut civitatem neglegaret.

Result Clauses

• Temporal: establishes the time when something occurs– Verb will be indicative– Cum translated as when

• Circumstantial: explain the circumstances under which something occurs– Verb will be subjunctive– Cum translated as since or when

Cum Clauses

• Causal: explains the reason something happens

• Verb will be subjunctive• cum will translate as since or because

• Concessive: explains something that may have blocked or hindered the main verb–Verb will be subjunctive– Cum will translate as although

Cum Clauses continued

• Indirect questions– Whenever a question is reported in a statement, this

is an indirect statement.• I know what you are planning. Scio quid facias.

– The main verb wil be a verb or asking or telling such as rogo, peto, quaero

– The verb of the question portion will be subjunctive.– The question portion will be introduced by an

interrogative word such as ubi, cur, quare, quo. Quis, quid, quo modo, quantus, qualis et al.

Subjunctives in Indirect Speech

• Indirect command: reports a direct command– Command portion will be subjunctive– Main verb will be a verb of commanding or

persuading such as mando, impero, persuadeo, suadeo, moneo, oro, et al

– The command portion will be introduced by ut for positive, ne for negative• Caesar imperavit milites ut hostem oppugnaret.

Subjunctives in Indirect speech

• Clauses of fearing: with verbs or expressions of fear, what is feared will use the subjunctive–Use ne if you fear something will happen• Calupurnia timet ne Caesar interfectus esset a

Bruto.Use ut if you fear something will not happen.

Brutus timet ut civitas supersit.

Subjunctives in Indirect Speech

Expression of FearWords of fear

timeo, timere, timuivereor, vereri, veritus

summetus, metuspavor, pavoristerror, terrorisextimesco, extimescere,

extimuipertimesco,

pertimescere, pertimuiformido, formidinisformido, formidaretimor, timoris

• If you have a subordinate clause such as a relative clause inside an indirect statement, indirect question, or indirect command, put the verb of the indirect statement in the subjunctive

• These sentences usually have three verbs.– Turducken sentences

• Caesar ordered the soliders to attack the enemy who was hiding in the ditch.– Ordered main clause– Attack indirect command– Hiding discourse

Subordinate clauses in indirect discourse

• Characterizes or describes a general or indefinite antecedent

• Common after phrases such as est qui, sunt qui, nemo est qui, quis est qui

• Use a subjunctive verb for the relative clause part

• Usually translate as– Of that sort, the kind that …..– Quis est cliens quo interficiat suum patronum?

Relative Clause of Characteristic

• When an action is anticipated, when dum means until, and antequam or priusquam means before, use the subjuntive.

• If these words introduce an actual fact, use the indicative.

Anticipation

• Introduced by mostly by si, nisi, an• Simple Conditions will probably happen and use

indicative verbs regardless of the tense.• If Caesar conquers Gaul, he will be powerful• Si Caesar vincit Galliam, erit potens.

• Future Conditionals can be one of two types: more vivid which will probably happen and uses future perfect and future indicative verbs and less vivid which is not likely to happen and uses the present subjunctive.

Conditionals

• More Vivid– If she sees him, she will run.• Si viderit eum, curret.

• Less Vivid– If she should see him, she would run.• Si videat eum, currat.

• The writer uses the grammar to inform the reader of the likelihood of the conditional occurring.

Conditionals Continued

• Contrary to Fact– Cannot happen or will not happen– Use imperfect subjuncive if English present– Use pluperfect subjunctive for past

– If I were you, I would not do that.• Si essem te, ego non facerem id.

– If I had known the facts, I would have acted more quickly.• Si cognovissem facta, egissem celerius.

Conditionals continued

• Expresses a mild command or exhortation• Uses only the present subjuncitves • No introductory word for positive; use ne for

negative• Translate with let or may– Ludi incipiant. Let the games begin.

• Frequently used for blessing and curses

Main Verb Subjunctive: Hortatory

• Rhetorical questions implying doubt, indignation, surprise or impossibility

• Usually introduced by an interrogative pronoun, adverb, or adjective

• The writer is not expecting an answer.• Example– Why would anyone trust Brutus now?– Cur aliquis credat Bruto nunc?

Main Verb Subjunctive: Deliberative Questions

• Expresses a wish • If the wish can come true, use the present

subjunctive.• If the wish cannot come true, use imperfect

subjunctive for present, pluperfect for past• Frequently introduced by utinam• Utinam Caesar non credidisset Bruto• If only Caesar had not trusted Brutus

Main verb Subjunctive: Optative