emergence of elearning-trends impacting education
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Information and Learning Technologies Master’s Program INTE 6750, Current Trends and Issues in Instructional Technology Under Direction of Professor Brent Wilson, Ph.D.
Stephenie Buehrle, Deborah Crowder and Aimee Willis November 2011
Part I: E-Learning: Emergence of the Profession
Part II: Trends
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Part I: E-Learning: Emergence of the Profession
E-Learning is experiencing a great evolution and growth as the capacity for education is
no longer limited by time, physical or technological constraints. Part I of this narrative
provides an historical overview of instructional design and technology, distance learning,
E-Learning and emerging technologies. Additionally, several key models and terms
central to these practices are summarized. Part II of this report will focus on three current
technology trends, including cloud computing, mobile learning and social media and how
they relate to the field of E-Learning.
Parent Field: Instructional Design and Technology Instructional design and technology (IDT) is a vast subject that can be likened to a deeply
rooted tree that has, over time, towered and branched into various practices and models
that continue to define what it is and how it has developed. Truly understanding IDT
requires examining the seeds that were planted in order to give rise to such a hybrid field.
Educational technology, instructional technology and instructional design are all alternate
labels defining IDT. Instructional technology utilizes technological processes, systems
and resources, which can include media, to facilitate learning; whereas educational
technology encompasses not only hardware, software, applications and activities, but also
contemplates instructional and learning theory in order to develop a learner’s capabilities.
If instructional and educational technologies are contributing factors in defining IDT,
then instructional design is another cornerstone. Designing instruction that applies
research, theories and strategies to increase the appeal and effectiveness of learning is
integral to IDT (Horton, 2006). Although instructional design and instructional media are
often addressed together, these practices have developed separately. The design aspect of
the profession includes the approaches by which educational problems are solved,
whereas the media side of the profession signifies the resources utilized to deliver
instruction (Reiser, 2001).
The most notable implications of IDT within the United States are concentrated within
the last century. The first quarter of the 1900’s saw important developments in audio and
visual media, including innovations in radio and film. The need to quickly train military
personnel served as a catalyst for new instructional designs and audio-visual media in the
form of training films. As a result of this demand, educational and psychological
professionals entered into the field and applied their expertise to design instruction and
assess learning success (Reiser, 2001).
Throughout the 1950’s and 60’s, behavioral objectives were popularized to aid in
designing instruction and were inspired by models such as Bloom’s Taxonomy, which
theorizes that there are levels, or domains, of intellectual behavior that are critical to
learning. Robert Gagné’s Conditions of Learning drew from fundamental concepts in
Bloom’s Taxonomy and set forth nine instructional events necessary to achieve
successful learning (Reiser, 2001). Both of these models are foundational to the field of
IDT and are highly regarded as a basis for the design of instruction.
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During the 1970’s the ADDIE model of learning provided a five phase process by which
learners approach problems. These phases include analysis, design, development,
implementation and evaluation and are still a staple of the instructional design process.
Again, we find learning objectives playing a key role, here within the analysis phase of
the process. It is in this phase that the instructional problem is clarified, along with the
learning objectives and goals. Objectives and former theories are evident as building
blocks to the continuation of solution models within the field.
The select few milestones, models and influential figures discussed above are by no
means more important than many others not mentioned. However, this sampling provides
a sound basis to illustrate the interwoven nature of the ideas and solutions that have been
influential in improving instructional design, as well as the foundation upon which the
field continues to grow.
Instructional design and technology continues to be an ever changing, ever growing field
that caters to both business and educational sectors and the military in order to improve
the knowledge and performance of learners. If “knowledge is the single most important
commodity in the prosperity of [a nation]”, then the design of instruction and the
technology utilized to design and deliver it is a platform on which success and prosperity
are built (Saba, 2008, p.13). Distance learning and the emergence of E-Learning are
notable offshoots of IDT worthy of in depth discussion because they share history with
and embrace the professional spirit of delivering knowledge and enhancing the learning
experience.
Distance Education: Another Set of Roots Distance education shares a common history (see Figure 1) with and employs the bulk of
the principles of instructional design. It differs primarily through the way learning is
delivered.
Several key features define distance education. Many definitions of distance education
are
available, but one that is pure and simple is, distance education is learning without the
physical
presence of the instructor. Distance education is characterized by the following (Mantyla
and
Gividen, 1997):
Separation in place or time, or both, of one or more of the following: instructor and
learner, learners from one another, and learners and learning resources.
Interaction of one or more of the following: the learner and the instructor, learners
and other learners, and learners and learning resources conducted through one or
more media.
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Processes that employ a multiple set of delivery methods
in the learning experience, such as written
correspondence study or electronic media.
Processes may be synchronous meaning “real time” or
simultaneous participation of all students and the
instructor (Moore and Kearsley, 1996) or asynchronous,
which signifies instruction that does not require the
simultaneous participation of all students and instructors
(Moore and Kearsley, 1996).
There are three types of interactions typically seen in
distance education applications (Moore, 1989). Each type of
interaction could have different effects on learners or the
effectiveness of a course. These interactions are:
Learner-Content Interaction. The first type of interaction
is interaction between the learner and the content or
subject of study. This is a defining characteristic of
education. Without it there cannot be education, since it
is the process of intellectually interacting with content
that results in changes in the learner's understanding, the
learner's perspective and mind.
Learner-Instructor Interaction. The second type of
interaction is interaction between the learner and the
instructor. The learner is able to draw on the experience
of the instructor to interact and respond in a way tailored
to the needs of each individual. The instructor is
especially valuable in responding to the learners'
application of new knowledge.
Learner-Learner Interaction. The interaction is inter-
learner interaction, between one learner and other
learners, alone or in group settings, with or without the
real-time presence of an instructor.
In application, distance education assumes the learner is
capable of self-direction, and the instructor is more
facilitative than directive.
Garrison’s Community of Inquiry model incorporates
elements of both the constructivism and connectivism
models which see the learner in active terms:
cognitive presence (the ability to construct meaning
through sustained communication)
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social presence (the ability to connect on a meaningful level with other learners and
teachers)
teaching presence (the creation and facilitation of cognitive and social processes that
lead to meaningful educational outcomes)
This approach is more holistic and attempts to capture not only the content, but also the
context in which we learn and work in today's world. Therefore, learning is dynamic,
ongoing, and dependent on internal cognitive processes as well context and social
interaction, whether face-to- face or online (Garrison, Anderson, & Archer, 2000).
Regardless of the delivery method, level of interaction or model used, technology is
penetrating all aspects of education and changing it dramatically especially as E-Learning
moves to the forefront.
E-Learning: Emergence of the Field The first use of the term E-Learning was in commercial applications. In the 1990s, the
International Data Corporation saw great prospects for booming investments in
businesses that leveraged the Internet to deliver their distance learning modules to
corporations, thereby meeting the market need to keep the knowledge base of existing
employees current (Morri, 1997).
Of course, educators saw the opportunity in E-Learning, as well. While some still “view
E-Learning as that learning facilitated on-line through network technologies” (Garrison &
Anderson, 2003), others apply the term more broadly to include all forms of knowledge
transfer in formal and informal settings using any type of electronic media such as
television, telephone and the Internet (E-Learning Fundamentals).
As previously described, educators have worked tirelessly to incorporate the latest
developments in instructional design as it applies to traditional classroom and distance
education settings alike. With the advances in technology and adoption of E-Learning,
participation in distance education has erupted—recognized not only as a highly
accessible means for learning, but also as a reputable one. This reputation is due, in part,
to the offering of “E-Learning” and online education by accredited institutions, but also
due to the ongoing application of instructional design.
While the early applications of E-Learning (in the 1960s and 1970s) were largely
behaviorist in nature with the distribution of electronic lessons that provided
straightforward positive or negative feedback to a learner’s input, later implementations
grew much more complex. With the technological development of wikis, platforms for
discussion threads, the increased accessibility of audio and video technology and other
media that promote interaction, educators moved on to employ a wide range of
instructional design models.
For example, a design may include the introduction of a perceived problem or issue in the
form of an assigned reading, podcast or video followed by student participation in a
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discussion hosted in an electronic thread. In an E-Learning lesson such as this, educators
can encourage and monitor the engagement of learners and their collaboration with their
peers to construct a resolution to the issue. Educators can utilize a range of electronic
formats to interject in these discussions, providing resources that further each student’s
understanding of the concepts. Furthermore, one of these more complex E-Learning
designs might incorporate the requirement for students to blog or otherwise capture their
reflection demonstrating their cognitive learning.
And so it goes, the innovative spirit that inspired educators to exploit the demonstrative
capabilities of film (Reiser, 2001, p. 55), utilize audio technology for language labs
(Wilson, Orellana & Meek), and harness the power of the Internet and all of the tools
deployed therein to cultivate rich learning experiences for students continues to instigate
new developments in E-Learning.
Perhaps the definition of E-Learning will become widely accepted as the use of all things
electronic and digital to enhance the learning and mastery of skills. In the same way that
educators have exploited and become the primary consumers of technology in the past,
they may embrace the “idea that technology is doing for learning what it has done for
pretty much every other aspect of living, which is to say that it has dismantled the walls
between spaces” (Corbett, 2010). Instead of schools with classrooms, grade levels and
subjects, educators may come to foster “learning spaces” and “discovery spaces” where
children collaborate to build, play and deploy their own electronic games—all the while
refining their reading, writing and mathematics expertise (Corbett, 2010). This could
characterize the application of social constructivism in an E-Learning environment.
E.O. Wilson, a Harvard educated evolutionary biologist, would certainly see this as the
education of the future. If he is right, Thomas Edison’s prediction that “books will soon
be obsolete in the schools” (Reiser, 2001, p. 55) will come to fruition about 100 years
after the time that he made it. Rather than the motion picture revolutionizing the
institution of education, Wilson predicted that “games are the future in education
[and]…we’re about to leave print and textbooks behind” (Corbett, 2010). While it is
unlikely that print materials and books will become obsolete, it might very well be true
that game development and application will be incorporated in the instructional designs
of the future.
Concluding Thoughts Instructional design, distance education and E-Learning have certain similarities. All
three traditions feature a common shared history and all have been influenced by many of
the same key contributors and models. However, each tradition in application presents
itself with different perspectives and nuances.
Instructional design at its core is a reasoned approach to developing training and
education solutions to pass knowledge. The theoretical and conceptual underpinnings of
modern instructional design and technology are supported by many contributors,
especially the works of Bloom and Gagné. Not only did Bloom and Gagné’s work
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influence the instructional design field, but it is also evident in today’s distance education
and E-Learning practices. The significance of distance education is in the way technology
began to be harnessed to provide non-traditional learning.
E-learning is opening up an entire new world of opportunities and challenges. Maturing
technology is bringing about an interactive environment for learners. Examining
emerging trends in E-learning provides insight into approaching and impending
developments in the field.
As the industry moves forward, the interaction and individual contribution of these core
practices make it possible to deliver sustainable educational and training solutions that
produce results in a complex, ever-changing world. Ultimately, these three practices have
demonstrated that they are sufficiently dynamic enough to allow for the implementation
of viable new technologies and models that make their way into the instructional
landscape. These new technologies and platforms are evident in the emerging trends that
continuously shape and redefine the field of E-learning.
Part II: Trends
It is clear that E-Learning is a mainstay in 21st century learning environments. Part I of
this narrative provides an historical overview of instructional design and technology,
distance learning and E-Learning. In this section, or Part II, we will present emerging
technology trends that are currently influencing and affecting instructional design and
learning professionals.
As evidence of the viability of E-Learning, one can look to the U.S. Department of
Education, which devotes a significant amount of resources to the development of its
National Education Technology Plan (NETP). The plan “calls for applying the advanced
technologies used in our daily personal and professional lives to our entire education
system to improve student learning, accelerate and scale up the adoption of effective
practices, and use data and information for continuous improvement” (U.S. DOE, 2010).
Teaching professionals, by their nature, do not tend to wait for policymakers to prompt
them or to provide the means to adopt new tools and methodologies to reach their
participants. They certainly are applying advanced technologies to their classrooms. What
might be more difficult is keeping up with the advances in technology and their impact
on trends in education. In Part II, we are highlighting just three trends that are having a
significant impact on teaching and learning, but make no mistake, these trends are but a
sample of the creative applications of instructional technology.
Cloud Computing
There is a movement underway that will affect most everyone who uses computers called
“the cloud”. Seen as a cheaper, faster, more convenient alternative to traditional
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information technology (IT) infrastructure and services, the “cloud” is similar to paying
for any other commodity, such as electricity, cable TV, or cell phone service. In “the
cloud”, fundamentally, a provider’s computing resources, service and expertise are
pooled to serve multiple consumers with varying needs for a cost.
Cloud computing is not Web 2.0 tools or networking. Rather, it is the enabling
technology. Cloud computing can be viewed as digital outsourcing or the farming out of
computing capabilities and software applications to another company on pay-per-use or
pay-only-for-what you need basis from anywhere at any time without requiring much in
the way of consumer expertise or human interaction with the service provider (Shor,
2011).
The advantage is the consumer gets the service at a stable, predictable cost and
computing capabilities are rented and no hardware or software assets are purchased
outright by the consumer. The business or educational institution does not have to invest
capital in building organizational computer infrastructure and support staff. Additionally,
convenience, cost, reliability, scalability and environmental factors are other benefits
anticipated in the deployment of cloud-based workplace and learning solutions (Marks,
E. & Lozano, B., 2010).
Cloud computing falls under three
categories: Software as a Service (SaaS),
Platform as a Service (PaaS), and
Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS) (see
Figure A).
Software as a Service (SaaS) provides
consumers with software over the
web. The time savings that come with
on-demand software, where nothing
needs to be installed on a PC and new
users can be added easily – along
with the pay-per-use business model –
have made SaaS a success (Miller,
2010). A popPopular and familiar examples of SaaS are Google Apps and
Blackboard Learn.
Platform as a Service (PaaS) provides consumers with a stable online environment
to develop custom applications using visual, point-and-click browser-based software
development tools like Google’s AppEngine and Microsoft’s Azure rather than a
programming language. There is less work involved in creating an application using
PaaS than the traditional approach, which involves procuring and managing one or
more servers for development, testing and production, and installing and configuring
server software (Miller, 2010).
Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS) provides consumers with administrative, web-
based access to fundamental computing resources such as processing power, data
storage and high-speed networks.. The low entry costs and the pay-per-use
charging model make it attractive to businesses. More importantly the web interfaces,
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empower the consumer to administer the computing resources as if they owned them
(Miller, 2010) Amazon is a leading provider with its AWS (Amazon Web Services)
offerings and learning professionals may utilize this type of service to host files like
large online training videos (Miller, 2010).
Cloud computing represents a radically different way of procuring a full range of IT
capabilities. It is the service nature of cloud computing that makes it such a disruptive
force in the IT industry. Although there are multiple cloud computing services that the
learning and performance professional can immediately apply in a practical way, almost
everyone is now grappling with how to best take advantage of cloud computing
capabilities to reduce costs and enhance productivity. What is certain is path-breaking
and people-centric technologies continue to be experimented with and established to
empower and address situational needs that provide for the developmental growth and
value for learners. There is no doubt that learning equity issues with cloud computing
relate to the availability of financial resources to purchase the devices that utilize this
technology.
Perhaps unwittingly, many across the globe have been participating in cloud computing
for social purposes and some for educational purposes for quite some time by utilizing
applications on their smartphones. Mobile devices greatly contribute to cloud computing
implications, as the use of tablets and smartphones for mobile learning increases. “Some
colleges have even begun distributing tablets to all of their students” (Madan, 2011)
which rely on cloud computing for storage and bandwidth. The best way to serve learners
is to establish environments that incorporate this type of integral technology.
Mobile Learning
Mobile devices are closing the gap between resource and recipient at a dizzying pace.
Today, information is available at the touch of a button in the palm of one’s hand.
Information seekers do not have to physically travel anywhere to access a continually
growing catalog of information. The implications that mobile access to information has
on learning is exponential. Delivering the right information to the right people at the right
time is positioning today’s learners at the greatest vantage point, which is “where they
can find what they need when they need to know it” (Lykins, 2011, p. 2).
The advent of the Internet was, indeed, the precursor to mobile learning. Just a mere
decade ago users were dependant on a “fixed line” in a “static location” in order to gain
online access (Lykins, 2011, p.2). Users’ increasing expectations for unlimited access, as
well as the fact that “cellular access to the Internet [has outpaced] more traditional
networks”, has spawned this age of rapid expansion and development of mobile learning
(Horizon, 2010, p.22). The trend in mobile learning is made apparent by the fact that
access to the Internet via mobile devices exceeded desktop access in 2008 and each year,
thereafter. By the end of 2011, market research firm Nielson forecasts that more than
50% of phones sold in the United States will be smartphones (Lykins, 2011).
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The handheld, mobile devices that bring mobile learning to the user represent an
incredible extension of the learning environment, be it the classroom or the workplace.
Smartphones, netbooks, PDA’s, tablets and pads deliver learning in smaller, “just-in-time
chunks”, which results in improved retention of information (Woodill, 2011). Senior
technology consultant at Stanford University, Tim Flood, agrees that the mobile web has
definite advantages over the traditional web, as made apparent by the comparative chart
in Figure B (Lykins, 2011, p.3). These advantages are contributing factors to the upswing
in mobile learning and the shift toward “asynchronous… and individualized consumption
[of information]” (Carroll, 2011).
Distributed anytime and anyplace learning via remote devices has increased the
popularity of multimedia as learning resources. Access to Youtube for video content,
Stitcher for podcasts, and sites like Facebook and Edmodo for social networking is
gaining in mobile user activity due to application software that allows users to bypass a
browser and go directly to the site. Direct access to multimedia and social networking
resources reinforces the trend in mobile learning.
Despite the obvious advantages of mobile learning, there are some drawbacks to “going
mobile”, as well as negative social implications. These include…
1) Individual ownership of mobile devices varies greatly depending on
socioeconomic class. For this reason, educators should be wary of assuming that
learners will “arrive equipped to access a mobile pedagogy” (Carroll, 2011).
2) Mobile learning is in a constant state of flux and development. Planning for and
utilization of mobile learning should be “future-oriented”, which means
continuously revisiting best practices, content and resources (Woodill, 2011, p.2).
3) Mobile learning can collide with security concerns, and the difficulty to deliver
sensitive content via mobile devices can inhibit its efficiency (Lykins, 2011).
4) Mobile devices, themselves, can be seen as distractions instead of learning tools,
especially among educators not trained to design instruction that embraces mobile
learning.
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Ultimately, however, the ability to adopt and leverage mobile learning in the appropriate
situations will result in positive learning experiences. The portability, any time, any place
connectivity, flexibility and timely access to resources, and immediacy of communication
not only engages, but empowers learners (Woodill, 2011). To ensure best practices, it is
recommended that mobile learning be viewed and utilized as complementary to other
forms of learning, not as a replacement.
Social Media
Similar to the impending adoption of cloud computing and mobile technology to extend
learning opportunities, learning institutions are taking advantage of the widespread and
growing adoption of social media.
In more and more learning environments, it is becoming just as likely that you might
observe participants “tweeting” in their responses to questions as raising their hands.
More instructors are distributing assignments via Facebook, and participants are all too
eager to engage in “homework” that involves posting a two minute video on YouTube.
The use of social media is fast becoming a mainstay in education (see Figure C).
New Milford High School is one of the
institutions engaging and connecting with
digital students of the 21st century. The
principal of this New Jersey school, Eric
Sheninger, “and his teachers use Facebook
to communicate with students and parents,
and students use it to plan events” (Toppo,
2011). Sheninger shares company with a
growing number of education professionals
who maintain that “social networking tools
offer us unprecedented ways to connect,
share, participate, and contribute in a
variety of activities” (Dunlap & Lowenthal,
2009).
More compelling may be the wave of
recently conducted studies that show the positive effects of social media in schools. One
study at Lock Haven University provided evidence of the value of integrating social
media into teaching. In the experiment, students who were asked to tweet about their
experiences relative to assignments demonstrated “more than twice the improvement in
engagement than the control group” of students who were given the same assignments
and information, but did not incorporate Twitter (Kessler, 2010, Twitter Increases
Student Engagement[STUDY]).
Those advocating for the incorporation of social media in schools also have strong
backing documented within the latest release of the U. S. Department of Education’s
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(DOE) National Education Technology Plan (Ray, 2011). Among the Department of
Education’s priorities is “participating in efforts to ensure that transitioning from
predominantly print-based classrooms to digital learning environments promotes
organized, accessible, easy-to-distribute and easy-to-use content and learning resources”
(U.S. Department of Education, 2010, Executive Summary). Alongside several other
initiatives to meet this priority, it is stated within the document that the DOE can
encourage “institutions to experiment with such resources as…social networks both
within and across education institutions to give students guidance and information about
their own learning progress and strategies for seamless completion of a comprehensive
P–16 education” (U.S. Department of Education, 2010, Executive Summary).
The use of social media for learning and instruction is not without its detractors. Many
parents and educators, too, have concerns about online bullying and they fear that sexual
predators may gain access to students via social media. Legislation and model policies
have been proposed in a number of states to address these concerns and to provide
guidance to educators regarding appropriate social networking behavior (Paulson, 2011).
More prevalent may be those voices that encourage responsible use of the media. The
American Library Association, for example, would not support a ban on social media in
schools as it “does not teach safe behavior and leaves youth without the necessary
knowledge and skills to protect their privacy or engage in responsible speech” (Toppo,
2011).
Another detractor is the issue of equitable access to social media—and to computers, in
general—for educational purposes. The scope of the concerns is wide and raises many
questions.
Do education institutions have equal access to and support for the incorporation of
technology in their plans?
Do some educators assign work outside of the school day and classroom while others
provide direct access to the materials and equipment within the school day?
Do ethnicity, socioeconomic background and even gender play a role in equal
access?
On the other end of the spectrum are those that argue the incorporation of technology in
schools actually closes the equity gap, particularly where the internet is concerned, as it
provides all students with access to the same information. While advocates for equity are
sure to continue developing solutions to narrow the gap in learning institutions, among
educators and learners, it is undeniable that social media and social networking will also
establish its utility for instruction and learning.
Concluding Thoughts
If history is any indication, new technologies and associated learning opportunities will
continue to proliferate. Learners will persist in exploring and adopting technological
advances in their daily lives and will likely press educators and teaching professionals to
be more fluid in adapting to the evolving technological landscape.
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The question is no longer whether a particular technological innovation is disruptive to
the traditional model of education. Instead, the discussion surrounds the fact that
technological innovations, in general, have disrupted the traditional model of education.
As students become unleashed from the physical learning space by way of cloud
computing, mobile technology, social media and other emerging technological trends, the
challenge for teaching professionals is to identify the key designs that will most
effectively impart the intended knowledge, skills and competencies.
Upon the exploration of these trends, our previous assertion that E-learning is opening up
an entire new world of opportunities and challenges seems grossly understated. Education
and training solutions are, indeed, experiencing a paradigm shift. Like the agricultural
and industrial revolutions before it, this time might very well come to be marked as the
educational revolution.
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