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ii
EFFECTIVENESS OF HYBRID SOLIWAVE TECHNIQUE
IN MITIGATION OF MICROBIOLOGICALLY INFLUENCED CORROSION
MUHAMMAD KHAIROOL FAHMY BIN MOHD ALI
A thesis submitted in fulfillment of the
requirements for the award of the degree of
Master of Engineering (Structure and Material)
Faculty of Civil Engineering
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
MAC 2016
iii
This thesis is especially dedicated to,
My beloved family members: Hamidah Bte Abu Samah, Syed Hamzah Bin Syed Abd.
Rahman and, Syed Hamizan, Sharifah Shazwani and Anis Farzana Azmiluddin.
My beloved Supervisors: Assoc. Prof. Dr. Norhazilan Md Noor and
Prof. Dr. Nordin Yahaya
RESA members and those who involved directly or indirectly
towards accomplished of this thesis.
Thank you for your guidance, support and encouragement all these years.
Thank you for being patient and give me a lot of knowledge
And lastly to all my dear friends
Thank You for supporting me.
“THANK YOU”
iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
All praise is to Allah the all Mighty and peace is upon the holy Prophet
Muhammad S.A.W.
Alhamdulillah, all praise to Allah SWT for the strength and His blessing in
completing this thesis. Special appreciation goes to my supervisor Associate
Professor Dr. Norhazilan Md. Noor, who has given me guidance, invaluable advice
and encouragement throughout the period of my research work. Furthermore, I
would like to express my gratitude to my co-supervisor, Prof. Dr. Nordin Yahaya
for his encouragement, knowledge and opinions regarding the topic. I am very
grateful that they had generously shared their knowledge, experience, comments
and suggestions which have contributed to the success of this research.
My sincere thanks to all my friends especially members of Reliability
Engineering and Safety Assessment Research Group (RESA) for their kindness and
support in completing my research. My acknowledgement also goes to all lecturer
and staff of UTM’s for their co-operations. Last but not least, my deepest
appreciation to my beloved parents; Hamidah Bte Abu Samah, Syed Hamzah Syed
Abd Rahman, Syed Hamizan, Sharifah Shazwani, Anis Farzana Azmiluddin and my
family members for their support throughout my journey.
v
ABSTRACT
The applications of Ultraviolet (UV) radiation as an alternative approach to
toxic chemical biocide for disinfecting bacteria such as Sulfate Reducing Bacteria
(SRB) to mitigate Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion (MIC) in steel pipeline
systems are already established. However, in the case of poor quality effluents, the
UV radiation becomes less effective. Recently, Ultrasound technique (US) was
observed to be attractive as pre-treatment for various types of physical disinfectant
such as UV radiation. Hence, this research aims to investigate the performance of
hybrid treatment known as Hybrid Soliwave Technique (HyST) to control MIC
activity. The investigation was performed by utilizing two SRB strains namely pure
strain ATCC 7757 and isolated SRB species from local site from BARAM,
Sarawak. The study focused on three types of disinfection experiments which were
individual UV radiation, individual US irradiation and HyST treatment, a
combination of US and UV. Turbidity measurement and SRB cells were recorded to
determine the most preferable pH and temperature for both SRB strain to proliferate
actively. Corrosion rate was determined using weight loss method by exposing the
steel coupons to SRB activity and abiotic sample. Both graphical and statistical
analyses were performed using a statistical software (SPSS 20), to investigate the
significance of SRB remaining cell number and SRB towards the corrosion rate of
untreated and treated steel coupons. This study revealed that the preferable pH and
temperature for ATCC 7757 and BARAM to grow actively in the Modified Baar’s
Media is at pH of 8.5 and temperature of 37˚C. While, the corrosion rate of steel
coupons in ATCC 7757 and BARAM strain was 0.5058 mm/year and 0.3209
mm/year respectively. These rates were at least 44% higher as compared to the
corrosion rate in abiotic sample (0.1791 mm/year). The treatment results show that
the HyST treatment succeeded to reduce the number of active bacteria, hence
reducing the corrosion rate by 55%. The results proved that the presence of SRB
increased the corrosion rate significantly compared to samples without SRB. The
present study also revealed that the HyST treatment is an effective and a feasible
approach in substituting toxic chemical biocides in controlling the MIC problems
especially for the pipelines. Overall, the HyST treatment shows better efficiency
against individual UV radiation treatment.
vi
ABSTRAK
Penggunaan sinaran ultralembayung (UV) sebagai kaedah alternatif kepada
bahan kimia bertoksik bagi membasmi bakteria seperti bakteria menurun sulfat
(SRB) untuk kawalan kakisan pengaruh mikrob (MIC) telah lama digunakan. Walau
bagaimanapun, kualiti efluen yang rendah mengurangkan keberkesanan sinaran UV.
Sinaran ultrabunyi (US) sesuai digunakan sebagai pra-rawatan untuk pelbagai jenis
pembasmi fizikal seperti rawatan sinaran UV. Oleh itu, kajian ini bertujuan
mengkaji prestasi rawatan hibrid yang dikenali sebagai Hybrid Soliwave Technique
(HyST) bagi mengawal aktiviti MIC. Kajian ini menggunakan dua baka SRB iaitu
baka tulen ATCC 7757 dan baka SRB tempatan dari BARAM, Sarawak. Kajian
bertumpu kepada tiga jenis ujikaji pembasmian SRB iaitu rawatan sinaran UV dan
sinaran US individu serta dan rawatan HyST yang merupakan gabungan radiasi US
dan sinaran UV. Ukuran kekeruhan dan bilangan sel SRB direkodkan bagi
menentukan pH dan suhu yang paling sesuai bagi kedua-dua baka SRB berkembang
dengan aktif. Kadar kakisan ditentukan melalui kaedah kehilangan berat dengan
mendedahkan kupon keluli di dalam sampel SRB dan sampel abiotik. Analisis
grafik dan statistik telah dijalankan menggunakan perisian statistik (SPSS 20) bagi
mengkaji kepentingan SRB dan baki sel SRB terhadap kadar kakisan kupon keluli
sebelum dan selepas rawatan. Hasil kajian menunjukkan bahawa pH dan suhu yang
paling sesuai bagi pertumbuhan aktif kedua-dua baka SRB di dalam media Modified
Baar’s ialah 8.5 dan 37˚C. Manakala, kadar kakisan kupon keluli bagi ATCC 7757
dan BARAM, masing-masing adalah 0.5058 mm/tahun dan 0.3209 mm/tahun.
Kadar ini adalah 44% lebih tinggi berbanding sampel abiotik (0.1791 mm/tahun).
Keputusan rawatan menunjukkan bahawa rawatan HyST berjaya mengurangkan
bilangan bakteria yang aktif dan dapat mengurangkan kadar kakisan sebanyak 55%.
Hasil kajian juga membuktikan bahawa kehadiran SRB boleh meningkatkan kadar
kakisan berbanding sampel tanpa kehadiran SRB. Kajian ini juga menunjukkan
rawatan HyST adalah sesuai dan berkesan sebagai pendekatan alternatif
menggantikan bahan kimia bagi membasmi SRB untuk kawalan MIC terutama bagi
saluran paip. Secara amnya, rawatan HyST mempunyai kelebihan berbanding
rawatan sinaran UV individu.
vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER TITLE PAGE
DECLARATION ii
DEDICATION iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iv
ABSTRACT v
ABSTRAK vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS vii
LIST OF TABLES xi
LIST OF FIGURES xiv
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS xix
LIST OF APPENDICES xx
1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Overview 1
1.2 Problem Background 2
1.3 Research Problem 3
1.4 Research Aims and Objectives 4
1.5 Research Scope 5
1.6 Significance of Research 6
viii
2 LITERATURE REVIEW 7
2.1 Introduction 7
2.2 Corrosion Mechanisms and Types 8
2.3 Electrochemical Mechanism of Corrosion 9
2.4 Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion 11
2.5 Bacteria Related to Microbiologically Influenced
Corrosion 12
2.5.1 Acid Producing Bacteria 13
2.5.2 Iron Reducing Bacteria 13
2.5.3 Sulfate Reducing Bacteria 14
2.6 Mechanism of Microbiologically Influenced
Corrosion 18
2.6.1 Cathodic Depolarization by Hydrogenase 19
2.6.2 Iron Sulfides 21
2.6.3 Iron Binding Exopolymers 22
2.7 Biofilm Formation 23
2.8 Disinfection of Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion 26
2.8.1 Chemical Treatment 26
2.8.2 Non-Hazardous Treatment 28
2.8.2.1 Ultraviolet Radiation 29
2.8.2.2 Ultrasound Sonication 31
2.9 Past Research in Disinfection of Microorganisms using
Non-Hazardous Treatment 33
2.9.1 Ultraviolet Radiation 33
2.9.2 Ultrasound Irradiation 35
2.9.3 Combination of Non-Hazardous Techniques 37
2.10 Mechanism of Hybrid Soliwave Technique Treatment
Effect towards Microorganisms 38
ix
3 METHODOLOGY 42
3.1 Introduction 42
3.2 Overview of Research Methodology 42
3.3 Selection and Preparation of Steel Coupon 44
3.4 Bacteria Sample and Identification 47
3.5 Medium Preparation and Inoculation 49
3.6 Determination of Optimum Environment for SRB Growth 53
3.7 Corrosion Rate by Weight Loss Method 56
3.8 Mitigation Technique 57
3.8.1 Ultraviolet Radiation Treatment 58
3.8.2 Ultrasound Irradiation Treatment 61
3.8.3 Hybrid Soliwave Technique Treatment 62
3.9 Microscopy Examination 63
3.10 Preparation of Specimen for Surface Analysis 65
3.11 Limitations 66
3.12 Data Collection and Analysis 67
3.13 Summary 71
4 RESULTS AND ANALYSIS OF BACTERIA
GROWTH AND METAL LOSS 72
4.1 Introduction 72
4.2 Outliers Detection 73
4.3 Sampling and Identification of Sulfate Reducing Bacteria 73
4.4 Experimental Results 76
4.4.1 Optimum Environment for Sulfate Reducing
Bacteria Growth 76
4.4.2 Corrosion Rate Using Weight Loss Method 84
4.4.3 Individual and Hybrid Mitigation Technique 88
4.4.3.1 Individual Treatment for ATCC 7757 88
4.4.3.2 Individual Treatment for BARAM 94
x
4.4.3.3 Hybrid Soliwave Technique Treatment 99
4.4.4 Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscopy
Examination. 108
4.4.4.1 API 5L X70 Carbon Steel 109
4.4.4.2 API 5L X70 Exposed to ATCC 7757 with
Treatment 112
4.4.4.3 API 5L Exposed to ATCC 7757 with
Treatment 114
4.5 Summary 118
5 DISCUSSION 119
5.1 Introduction 119
5.2 Growth Pattern of Bacteria Cell 120
5.3 Corrosion Rate 121
5.4 Cell Growth and Corrosion Rate Response after
Individual Treatment 122
5.5 Cell Growth and Corrosion Rate Response after
Hybrid Soliwave Technique Treatment 125
5.6 Hybrid Soliwave Technique Treatment Effect 127
5.7 Bacteria Identification 130
5.8 Surface Morphology of Mitigated Samples 133
6 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 135
6.1 Conclusion 135
6.2 Recommendation 138
REFERENCES 139
APPENDIX A-D 151-189
xi
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE NO. TITLE PAGE
2.1 Common properties in categorizing bacteria. 12
2.2 Important characteristic in the classification
of SRB. 16
2.3 Phases of corrosion model introduced by Melchers. 18
2.4 Composition of biofilm matrix. 24
2.5 List of important criteria in biocide selection. 27
2.6 Types of biocides used in oil and gas industry. 27
2.7 Advantages and Disadvantages of biocide. 28
2.8 List of advantages and disadvantages of ultraviolet
light treatment . 30
2.9 The effects of sonication towards microorganisms. 31
2.10 Advantages and disadvantages of individual US
irradiation treatment. 32
2.11 Properties of the disinfection techniques using single
UV irradiation and single US sonication applied to
disinfect bacteria suspended in circulating water
for 15 day. 32
3.1 Terms used in present study to differentiate
between samples. 43
3.2 Chemical composition of API 5L X70 carbon steel. 46
xii
3.3 Chemical ingredients of Modified Baar’s medium. 52
3.4 Types of exposure time for treatment process. 62
3.5 Basic operating principle of Scanning Electron
Microscopy. 65
4.1 Independent sample test for metal weight loss between
ATCC 7757 and Baar’s media sample. 87
4.2 Independent sample test for metal weight loss between
BARAM and Baar’s media sample. 87
4.3 Independent Sample Test for ATCC 7757 Cell Number
Between Untreated and UV radiation treated sample. 92
4.4 Independent Sample Test For ATCC 7757 Cell Number
Between Untreated and US irradiation treated sample. 92
4.5 Independent Sample Test For ATCC 7757 Metal Weight
Loss Between Untreated and UV radiation treated sample. 93
4.6 Independent Sample Test For ATCC 7757 Metal Weight
Loss Between Untreated and US irradiation treated sample. 93
4.7 Independent Sample Test For BARAM Cell Number
Between Untreated and UV radiation treated sample. 97
4.8 Independent Sample Test For BARAM Cell Number
Between Untreated and US irradiation treated sample. 97
4.9 Independent Sample Test For BARAM Metal Weight Loss
Between UV radiation and Untreated sample. 98
4.10 Independent Sample Test For BARAM Metal Loss
Between US irradiation and Untreated sample. 98
4.11 ANOVA-test for remaining SRB cell number after
exposure to treatments. 104
4.12 ANOVA-test for metal weight loss after exposure to
treatments. 105
4.13 Tukeys’ HSD result for remaining SRB cell number after
exposure to treatments. 106
xiii
4.14 Tukeys’ HSD result for metal weight loss after exposure
to treatments. 107
5.1 Comparison of preferable pH value for SRB growth at
certain temperature. 120
5.2 Comparison of coupon metal weight loss and corrosion
rate between abiotic and biotic sample. 121
5.3 Significant value (p-value) for remaining cell number
and metal weight loss between untreated and treated
sample in terms of SRB types. 123
5.4 Significant values for cell number between untreated and
treated sample respective to SRB types. 126
5.5 Significant values for metal weight loss between
untreated and treated sample respective to SRB types. 127
xiv
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE NO. TITLE PAGE
2.1 Schematics of common forms of corrosion. 9
2.2 Schematic diagram of steel corrosion process
(Source: Ebbing et.al, 1990) 10
2.3 Scanning electron micrograph of Shewanella
Putrefaciens cells. 14
2.4 A micrograph shows Desulfovibrio vulgaris, a species of SRB. 15
2.5 A schematic diagram of corrosion model showing changing phases
of corrosion process. 17
2.6 A deep corrosion pit in a sample from a pipe segment. 17
2.7 Schematic diagram of cathodic depolarization upon SRB activity. 20
2.8 King and Miller proposed mechanism of corrosion by
Sulfate Reducing Bacteria. 21
2.9 Schematic diagram of steps of biofilm development.
2.10 Illustration of the impact of UV radiation on deoxyribonucleic
Acid of microorganisms. 29
2.11 Electromagnetic spectrum. 30
2.12 Effects of particles on UV disinfection. 34
2.13 Comparison between fouling on the lamps between
a) UV reactor versus time and b) US–UV reactor versus time. 38
2.14 Schematic diagram of US irradiation effects on microorganisms
and particles. 40
25
xv
2.15 Schematic diagram of UV radiation effects on microorganisms. 40
3.1 Overview of research methodology 44
3.2 Cutting process of actual pipe segment using hot cut method. 45
3.3 Cold cut applied to remove heat affected zone. 45
3.4 Flowchart of coupon sample preparation. 46
3.5 Steel coupons; (a) with coatings and (b) without coatings. 47
3.6 Cleaned coupon with mirror surface properties. 47
3.7 Method in identifying Sulfate Reducing Bacteria in the sample. 48
3.8 SRB test kit without the presence of SRB. 48
3.9 Sterilization process in an autoclave at 121˚C for 15-30 minutes. 49
3.10 Sparging oxygen free nitrogen gas into medium. 50
3.11 Sparged oxygen free nitrogen gas into anaerobic vials and
clamping process. 50
3.12 Cultivation medium without presence of SRB. 51
3.13 Inoculation process of SRB seeds into medium. 51
3.14 Sample with presence of SRB at day 2 turns into black
color solution. 52
3.15 Flowchart of medium preparation and inoculation process. 52
3.16 DR 6000 spectrophotometer. 54
3.17 Hemocytometer (Neubauer Improved, Germany). 55
3.18 Nikon microscopic microscope,(Nikon Microphot FXL,Japan). 55
3.19 Dilution process of SRB sample. 55
3.20 Cleaning process of coupon sample using Clarke’s solution. 56
3.21 Overview of design experimental work for treatment process. 58
3.22 Third hydrolytic clear glass vials used in all treatment processes. 59
3.23 Individual UV radiation treatment setup in laminar flow cabinet. 60
3.24 Individual UV radiation treatment inside the laminar flow cabinet. 60
3.25 Individual US treatment setup in laminar flow cabinet. 61
3.26 Schematic diagram of FESEM operational system. 64
3.27 Flowchart for preparation of steel coupon with biofilm attachment
for FESEM observation. 66
xvi
3.28 Flowchart for preparation of steel coupon without biofilm
attachment for FESEM observation. 66
3.29 Overview of data collection and analysis. 68
3.30 Overall flow of data analysis procedure. 68
3.31 Boxplot method. 69
3.32 An example of IBM SPSS Statistic 20 result interface for
T-test analysis. 70
3.33 An example of IBM SPSS Statistic 20 result interface for
ANOVA analysis. 71
4.1 a) SRB test kit without presence of SRB. b) SRB test kit with
presence of SRB. 74
4.2 a) Modified Baar’s media without presence of SRB b) Modified
Baar’s media with presence of SRB after 2 days of incubation. 74
4.3 FESEM image of ATCC 7757 cell attached with biofilm at
magnification 2500 (ATCC 7757 cells are indicates by the arrows). 75
4.4 FESEM image of BARAM cell attached with biofilm at
magnification 5000 (BARAM cells are indicates by the arrows). 76
4.5 Turbidity against day at 20˚C for ATCC 7757. 77
4.6 Turbidity against day at 37˚C for ATCC 7757. 78
4.7 Turbidity against day at 60˚C for ATCC 7757. 78
4.8 Graph of turbidity against day at 20˚C for BARAM. 79
4.9 Turbidity against day at 37˚C for BARAM. 80
4.10 Turbidity against day at 60˚C for BARAM. 80
4.11 Cell number against day at 20˚C for ATCC 7757. 81
4.12 Cell number against day at 37˚C for ATCC 7757. 82
4.13 Cell number against day at 60˚C for ATCC 7757. 82
4.14 Cell number against day at 20˚C for BARAM. 83
4.15 Cell number against day at 37˚C for BARAM. 83
4.16 Cell number against day at 60˚C for BARAM. 84
4.17 Corrosion rate of steel coupon exposed to abiotic and biotic
Sample. 85
xvii
4.18 Cell number against time of exposure for ATCC 7757
with and without individual treatment. 89
4.19 Corrosion rate for untreated and treated
(UV radiation and US irradiation) ATCC 7757 sample. 90
4.20 Cell number against time of exposure for BARAM
with and without individual treatment. 94
4.21 Corrosion rate for untreated and treated
(UV radiation and US irradiation) BARAM sample. 95
4.22 Remaining ATCC 7757 cell number after individual and
HyST treatment.
100
4.23 Corrosion rate in ATCC 7757 sample after individual and
HyST treatment. 101
4.24 Remaining BARAM cell number after individual and
HyST treatment. 102
4.25 Corrosion rate in BARAM sample after individual and
HyST treatment. 103
4.26 FESEM image of API 5L X70 carbon steel surface at 1000
magnification. 109
4.27 EDS spectrum for API 5L X70 carbon steel surfaces. 109
4.28 FESEM image of biofilm formation for ATCC 7757 at
magnification 2500x. 110
4.29 EDS spectrum on the API 5L X70 carbon steel surfaces exposed
to ATCC 7757. 110
4.30 FESEM image of biofilm formation for BARAM at
magnification 2500x. 111
4.31 EDS spectrum on the API 5L X70 carbon steel surfaces exposed
to BARAM. 111
4.32 FESEM image for API 5L X70 after exposure to 30 minutes of
individual UV radiation treatment at magnification 2500x
(ATCC 7757). 113
4.33 EDS spectrum for API 5L X70 after exposure to 30 minutes of
individual UV radiation treatment (ATCC 7757). 113
xviii
4.34 FESEM image for API 5L X70 after exposure to 15US + 15UV
treatment at magnification 2500x (ATCC 7757). 114
4.35 EDS spectrum on the API 5L X70 after exposure to
15US + 15UV treatment (ATCC 7757). 114
4.36 FESEM image of API 5L X70 after exposure to 30 minutes of
individual UV radiation treatment at magnification 2500x
(BARAM). 115
4.37 EDS spectrum on the API 5L X70 exposued to 30 minutes of
individual UV radiation treatment (BARAM). 116
4.38 FESEM image of biofilm with BARAM dead cell attached
onto API 5L X70 after exposure to individual UV radiation
treatment at magnification 5000. 116
4.39 FESEM image of API 5L X70 after exposure to 15US + 15UV
treatment at magnification 2500x (BARAM). 117
4.40 EDS spectrum on the API 5L X70 exposed to 15US + 15UV
treatment (BARAM). 117
5.1 FESEM image of pitting corrosion formation after exposure
to SRB activity at magnification 1000x. 124
5.2 Schematic of HyST treatment effect towards the
Microorganisms. 129
5.3 FESEM image of biofilm structure onto steel coupon
exposed to ATCC 7757 at magnification 2500x. 131
5.4 FESEM image of biofilm structure onto steel coupon
exposed to BARAM at magnification 2500x. 131
5.5 FESEM image of ATCC 7757 cell attached with biofilm at
magnification 5000x (SRB cell indicated by the arrow). 132
5.6 FESEM image of BARAM cell attached with biofilm at
magnification 5000x (SRB cell indicated by the arrow). 132
5.7 FESEM image of dead BARAM cell after exposure to
30 minutes individual UV radiation treatment at
magnification 2500x. 134
xix
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS
API American Petroleum Institute
APB Acid Producing Bacteria
ATCC American Type Culture Collection
Fe Iron
Fe(OH)2 Iron (II) Hydroxide
H2S Hydrogen sulfide
kHz Kilo Hertz
DNA Deoxyribonucleic acid
EDS Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy
EPS Extracellular Polymer Substance
FESEM Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscopy
IRB Iron Reducing Bacteria
MIC Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion
RNA Ribonucleic acid
SiC Silicon Carbide
SRB Sulfate-Reducing Bacteria
SPSS Statistical Package for Social Science
UV Ultraviolet
US Ultrasound
THPS Tetrakis-hydroxymethyl Phosphonium Sulfate
HyST Hybrid Soliwave Technique
ºC degree Celcius
A Area in cm2
D Density in g/cm3
xx
LIST OF APPENDICES
APPENDIX TITLE PAGE
A Box plot of Metal Loss for Untreated Sample 148
B Box plot of Metal Loss for treated Sample 155
C Optimum Environment for SRB Growth
According to turbidity and Cell Number 177
D Metal Weight Loss and Corrosion Rate Data
For Untreated and Treated Sample. 181
1
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Overview
Pipeline systems are commonly made from carbon steel and have an excellent
safety record for facilitating bulk shipments of crude oil and natural gas to consumers
all around the world. The properties of pipeline networks structures are susceptible to
failure. Both underground and aboveground pipelines are affected by corrosion
throughout their service life. Corrosion can lead to structural failure or loss of
containment, costly repairs, lost or contaminated products, environmental damage,
risk to personnel, and loss of public confidence. Corrosion is one of the leading
causes of failures in onshore and offshore transmission pipelines, threatening
pipeline integrity internally and externally.
Deterioration of onshore and offshore pipelines can lead to catastrophic
failure such as pipeline leakage and explosion if wrongly managed. Of all the
different origins of corrosion, microbial corrosion, also known as Microbiologically
Influenced Corrosion (MIC), has been identified as one of the major causes of
corrosion failures. MIC is used to designate corrosion due to the presence and
activities of microorganism (Javaherdashti, 2008). This type of corrosion might
2
occur in environments that promote the growth of microorganisms, including the
environments where corrosion would not be predicted and the rates of corrosion can
be extremely high. Therefore, researchers and engineers’ needs to know how to
recognize and deal with MIC as it can have serious detrimental effects on
maintenance costs and the integrity of pipeline structure.
1.2 Problem Background
Generally, onshore and offshore pipeline are susceptible to internal and
external corrosion. Most of the offshore pipeline failures are attributed to internal
corrosion which is more than 50% of the time compared to external corrosion
(Chalker et al., 2011). External corrosion is still an issue but is generally quite well
addressed using good cathodic protection and coatings. The issues are more
important and critical for deep water pipelines where designs are more complex, and
inspection, monitoring, and repair are very difficult and costly. Deterioration of steel
pipelines due to MIC is a major and serious problem, involving considerable cost and
inconvenience to industry and to the public. Therefore, microorganism activity which
influenced the corrosion process in pipeline should be controlled since corrosion is
one of the major factors that can affect transmission pipeline structural integrity and
reliability. In oil and gas industry, wide spectrum of bacteria has been studied but
Sulfate Reducing Bacteria (SRB) are the most common enabler related to MIC that
cause major problems in oil and gas industry (Jhobalia et al., 2005; Little and Lee,
2007; Al-Abbas et al., 2013).
Conventional technique in disinfecting microorganisms in oil and gas
industry is through application of chemical biocides such as glutaraldehyde.
Unfortunately, they have a negative impact on the environment and aquatic life as
the toxicity properties of biocides tend to disturb aquatic life and pollute the
environment. Additionally, after prolonged application, microbials may become
3
resistant towards the biocides or inhibitors thus creating a corrosive environment
(Jhobalia et al., 2005). From an economic view, application of biocides requires huge
cost to disinfect microorganisms and also affect the health of consumers and
professional users. Driven by these challenges, engineers and researchers have
discovered and proposed non-hazardous techniques such as application of Infrared
radiation, Ultraviolet (UV) radiation and Ultrasound (US) irradiation treatment as an
alternative to replace biocides in disinfecting microorganisms. Past studies showed
that UV radiation alone effectively disinfects microorganisms, however the efficacy
of UV radiation is highly affected by the concentrations of the sample (Darby et al.,
1993; Narkis et al., 1995).
In addition to UV radiation, Ultrasound irradiation treatments also have
detrimental effect to inactivate wide spectrum of microorganisms. Unfortunately the
US irradiation system alone requires high energy usage and the efficacy is affected
when volume of treated sample is high (Hulsmans et al., 2009). Both US irradiation
and UV radiation have their own benefits and limitations in disinfecting
microorganisms. The current trend indicates that researchers have put more effort
into investigating non-hazardous technique on disinfecting SRB, as they agreed that
MIC is a major and serious problem in oil and gas industry and the application of
hazardous chemical biocides should be reduced or replaced with alternative non-
hazardous techniques.
1.3 Research Problem
Reports around the world have confirmed that, some oil companies had their
pipeline ruptured due to MIC. Sulfate Reducing Bacteria (SRB) is the predominant
bacteria that promotes corrosion on steel structures under anaerobic environment.
Melchers (2006) stated that the second phase of corrosion is more concerning
whereby SRB is able to speed up the corrosion after anaerobic condition had been
4
established. Therefore, even if maintenance is done regularly, pipelines are still
facing corrosion attacks due to corrosive environments that surround the structure
(Peabody, 2001; Wang et al., 2011). Throughout the world, up to the present time,
the application of hazardous chemical biocides is the preferred techniques for
controlling MIC activity in oil and gas industry. Unfortunately, the usage of
hazardous chemical biocides gives various negative impacts. To date, considerable
study on non-hazardous technique in disinfecting microorganisms (e.g: Sulfate
Reducing Bacteria) as an alternative to hazardous chemical biocides had been
conducted by many researchers. Existing techniques, for example by using UV
radiation or US irradiation alone, has limitations that affect its efficacy in
disinfecting microorganisms. Many researchers have suggested that combination of
US irradiation treatment with other types of treatment (such as UV radiation) will
give a synergistic effect in disinfecting microorganisms. However, the non-hazardous
technique by combining the US irradiation with UV radiation in disinfecting SRB
has not yet received sufficient analysis and study. Therefore, research related to
investigating the performance and synergistic effect of combination treatment of US
irradiation with UV radiation based on variation of time of exposure in disinfecting
SRB from pure strain and local strain is significantly needed.
1.4 Research Aim and Objectives
The aim of the present research is to investigate the performance of hybrid
treatment, also known as Hybrid Soliwave Technique (HyST), which is a
combination of US irradiation with UV radiation for the inactivation of SRB to
control MIC activity. To achieve the mentioned research aim, this study embarks on
the following objectives:
5
1. To calculate the corrosion rate of API 5L X70 steel coupon due to SRB;
2. To determine the remaining SRB cell number due to synergistic effect of
Hybrid Soliwave Technique treatment as a function of time;
3. To identify the relationship between rate of bacteria extermination by Hybrid
Soliwave Technique Treatment and corrosion rate of API 5L X70 steel
coupon.
1.5 Research Scope
This research consists of experimental work in laboratory to investigate the
performance of HyST treatment to disinfect SRB in corroding pipeline at pilot scale.
In terms of bacteria inactivation, it includes two types of SRB strain which are
obtained from American Type Culture Collection with culture number ATCC 7757
(known as ATCC 7757) and SRB strain which were extracted from crude oil sample
originated from offshore Baram oil and gas field situated in East Malaysia (known as
BARAM). Experimental work for the determination of optimum environment for
both types of SRB to grow actively was performed based on various pH and
temperature in specific media. Corrosion study upon SRB activity was tested on
actual carbon steel API 5L X70. The HyST simulation reactor consists of US probe
system and UV lamp for disinfection purposes. HyST simulation reactor consists of
US probe with frequency of 24 kHz and power output at 200 watt, while UV lamp
with wavelength of 254 nm with power output at 10 watt was used in present study.
The HyST treatment was performed in order to determine the remaining SRB cell
number and corrosion rate reduction of carbon steel API 5L X70 due to synergistic
effect of HyST treatment. Parameters such as wavelength of UV lamp and frequency
of US probe were set to constant and the treatment experiment is based on various
time of exposures. Finally, both graphical and statistical analysis were utilized to
observe the difference in disinfecting performance between HyST and individual UV
treatment upon SRB (ATCC 7757 and BARAM) inactivation and corrosion rate
reduction.
6
1.6 Significance of Research
Recently, the use of certain hazardous chemical biocides to kill bacteria, for
example in oil and gas industry, must be carried out with permission from the
authorities concerned. This is because these chemicals are harmful to the
environment and human health. Stringent regulations in using hazardous chemical
biocides for disinfection purposes prompt researchers and engineers to invent and
promote a benign or non-hazardous technique such as Ultraviolet (UV) treatment in
mitigating microorganisms, specifically Sulfate Reducing Bacteria (SRB). However,
UV treatment alone has its limitation in mitigating microorganisms. Past researches
have proven that a combination of Ultrasound (US) irradiation treatment with other
types of physical treatment such as UV radiation has synergistic effect in killing
microorganisms when combined. The combination treatment of US irradiation with
UV radiation is rarely found in mitigating SRB due to limited researches. If the
combination treatment could mitigate SRB effectively, the outcomes of this research
will illustrate the synergistic effects of US irradiation as a pre-treatment measure in
terms of performance in killing SRB. Future works on the development of
combination treatment related to financial and corrosion mitigation scheme can be
properly designed, following the outcome of this research. In addition, the outcome
of this research could assist engineers and pipeline operators in reducing or
eliminating the usage of hazardous chemical biocides and improve the efficiency of
individual UV radiation treatment.
139
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