foundation of ib - support notes
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Module 2
Foundation of Individual Behaviour
Dr.Yogananthan
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Content
Learning
Attitudes & values
Job satisfaction
Personality
Perception
Thinking & Decision making
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I. Learning
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Contents
Introduction & objectives
Components of learning
Theories of learning Classical conditioning
Operant conditioning Differences
Cognitive theory
Social learning theory
Principles of reinforcement Positive
Negative
Extinction
Punishment
Schedules of reinforcement
Learning curves Diminishing returns
Increasing returns
Increasing decreasing Learning & behaviour
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Objectives
What is learning?
Components of learning
Determinants of learning
Theories of learning Classical conditioning / operant conditioning
Cognitive theory
Principles of reinforcement
Schedule of reinforcements Limitations of behaviour modifications
Learning curves
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Definitions
Stephen Robbins learning is any relatively
permanent change in behaviour that occurs as
a result of experience.
Steers & porter learning can be defined as
relatively permanent change in behaviour
potentiality that results from reinforced
practice or experience.
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Components of learning
Learning leads to change good / bad
Change must be relatively permanent and if not it
cant be considered as a learning
Change in behaviour thro experience which alsoadded impact on attitude or process much be
considered. If due to diseases it will not be.
Some form of learning in necessary for learning andit may be direct or indirect experiences.
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Determinants of learning
Motive
Stimuli
Generalisation Discrimination
Responses
Reinforcement Retention
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Theories of learning
Classical conditioning theory
Operant conditioning theory
Cognitive learning theory Social learning theory
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Classical conditioning
is modifying behaviour so that a
conditioned stimulus along with
unconditioned stimulus is paired to elicit an
unconditioned behaviour.
Classical conditioning introduces simple cause
effect relationship between one stimuli &
response.
Russian PsychologistPavlovs experiment
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Unconditional stimulus Unconditional response
conditional stimulus
Unconditional stimulus
Response
Conditional response
conditional stimulus
Pavlovs experiment classical conditioning theory
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Limitations
Human beings are more complex than dogs
and less amenable to cause effect
conditioning
Behavioural envt in organisations is also
complex
The nature of - complexive human decision
making process makes it possible to override
simple conditioning
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Operant conditioning
B.F.Skinner (Harvard psychologist) - in operant
conditioning induces a voluntary change in
behaviour and learning occur as a
consequence of such change and also knownas reinforcement theory.
Thus behaviour can be controlled by
manipulating its consequences. It is built onthe following two principles.
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The behaviour that results in positive rewards
tend to be repeated and behaviour with
negative consequences tend not to be
repeated.
Based upon such consequences , the
behaviour can be predicted and controlled.
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The consequences of behaviour are used to
influence or shape thro 3 strategies.
reinforcement
Punishment
Extinction
(Ex -Work hard may bring reward which will bring
a positive change in workers behaviour to workhard).
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Classical conditioning Operant conditioning
A change in stimulus
elicits a particularresponse.
Stimulus serves as a cue
for a person to emit theresponse
The strength and
frequency of classicallyconditioned behaviour aremainly by the frequencyof eliciting stimulus.
The strength and
frequency of operantconditioned behaviour aremainly by theconsequences.
Responses are fixed tostimulus
Responses are variableboth in type/ degree.
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Cognitive theory
Learning is considered as the outcome of deliberate
thinking about the problem or situation both
intuitively and based upon known facts and
responding in an objective and goal oriented manner. It is act of knowing an item of information and this
knowledge affects the behaviour of the person so
that the information provides cognitive cues towards
the expected goals.
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Principles of reinforcement
4 basic reinforcement strategies
Positive reinforcement
Negative reinforcement Punishment
Extinction
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Schedules of reinforcement
Continuous reinforcement schedule
Partial reinforcement schedule
Fixed interval schedule
Variable interval schedule
Fixed ratio schedules
Variable ratio schedules
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Limitations of behaviour modification
It is an overall structure and ignores individualdifferences needs, desire, values andabilities.
Extrinsic rewards are more valued andintrinsic motivation is ignored and higherlevels of needs may not be satisfied.
It ignores prevailing work group norms and itis important for the org to know the power ofwork group norms.
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Learning curves
Learning curves
Diminishing returns
Increasing returns
Increasing decreasing
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Increasing decreasing learning curve
Slow learning
Increase returns
Plateau Peak proficiency
Over learning
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Learning impacts on behaviour
Reducing absenteeism & Through learning
Substituting well pay for sick pay
Improving employee discipline Developing training programme
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II. ATTITUDES & VALUES
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Contents
Meaning of attitude
Characteristics of attitudes
Functions of attitude
Formation of attitudes Values
Types of values
Values and behaviour
Values & ethics
Values & attitudes
Difference between attitude & value
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Meaning of attitude
is defined as a more of less stable set of
predisposition of opinion, interest or propose
involving expectancy of a certain kind of experience
and a readiness with an appropriate response. Theyare known as frames of response
It is also a cognitive element and remains in person
Every body has limited no of attitudes
These attitudes are indicative of apathy or
enthusiasm.
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Characteristic of attitude
It predisposes the evaluation of certain objects in
favourable and unfavourable manner.
Attitudes are firmly embedded in a complex
psychological structure of beliefs Attitudes are different from values as they are
narrow, our feelings, thoughts and behavioural
tendencies towards objects or situations
It is predisposition to respond to a certain set of facts
They are evaluative statements
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Functions of attitude
It Determines meaning
It Reconcile contradictions
It organises facts It selects facts
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Formation of attitude
Direct experience with the object
Classical conditioning and attitudes
Operent conditioning and attitudes Vicarious learning
Family and peer groups
Economic status and occupations
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Values
It is an enduring belief that a specific mode of
conduct or end state of existence is personally
and socially preferable to the alternative
modes of conduct or end states of existence
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Types of values
Instrumental value
Terminal value
Other classifications are
Theoretical
Economic
Aesthetic
Social
Political religious
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Values and behaviour
Values serves as the foundations for attitudes
Individuals hold their own interpretation of
right and wrong
Values affects both attitude and behaviour
Re examining the values pose challenges in
modern management
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Values and attitudes
Similarities
Both are acquired form experience with
people, objects, and events
Both affects cognitive and behaviour process
Both are endurable and difficult to change
Both influence each other and usedinterchangeably
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Differences
Attitude Value
It exhibit predisposition to
respond
It represent judgmental
ideas like what is right
It refer to several beliefs
relating to specific objects
or situation
It represent single belief
focused on objects and
situations
They are ones personal
experiences
They are derived from social
and cultural mores.
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III. Personality
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Personality
Characteristic pattern of thinking,feeling and acting.
Four major perspectives on Personality
Psychoanalytic - unconscious motivationsTrait - specific dimensions of personality
Humanistic - inner capacity for growthSocial-Cognitive - influence of environment
h l
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Psychoanalytic Perspectivefirst comprehensive theory of personality
(1856-1939)
University of Vienna 1873Voracious Reader
Medical School Graduate
Specialized in NervousDisordersSome patients disordershad no physical cause!
Th U i
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The Unconsciousthe mind is like an iceburg - mostly hidden
Conscious Awareness
small part above surface
(Preconscious)
Unconscious
below the surface
(thoughts, feelings,
wishes, memories)
Repression
banishing unacceptablethoughts & passions to
unconscious
Dreams & Slips
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Freud & Personality Structure
Id - energy constantly striving to satisfy basic drives
Pleasure Principle
Ego - seeks to gratify the Id in realistic ways
Reality Principle
Super Ego
- voice of conscience
that focuses on howwe oughtto behave
EgoSuperEgo
Id
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Freud & Personality Developmentpersonality forms during the first few years of life,
rooted in unresolved conflicts of early childhood
Psychosexual Stages
Oral (0-18 mos) - centered on the mouthAnal (18-36 mos) - focus on bowel/bladder elim.Phallic (3-6 yrs) - focus on genitals/Oedipus Complex
(Identification & Gender Identity)
Latency (6-puberty) - sexuality is dormantGenital (puberty on) - sexual feelings toward others
Strong conflict can fixate an individual at Stages 1,2 or 3
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Trait PerspectiveNo hidden personality dynamics
just basic personality dimensions
Traits - peoples characteristic
behaviors & conscious motives
How do we describe & classify different personalities?
(Type A vs Type B orDepressed vs Cheerful?)
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator - classify people
based upon responses to 126 questions
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Th Bi Fi
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The Big Five
Emotional Stability
Extraversion
Openness
Agreeableness
Conscientiousness
Calm/Anxious
Secure/Insecure
Sociable/Retiring
Fun Loving/Sober
Imaginative/Practical
Independent/Conforming
Soft-Hearted/Ruthless Trusting/Suspicious
Organized/Disorganized
Careful/Careless
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Four Dimensions
of Personality Type
How we interact with the world and where we
direct our energy
The kind of information we naturally notice
How we make decisions
Whether we prefer to live in a morestructured way or a more spontaneous way
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Extraversion Introversion
Interest Orientation
E IOuter world ofactions,
objects, and
people
Inner world of
ideas and
concepts
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Sensing iNtuition
Perception
S NImmediatereality and
direct
experience
Inferred
meanings and
relationships
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Thinking Feeling
Judgment
T FReliability oflogical order
cause and
effect
Priorities
based on
personal
importance
and values
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Judgment Perception
Environment Orientation
J PJudgingattitude
Control of
events and
systematic
planning
Spontaneity
Curious,
awaiting
events and
adapting to
them
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ISTJTake Your
Time and Do It
Right
ISFJOn My Honor,
to Do My
Duty
INFJCatalyst for
Positive
Change
INTJCompetence +
Independence =
Perfection
ISTPDoing the Best
I Can With
What Ive Got
ISFPIts the
Thought That
Counts
INFPStill Waters
Run Deep
INTPIngenious
Problem
Solvers
ESTPLets Get
Busy!
ESFPDont Worry,
Be Happy
ENFPAnythings
Possible
ENTPLifes
Entrepreneurs
ESTJTaking Care of
Business
ESFJWhat Can I Do
For You?
ENFJThe Public
Relations
Specialist
ENTJEverythings
FineIm in
Charge
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The Humanistic Perspective
Maslows
Self-Actualizing
Person
Rogers
Person-Centered
Perspective
Healthy rather than Sick
Individual as greater than the sum of test scores
M l & S lf A t li ti
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Maslow & Self-Actualization
Physiological
Safety
Love Needs
Esteem
Self-Actualizationthe process of fufilling our potential
Studied healthy, creative people
Abe Lincoln, Tom Jefferson &
Eleanor Roosevelt
Self-Aware & Self-Accepting
Open & Spontaneous
Loving & Caring
Problem-Centered not Self-Centered
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Rogers Person-Centered PerspectivePeople are basically good
with actualizing tendencies.
Given the right environmental
conditions, we will developto our full potentials
Genuineness, Acceptance, EmpathySelf Concept - central feature
of personality (+ or -)
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Assessing & Evaluating the Self
?Primarily through questionnaires in whichpeople report their self-concept.
?Also by understanding others subjective
personal experiences during therapy
XConcepts are vague & subjective.Assumptions are navely optimistic.
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Personal Control
Internal Locus of Control
You pretty much control your own destiny
External Locus of ControlLuck, fate and/or powerful others control your destiny
Methods of Study
Correlate feelings of control with behavior
Experiment by raising/lowering peoples sense ofcontrol and noting effects
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IV. Perception
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Contents
Introduction
Factors influencing perceptual process
Perceptual grouping
Stimuli selection
Barriers to perceptual accuracy
Honing perceptual skills
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Introduction
The process of receiving stimuli
the organising process
The process of selecting stimuli
The process of interpreting
The process of checking
The process of reacting
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Factors influencing the perceptual process
The characteristics of perceiver
The characteristics of perceived
The characteristics of situation
Perception (overall understanding of perception)
Th h t i ti f i
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The characteristics of perceiver
Needs and motives
Self concept
Our ethics
Past experience
Current emotional state
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The characteristics of perceived
Physical characteristics perceived are
Appearance
Body language
Facial expressions
Age
Gender
Manner of communication
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Perceptual grouping
Continuity
Closure
Proximity
Similarity
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Perceptual selectivity
It is believed that our senses are activated
only by certain type of stimuli so that some
stimuli may go unnoticed if these are not
strong bright or loud enough to activate oursenses
If relates to our ability to turn out certain
stimuli to which we have been consciouslyexposed is known as sensory adaptation
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Stimuli selection
External factors
Size
Intensity
Contrast
Repetition
Movement
Novelty and familarity order
Internal factors
Learning and
perception
motivation &perception
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Barriers to perceptual accuracy
Stereo typing
Sex role stereotypes
Age stereotypes
Halo effect
Expectancy
Perceptual defense
Projection
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Honing perceptual skills Knowing and perceiving oneself accurately
It is removing blind spots
Like how we perceive others thro knowing, perceiving andunderstanding
Obtain information from superiors, peers, subordinates
and other colleagues
JOHARI window
Being emphatic
Having positive attitudes
Enhance good self image
Avoiding common biases in perception
Avoiding attributions
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JOHARI window
The public area what is known us and others is thepublic area
The blind area I am blind to the fact that I comeacross to others in a negative way
The private & secret area I know something myself,which nobody else is aware and I would like to keepit, undisclosed, a secret.
The unknown area & dark area there may beaspect of me which I am unaware of and others donot know either.
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Blind areaBlind self
Public areaOpen self
Private area
Open self
Dark area
Undiscovered self
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Reference
Stephen Robbins, text book of OB, 7th edition. Ashwathappa, text book of OB, 3rd edition.
Ren Stinson, University of Iowa,web based MBTI article.
Jacqueline N. Hood, Understanding management styles, AndersonSchool of Management, University of New Mexico.
Marcia Bench, MBTI assessment & career coaching, MCCC. Fisher ,Schoefeldt & Shaw, text book of Human resource
management, 6th edn, chapter 11. Management, 40130, motivation theories, web based article. Job satisfaction, -
www.owlnet.rice.edu/.../psyc_231_ch09_job%20satisfaction.ppt
Job evaluation,-www.businessfaculty.utoledo.edu/ddwyer/HURM4650/.../jobeval.ppt
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