endocrine and metabolism
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Glucose-stimulated insulin release from pancreas B cell
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Diabetes Mellitus and Starvation
Similarity: Lack of intracellular energy
Difference: What causes the problem
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Cause of the problem
DM: Deficient mechanism to obtain energy
from glucose
- Starvation: Lack of nutrients input for the
provision of fuel substances
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Alternative to obtain energy in DM and
Starvation
a. Switch from carbohydrate to fat
metabolism
b. Switch from gluconeogenesis to ketoneproduction
Consequences (what are they?) have to be
monitored.
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Diabetes Mellitus type1
- Less common than type 2
- Autoimmune destruction of pancreaticB cells
- Severe insulin deficiency
- Diabetic ketoacidosis
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Diabetes Mellitus type 2
- Insulin resistance
- Do not require insulin treatment
- Managed with diet alone or
diet plus medications
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Purpose of medications:
- Enhance endogenous insulin secretion
(sulfonylureas)
- Decrease insulin resistance
- Decrease intestinal carbohydrate
absorption (-glycosidase inhibitors)
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Explain biochemical aspects of:
1. Hyperglycaemia
2. Glucosuria
3. Decreased glycogenesis
4. Decreased fatty acid synthesis
5. Increased lypolysis
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6. Increased fatty acids in blood
7. Ketonaemia
8. Ketonuria
9. Metabolic acidosis
10. Negative Nitrogen Balance
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Explanation of 1-4
Actions of insulin on target tissues
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Hyperglycaemia
- Decreased glucose uptake by insulin
dependent glucose transporter(Glut 4, muscle, adipose tiss)
- Decreased glycogenesis
Not sufficient insulin to activate
phosphodiesterase, enzyme for
conversion of cAMP to AMP, meaning
to decrease cAMP concentration
cAMP inhibiting factor in glycogenesis
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Explanation of 5 6
Due to a switch from utilization ofglucose to
fat for source ofenergy.
Low levels of oxaloacetate (OAA) in liver
Ketone body production increases
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Explanation of 7 8
Increased production of ketone bodies
Less utilization in muscle (low OAA)
Develops ketonaemia in type 1 DM and
type 2 DM with insulinopenia.
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Glucose is insulin secretagogue for insulin secretion
Type 2 DM: Deficient control of insulin secretion
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Explanation 9 - 10
In severe cases of DM,
tissue protein utilized for energy
Cysteine sulphates acid urine
Negative N-balance due to ineffective amino
acid metabolism.
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Complications and Therapy
Advanced glycation end products (AGEs)
A serious complication of diabetes
Glycoprotein = covalent linkage of sugar to protein
Can occur nonenzymatically
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Glycation causes change to protein function
Circulation, joint and vision problems.
Nonenzymatic glycation of Hb (glycated Hb) is
Used to estimate blood glucose over past several
months
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Chronic Complications
Microvascular complications induced by:
1. Polyol pathway
2. AGE formation
3. Protein kinase C (PKC)
4. Hexosamine Pathway
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ad 1. Aldose reductase converts glucose to sorbitol
In hyperglycemia: accumulation of sorbitol
osmotic stress in nerves, endothelial cells,
eye lens (cataract)
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ad 2. AGEs can cause :
- Microvascular damage
- Formation of glycated HbA (= HbA1c)
Used as index of glycemic control over
preceding 2-3 months
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ad 3. Intracellular hyperglycemia in endothelium
increased DAG (diacylglycerol) activates
protein kinase C (PKC) effects on blood
flow and endothelial permeability.
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ad 4. Increase of glucose entering hexosamine
pathway produces substrates that
can bind covalently to transcription
factors stimulate protein expression
e.g. transforming growth factor,
enhancing microvascular damage
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Gluconeogenesis Inhibitors
Metformin improves sensitivity to insulin in type
2 DM
Stimulates glucose uptake by glucose
transporters in peripheral tissues
Increases binding of insulin to insulin receptors
Stimulates tyrosine kinase activity of insulin
reseptorInhibits glukoneogenesis in liver
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REFERENCES1. Medical Biochemistry (MASTER MEDICINE)
Brownie, A.C., Kernohan, J.C. 2nd ed. 2005
2. BIOCHEMISTRY
Garrett, R.H., Grisham, C.M. 3rd ed. 20053. Pathophysiology of Disease
McPhee, S.J., Ganong, W.F. 5th ed. 2006
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