ernst gombrich - the new learning spreads (ch. 17)
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I7
THE
NEW LEARNING
SPREADS
ermany and
the
Netherlands
early
sixteenth century
The great
achieven1ents
and inventions of the
Italian masters
of the
Renaissance nude a
deep
irnpression on
the
peoples
north of
the Alps.
Everyone who
was
interested in the
revival
oflearning had become
accustorned
to
looking
towards
Italy
where the wisdmn
and
the
treasures
of
classical
antiquity were being
discovered.
We know very
well
that
in
art
we cannot
speak
of
progress
in
the
sense in
which we
speak
of
progress
in
learning.
A
Gothic
work
of
art
nuy
be
just
as
great
as
a
work
of
the
Renaissance. Nevertheless it is perhaps natural
that
to
the people
at that
time
who ca1nc
into
contact with
the nusterpicccs
fi·mn
the
south
their
own
art
seemed suddenly to be
old-£1shioned
and uncouth.
There
were
three
tangible
achievements of the
Italian masters
to which
they could
point.
One
was
the
discovery
of
scientific perspect ive
the second the
knowledge of anatomy- and with
it
the perfect
rendering
of the
beautiful
human
body-
and
thirdly
the knowledge of the
classical forms
ofbuilding
which seemed to the period
to stand
for
everything
that
was dignified
and beautifuL
It
is
a fascinating spectacle
to
watch
the
reactions
of
various artists
and
traditions
to the
in1pact
of
this
new knowledge
and to see how they
asserted then1s.elves-
or
as
son1etimes
happened
how they succumbed
according to
the
strength of their
character and
the breadth of their
vision.
Architects
were
perhaps in
the most
difficult position .
Both
the
Gothic
systern
to which they were accustomed
and
the new
revival
of ancient
buildings are at least in
theory
utterly
logical
and
consistent
but as
different fi·mn
each
other
in
ain1 and spirit
as
two styles
could
possibly
be.
It
took
a
long
time
therefore
before
the new £1.shion
in building
was
adopted north of the
Alps.
When
this
did
con1e
about it
was fi-cquently
on
the
insistence
of
princes
and
noblen1en
who
had
visited Italy
and
wanted
to
he up to
date.
Even
so architects
often
con1plied
only
very
superficially
with the requiretnents of
the new style.
They detnonstrated
their acquaintance with the new
ideas
by putting
a
column
here and
a
fi·ieze
there-
in other
words by adding sonte of
the classical fornts to
their
wealth
of
decorative
Jnoti£ 1. More often than not the body of the
building
remained
entirely untouched. There are
churches
in France
England and
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342
Ti l NEW 1.1-'Al\N NC
SPI EADS
Gernuny
where
the
pillars
supporting the
vault arc superficially
turned
into colmnns
by having capitals affixed to thern, or
where the
Gothic
windows
are com_plete with tracery,
but the pointed
arch has
given
way
to a
rounded one figure
218
There
arc regular cloisters
supported by
fantastic
bottle-shaped columns
castles bristling with turrets
and
buttresses,
but adorned with
classical details, gabled
town
houses
with
classical fiiezes
and
busts,JiJ?UI e 219 An Italian artist, convinced
of the
perfection
of the
classical rules,
would
probably
have
turned away
from
these things
in
horror but if we do not n1.easure then1. by any
pedantic
acadcn1.ic standard
we
nuy often admire the ingenuity and wit with which
these
incongruous
styles
were
blended.
Things were rather differc;nt in
the
case
of
painters and sculptors,
because for
them it
was
not
a
~ n t t c r
of
taking
over
certa in de:finite forms
such
as
columns
or arches, piecemeal. Only minor painters could
be
content
whh
borrowing a figure or a gesture fi·on1
an
Italian
engraving
which had con1e their way. Any real artist was bound to feel
the urge
thoroughly to
understand
the new
principles
of
art
and to make up
his
mind
about their usefulness. We
can study
this dramatic process in
the
work of
the
greatest
German
artist,
Albrecht
DUrer
1471-
r 52S),
who
was
throughout
his life fully conscious
of
their vital
itnportance for
the
future
of
art.
Albrecht
Dlirer was
the
son
of
a distinguished nnster-goldsrnith
who
had come
frorn
Hungary
and
settled in
the
flourishing city
of Nuremberg.
Even
as a boy,
the young
DUrer
showed
an astonishing gift for drawing
-
smne of
his
works of
that
tin1.e
have
been preserved- and he
was
apprenticed
with
the
largest
workshop for
altars
and
woodcut illustrations.
This
belonged
to
the Nuremberg
1nastcr,
Michel Wolgemut. Having
Pierre Sohier
Choir 1 flhc d rdt if
St-Jlicrre
Cam
1518-45
Gothic lr.lmfmnwd
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HJ
G l ~ MANY AND THE NETHERLANDS,
hAIU.Y
SlXTEENTII C.ENTUI\Y
completed his apprenticeship,
he
fo11owed
the
custom
of
all
young
n1cdieval craftsmen and travelled about as a journeyman
to
broaden
his
views
and to
look for a place in
which to
settle. Diirer s
intention
had
been
to
visit the
workshop
of
the
greatest
copper-engraver
of
this
period,
Martin
Schongauer,
pa.R CS 283-4
but when
he
arrived at Colmar
he found
that
the master had
died smne
months earlier. However, he stayed with
Schongauer s brothers,
who had
taken charge
of
the
workshop, and then
turned
to
l3asle in Switzerland, at that tin1e a centre
oflearning
and
of
the
book trade. Here he
nude woodcuts
for books,
and
then travelled
on,
across
the
Alps into
northern
Italy,
keeping
an open eye throughout his
journeys and making watercolours of the picturesque places in the Alpine
valleys,
and
studying
the
works ofMantegna,
p ges
256-g.
When
he
returned to Nurernberg
to
rnarry and open his
own
workshop, he
possessed
all the
technical accom_plishments a
northern
artist
could expect
to
acquire in the
South.
He
soon
showed
that
he had more than mere
technical knowledge
of
his difficult craft,
that he
possessed that intense
feeling and
inugination
which alone nuke the great artist. One of his first
t, Teat works was a series oflargc woodcuts illustrating the Revelation ofSt
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34
Til
NEW
Llot\HNING S l I I ~ . 1 \ P S
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Albre
cht Diirer
r \
i d w l : < _ f i . ~ l t r
~ ~ 1 j m · t
tilt•
dr({i tHI,
qyS
3 15
\Vuodnu J I J ~ x
. l:{.J
t·m
x '''"m
I
Albrecht Diirer
mll picc l
{rurj;
1503
\V,tll'rrohnlr, p
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.J..J 8
I HI' Nl \V LEARNING SPREADS
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349 C ~ _ l t J \ I N Y
AND
Till-
NETII.ERLANIJS,
EARLY .)IXTEENTH CENTURY
Arnong the first results of these studies, which were to engage him
throughout
his life, was the
engraving of
Ada1n and Eve, in which he
e1nbodied all his
new
ideas ofbeauty
and harmony,
and
which
he proudly
signed
with
his
fulltUlne
in
latin,
ALBRRTUS
DURER
NORTCUS f.ACIEBAT
1504
( Albrecht DUrer ofNureinberg n1ade lthis engravingl in
1504 ),
}\RIIre 22].
It may not be easy for
us
to sec irmuediately the
achievement
which
lay in this engraving. For the artist is speaking a language which is less
£tmiliar
to
hin1 than
that
which
he
used in our preceding example. The
hannonious forms at which he arrived by diligent n1easuring
and
balancing
with compass
and
ruler are not
as
convincing and beautiful
as
their Italian
and classical models. There is some slight suggestion
of
artificiality, not
only in their fonn and posture, but also in the synnnetrical composition.
But this first feeling
of
awkwardness soon disappears when
one
realizes that
DUrer has not abandoned his real self to worship new idols, as lesser artists
did.
As
we
let him guide
us
into
the
Carden
of
Eden,
where
the
ouse
lies
quietly beside the cat, where the elk, the cow, the rabbit
and
the parrot do
not fear the treJd ofhurnan feet,
as we
look deep into the grove where the
tree of knowledge grows, and watch the serpent giving
Eve
the f:ttal fmit
while Adam stretches out his hand to receive it, and as
we
notice how
DUrer has contrived
to let
the clear
outline
of their white and delicately
modelled bodies show up against the dark shade of the forest with its
rugged
trees, we
come to
admire the first serious attempt
to
transplant
the
ideals
of
the South into northern soil.
DUrer himself, however, was not easily satisfled. A year after he had
published this engraving, he travelled
to
Venice
to
broaden his
horizon
and
to learn tnore
about
the secrets
of
southern art. The arrival
of
so
eminent
a
con1petltor was
not
altogether
welcome
to
the
1ninor Venetian artists,
and
DUrer wrote a fi-icnd:
lluwe many ji·imds amoug the ltaliaus
who
wam me 11ot to
eat and
driuk
with their
paiuters. l\llany ofthern
are
my enemies; they copy rny works in thr churches and
whereuer
they wnjind them; and thm they decry
rny work
and
say
it was
110 in the
manner
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1 i0
TILE NEW LEARNING S I U ~ A D S
wrote, here
I am a lord, at
honte
a parasite. But
Dilrer s
later life does
not quite bear
out
these apprehensions.
True,
at first he had
to
bargain
and
argue
with
the rich burghers ofNuremberg
and
Frankfur t like any
artisan. He had
to
pron1isc
them to
usc
only
the best-qua1ity paint for
his panels
and to
apply it in
many
layers. l3ut gradually his £m1e spread,
and the Em.peror Maximilian, who
believed
in the in1portancc
of
art
s an
instrument of
glorification,
secured
Dilrer s services for a
number
of ambitious schemes. When, at the age of fifty, DUrer visited the
Netherlands, he was, indeed, received like a lord. He himself, deeply
moved,
described
how
the painters
of Antwerp honoured
hin1
in
their
guild hall with a solctnn banquet, and when I was
led to
the table, the
people
stood, on
both
sides, s
if
they
were introducing
a great lord, and
atnong them
were
many persons of excellence who all
bowed
their heads
in the most humble manner . Even in the northern countries the great
artists had broken down the snobbery ·which led
people
to despise tnen
who
worked
with
their hands.
It is a strange and puzzling fact
that the only
Gennan painter
who
can be
cmnpared with DUrer for greatness and artistic power has been forgotten
to such an extent
that
we are not even quite sure
of
his
name.
A writer
of
the seventeenth century nukes
rather
confused
mention
of
one
Matthias
GrUnewald
of
Aschaffenburg.
He
gives a
glowing
description
of
son1e
paintings
of
this Gernun Correggio , s he calls him, and thenceforward
these paintings and others
wbkh
rnust have
been painted
by
the
same great
artist arc usually labelled GrUnewald . No record
or
document of the
period, however, tnentions any
painter
of the
nantc
of GrUne-wald,
and
we
must
consider
it
likely that the
author
had
mixed up
his facts. Since
smne
of the paintings ascribed
to
the master bear the initials M.G.N.,
and
since a
painter
Mathis
Gothardt Nithardt
is
known to
have lived and
worked
ncar
Aschaffenburg
i1 1
Gernuny
s
an approxirnate contemporary
of
Albrecht DUrer,
it
is now believed
that
this,
and not
GrUne-wald, was
the true
name of
the great nustcr. But this theory docs not
help
us
much,
since we do not know very much about
that
master Mathis. In short, while
DUrer stands before us like a living
hmnan being
whose habits, beliefs,
tastes and mannerisms are intinutely known to us, GrUnewald is
s
great a
mystery
to
us s Shakespeare. It is unlikely
that
this is entirely due
to mere
coincidence. The reason why we know so much about DUrer is precisely
that he
saw
himself
s a refornrer and
innovator of
the art ofhis country.
He reflected on
what
he was
doing and
why he did it, he
kept
records
of
his
journeys and
researches,
and he wrote books to
teach his own
generation. There is
no
indication
that
the painter
of
the GrUnewald
n1asterpieces saw
himself in
a sitnilar light.
On the
contrary.
The
few
paintings we have
of
his are altar-panels
of
the traditional type in m ~ o r
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4
(;riincwald
5 r
nit
Crucifixioll
5
5
l .uu.·l from the lsenh('im
. 1 1 1 J J I ' n ~ c t '
oil on
wood.
~ f l l o X JOJ
Clll
1 % X
1
in Musl·l·
II Untl rlindc.·n.
Colmar
GCR
l
JANY AND Nl• I HhUI ANI>S, EAHLY SIXTEENTH CENTURY
and
minor
provincial churches,
in
cluding a large
number of
painted
wings for a great al ta r at the Alsatian village oflsenheim (the so-called
lse
nheim
altarpiece).
Hi
s
wo
rks afford no indication that he strove like
D i.irer to become something different fi·om a mere craftsman or that he
was hampered by the fi
xed
traditions of religious art as it had developed
in the late Gothic period. Though
he
was certainly familiar with son1e of
the great discoveries
oflta
lian art, he made use of them only
as
far
as
they
suited his ideas of what art should do. On this score, he docs
not
seem
to have felt any doubts. Art for him did n
ot
consist in the search for the
hidden laws of beauty- for him it could have only one aim, the aim of all
religious art in the Middle Ages - that ofproviding a se
rm
on in pictur es
of
proclaiming the
sac
red truths as taught by the
Churc
h.
The
central
panel
of
the lsenheim altarpiece,figure 224 shows that he sacrificed a
ll
ot
her considerations to this one
overr
iding aim. Of beauty, as the Italian
artists saw it, there is n
one
in the stark and cru
el
picture
of
the crucified
Saviou r. Like a preacher at Passiontide, Grun ewald left n
ot
hin g undone to
bring
home
to us the horrors of this scene ofsuffering: Christ s dying body
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35 Il l
Nl-W
LEJ\UN NG S I IU iAOS
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3.53 C -HMt\NY AN D TlH. Nl .1 HERLANDS, EARLY S XTI-I :N ' I H ~ N T U R Y
_5 _5
is
distorted
by
the torture of the
Cross;
the thorns of the
scourges stick
in
the festering
wounds which cover the whole f i g u ~ · e The
dark
red blood
forms a glaring contrast
to
the
sickly
green of the
flesh.
By I I is
features
and
the
impressive gesture
of
His hands, the
Man of Sorrows
speaks to us
of the n1eaning
of
His Calvary.
His
suffering
is
reflected
in the
traditional
group
of
Mary, in
the
garb
of
a
widow,
£tinting in
the
arn1s
of StJohn the
Evangelist, to whose care
the Lord
has commended her,
and
in
the smc11ler
figure
ofSt
Mary
Magdalene with her
vessel
of ointments, wringing her
hands in sorrow.
On the other
side
of
the Cross,
there
stands
the powerful
figure
ofStJohn the
Baptist
with the ancient
symbol
of the
Lunb
carrying
the
cross
and pouring out
its
blood into the
chalice
of the Holy
Con1n1union.
With
a
stern
and commanding
gesture
he points
towards
the
Saviour,
and over
hin1 arc
written the words that
he speaks (according
to the
gospel
ofStJohn
iii. 30):
He must
increase,
but
I
must
decrease.
There
is
little
doubt
that
the
artist
wanted the beholder of the
altar to
meditate
on
these
words,
which
he
em_phasizcd so strongly
by the
pointing
hand
ofStJolm
the
Baptist. Perhaps
he even wanted us to s
how
Christ
nmst
grow and we
diminish. For
in
this
picture,
in
which
reality seerns
to
be
depicted in
all its
unmitigated horror, there
is one
unreal
and
fmtastic
trait:
the
figures differ greatly in size. We
need
only
compare
the hands
of
StMary
Magdalene under the
Cross
with
those of
Christ to become
fully
aware of the
astonishing difference
in
their
dimensions. It
is
clear that in
these n1atters GrUnewald rejected
the
rules of modern art
as
it had
developed
since
the
Renaissance,
and that he
deliberately
returned to the
principles
of
n1.edieval and
primitive
painters, who varied
the
size of
their
figures
according
to
their itnportance in the
pictnre.Just JS
he
had
sacrificed the pleasing
kind of beauty
for
the
sake
of the
spiritual message
of
the
altar,
he
also disregarded
the
new
demand
for correct proportions,
since this heltled
hin1. to
express
the
mystic
truth of the words of StJohn.
GrUnewald s
work
may
thus
remind
us
once
n101T that
an artist
can
be
very
great
indeed
without being
progressive , because
the
greatness
of
art
does not lie in new discoveries. That Grl mewald was fa1niliar
with
these
discoveries he
showed
plainly
enough whenever they helped him to
express
what
he
wanted
to convey.
And
just
as
he used his brush
to depict
the
dead
and tonnented body of
Christ,
he
used
it on another
panel
to
convey
its transftguration at the
Resurrection
into an unearthly apparition
of
heavenly light,)I:J?ure
225
It
is
difficult
to
describe this
picture
because,
once 111orc
so
much
depends on its colours. It seems
as if Christ
has
just
soared
out
of
the
grave, leaving a trail
of
radiant
l ight-
the
shroud
in
which the
body
has
been swathed
reflecting
the coloured
rays
of the
halo.
There is
a
poignant
contrast
between the
risen
Christ,
who
is
hovering
over the
scene, and
the
helpless gestures
of the
soldiers
on the ground,
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5
Ti lE NE\V LEAR
NING
SI I
IEADS
who are dazzled and overwhelmed by this sudden appat; tion ofl igh t
We
feel the violence
of
he s
ho
ck in the way in w hich they writhe
in
their armour As we canno t
assess
the distance
between
foreg
round
and
background, the two soldiers be
hind
the grave
look
like puppets who
have tumbled over, and their distorted shapes only serve to throw into
relief the
se
rene and majestic
ca
lm of the transfigured
body
ofCht;st .
A third famous German ofDUrer s generation, Lucas Cranach (1472-
1553), began as a
mo
st promising painter In his youth he
spent
several
years in southern Germany and Austria. At the time
when
Giorgionc,
who came fi·om the southern foothills
of
the Alps, discovered the beauty
of
mou
ntain scenery,
, ~ e
J28 Jig
ur
e
209,
this
you
ng
pa
i
nter
was
fasc
in
ated
by the
north
ern foothill s with their old forests and rom
an
tic vistas
In
a
painting dated 1504- the year w hen Di.irer published his
prints figures
222,
223 - Cranach represented the Holy Family on the Flight into Egypt, figure
226. They arc res ting near a spt;ng in a wooded moun tain region. It is a
charming pl ace in the w ildcm
ess
with shaggy trees and a wide view down
226
Lu
c
r ~ n a d
11u•
rest 11 rhe ( ~ / 1 (
ll
O
F . _ ~ ) f l ,
il n
wood 70 7
x
53
Cll • X lo-J h in:
(;l nJ:i ld
t.•b-:11C IiC .
StJJtl
iclw
Mus
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355 Gt ltMANY AND TilE NE
'I HI-lt AND :i, EAitLY :iiXTEE
NTII CENTUUY
ll7
Albrecht Altdorfer
Uuulsrnp
e
r 1520 S
o
1
1
011
p.lrclnlll'lll.
mountl•d
on \\ 000.
· OK
22
em
12 x in:
Aht • l>in:tkothek
Mun
kh
a lovely green va
lley. Crowds oflittle
angels have
ga
thered
round
the
Virgin;
one
is
offer
ing berr
i
es
to
the Christ Child, another
is
fetching
water in a shell willie
ot
hers have settled down to re
fi·esh
the sp
ir
it of the
tired r
ef
ugees with a
concert of
pipes and Autes. This poetic
invention
has preserved something of the spirit ofLochner s lyrical art, page 27
2
fig11re 76.
In his later years Cranach
becam
e a rather slick and
fas
hionable
co
u
rt
painter in Saxony,
who owed
his
£1
me mainly to
his fi·i
e
nd
ship with
Martin
Lu
ther. l3ut it seems that
his
brief stay in the Danube region
had been suffici
en
t to open the eyes
of
the people who lived
in
the
Alpine districts to the beauty of heir surroundings. The painter Albrecht
Altdorfer,
ofRegensburg 1
480?-1538 , went
out
into the woods and
mountains to study the shape of weather-beaten p
in
es and rocks. Many
of
his watercolours and
etchin
gs, and at least
one of his
oi
l
paintings,
.fiJtllre 227
tell no story and contain
no hu m
an being.
This is
quite a
momentous change. Even the
Gr
eeks w ith all their love ofnature had
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painted landscapes only
as
settings for theh· pastoral scenes, page 114
figure 72. In the Middle Ages a painting
which
did not clearly illustrate
a theme sacred
or
pro£1ne, was almost inconceivable. Only when the
painter s skill as such
began to
interest people was it possible for him
to
sell a painting which served no other purpose but
that
of recording his
enjuym_ent
of
a beautiful piece
of
scenety.
The Netherlands, at this great time of the first decades of the
sixteenth century, produced nut
as
many
outstanding
masters
as
they
had done during the flfteenth century, when masters like Jan
van
Eyck, pages
235-6
Rogier van der Weyden, paRe 276
and
Hugo van
der Goes, paRe 279,
were
L lmous throughout Europe. Those artists, at
least, who strove to absorb the
New
Learning
as
Dilrer had done in
Germany
were often
torn between
their loyalties
to
old methods and
their love for the new. 1- (gure 228 shows a characteristic exarnple by the
painterJan Gussaert, ca1led Mabuse (L478?-1532). According
to the
legend, St
Luke
the Evangelist was a
painter by
profession, and thus
be
is represented
here
making a
portrait of
the Virgin
and
her Child. The
way in which Mabuse painted these figures is quite in accordance
with the traditions of]an van Eyck and his followers, but the setting
is quite different. It seen1s
that
he wanted
to
show offhis knowledge
of the Italian achieven1ents, his skill in scientific perspective, his
fm1iliarity with classical architecture, and his mastery of
ight
and
shade.
The
result
is
a picture which certainly has great charm but
which
lacks
the
sin1plc hannony ofboth its northern
and
Italian
models. One wonders why St Luke found no n101T suitable place
in which to dra\V the Madonna than this ostentatious but presumably
draughty palace courtyard.
Thus
it came
about
that the greatest
Netherlandish
artist
of
the
period is not
found
among the ;1dhcrents
of
the New Style but
atnong
those
who
like
Gritnewald
in Germany, refused
to
be
drawn
into
the
modern n1ovement fi·orn
the South.
In the Dutch town
of
s Hertogenbosch there lived such a painter, who was called
Hieronymus
Bosch. Ve ty little is known
about
hin1. We do not
know how old he was \Vhen he died in T5 16 but he nmst have
been active for a considerable tin1e since he becan1e an independent
master in 1488. Like GrCtnewald, Bosch showed that the traditions
and achieven1ents of
painting
which had been
developed
to represent
reality rnost convincingly could be turned
round
as it
were to
give
us an equally plausible picture of things no human eye had seen.
He
became
[1mous for his terrifying represen tations of the powers of eviL
Perhaps it is
no
accident
that
the gloomy King Philip II of Spain, later
in the cen tury, had a special predilect ion for this artist, who was so
Mabme
St
L11kc
jiilil lins the
f / h ; ~ i 1 1
r 1515
Oil
11
\\ ()()(L
j_ l ) X
2 5
em,
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357 ; ~ U ~ I 1 \ N Y AND I H ~ NETI
I
HlLANOS
1 .AUI
Y
SIX
l
tENTII C ~ N T U I < Y
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5R
I HJ
NE\V LE
RNINGS I
1
U.
1
\ S
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359 GERMANY
AND
THE
NETHERLANDS, EARLY S I X " " t ; ~ . N T H CENTUUY
Left antl right panel<
of
a tripcych; oil
on wood,
each panel
135
x ,(5 em,
53V. x
17 Y•
in; Pratlo,
Madrid
7Y. in; fi·om D iircr s
textbook on pocrspcctive
and proportion,
tJiuieniiCJ >llllg
dc1· IHCS51111X
mit de Zi
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